See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/313148139

Lightweight Gypsum Based Materials: Methods of Preparation and

Utilization

Article  in  International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning · February 2017

DOI: 10.2495/SDP-V12-N2-326-335

CITATIONS READS

0 251

3 authors:

Magdaléna Doleželová Jitka Krejsová

Czech Technical University in Prague Czech Technical University in Prague
26 PUBLICATIONS   15 CITATIONS    13 PUBLICATIONS   7 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Alena Vimmrova
Czech Technical University in Prague
26 PUBLICATIONS   94 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Alena Vimmrova on 10 August 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Magdalena Doleželová, et al., Int. J. Sus. Dev. Plann. Vol. 12, No. 2 (2017) 326–335

LIGHTWEIGHT GYPSUM BASED MATERIALS: METHODS

OF PREPARATION AND UTILIZATION
MAGDALENA DOLEŽELOVÁ, JITKA KREJSOVÁ & ALENA VIMMROVÁ
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Department of Materials Engineering and Chemistry,
Czech Technical University in Prague, 166 29 Prague 6, Czech Republic.

ABSTRACT
Although gypsum is one of the most environmentally friendly building binders, its use in the build-
ings is relatively limited and therefore the broadening of the gypsum product portfolio is desirable.
One possibility is the development of the lightweight gypsum materials with better thermal insulation
properties, attractive acoustic properties and also lower transportation costs. The lightweight gypsum
materials can be used in a similar way as an aerated autoclaved concrete (AAC), whose energy con-
sumption at production is several times higher.
The main methods of the preparation of gypsum-based lightweight materials are described and com-
pared. Gypsum can be lightened indirectly by the lightweight filler or directly. In the directly lightened
materials, the pores are introduced into the gypsum material either by some chemical reaction produc-
ing gas or by the help of surface active substances. For the chemical lightening a large scale of waste
products can be used. Lightening by the help of waste stone powder is described in detail. The materi-
als with the properties comparable with the properties of AAC were prepared. Their bulk density was
under 600 kg/m3, compressive strength was about 2 MPa and coefficient of thermal conductivity was
under 0.2 W/m.K.
Lightweight gypsum materials can be used as a thermal insulating blocks, for the lightweight g­ ypsum
boards, partitions blocks, lightweight fire-resistant plasters or thermal-insulating plasters.
Keywords: AAC, chemical lightening, direct lightening, gypsum, indirect lightening, inorganic filler,
lightening methods, organic filler, SAS, waste products.

1  INTRODUCTION
The calcined gypsum (CaSO4·0,5H2O) is one of the most environmentally friendly and sus-
tainable building binders. The energy consumption necessary for gypsum production is very
low, compared to the energy consumption of cement and lime production. Gypsum can be also
made from large scale of waste products, originating e.g. in the fertilizers production (phos-
phogypsum) [1] or in the coal power plants from flue gas desulfurization (FGD gypsum) [2].
Another advantages of gypsum are excellent fire-protecting properties, good workability
and aesthetics. In spite of its advantages, the current utilization of gypsum in buildings is
limited mostly to the interior plasters, self levelling floors and gypsum boards. Therefore, the
development of the lightweight gypsum-based materials may be considered as a good contri-
bution to the larger utilization of this interesting material. The lightweight materials are
preferred nowadays because they have better thermal insulation properties, favourable acous-
tic properties and lower transportation costs.
Even solid gypsum are not considered as a heavy material, its bulk density usually ranges
between 1,000 and 1,500 kg/m3, however, the bulk density under 1,000 kg/m3 have to be
achieved by some lightening method.

This paper is part of the Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Harmonisation
between Architecture and Nature (Eco-Architecture 2016)
www.witconferences.com

© 2017 WIT Press, www.witpress.com

ISSN: 1743-7601 (paper format), ISSN: 1743-761X (online), http://www.witpress.com/journals
DOI: 10.2495/SDP-V12-N2-326-335
 Magdalena Doleželová, et al., Int. J. Sus. Dev. Plann. Vol. 12, No. 2 (2017) 327

Methods, used for the gypsum lightening, are similar to the methods, used for lightening
of other building binders, although it is necessary to take into consideration the different
behaviour and chemical composition of the gypsum-based binders.

2  INDIRECT LIGHTENING
The simplest method to prepare lightweight material is the use of the lightweight fillers that
can be added to the gypsum paste. This method is largely applied in the production of the
lightweight concretes, but for gypsum-based materials is not so common. The fillers are not
usually added to the gypsum paste, they are not necessary here since the gypsum does not
shrink during the setting (contrary to cement and lime). Nevertheless, the indirect lightening
of the gypsum-based materials is used, although in the smaller extend than in the cement-
based materials. As a lightweight filler both the inorganic and organic materials can be used.
Utilization of inorganic fillers is advantageous from the point of fire resistance, but the
organic materials are usually lighter and less expensive.

2.1  Inorganic fillers

The most common fillers in the commercially available products are expanded perlite and
vermiculite. Perlite is an amorphous volcanic glass and vermiculite is phyllosilicate mineral,
both of them contain relatively high amount of bound water and when subjected to heat, they
expand and create very lightweight aggregate. The bulk density of the gypsum with inorganic
fillers is usually higher than 800 kg/m3, exceptionally the materials with the lower bulk den-
sity (under 300 kg/m3) are commercially available.
Demir and Baspinar [3] put the perlite in the amount of 5%–10% by mass into the fly ash–
lime–gypsum material with the silica fume addition. They obtained material with the bulk
density about 730 kg/m3 (i.e. ca 20% lower than material without perlite) and its compressive
strength was 2.3 MPa. Genzel et al. [4] used the vermiculite together with the polypropylene
fibres. With 20% of vermiculite they achieved only slight decrease of bulk density (about
10%) at the strength loss about 30%. The thermal conductivity decreased by 30%.
As an interesting experiment seems to be use of the expanded silica gel granules. Baspinar
and Kahraman [5] expanded silica gel at the temperature 1,200°C. Expanded granules were
then added in the amount 5%–15% by mass into the gypsum slurry. Considering the rela-
tively high price of the silica gel and the high-energy consumption at the expanding process
the material is not competitive on the market.

2.2  Polymer fillers

Large amount of polymer materials can be used as lightweight filler in the gypsum-based
materials. The most common polymer for this purpose is foamed polystyrene, either new or
recycled. Garcia Santos used non-recycled polystyrene beads together with the polypropylene
fibres [6]. By addition of 2% of polystyrene and 2% of fibres he prepared material with the
bulk density lower by 50% (comparing to pure gypsum) and with the tensile strength higher
by 23%. Author does not mention any problems with mixing or workability of the material,
while Saiyl and Gurdal [7] state, that it was necessary to ad an epoxy resin to improve the
contact of the polystyrene granules with the gypsum. It was probably caused by the fact that
the polystyrene was added to the gypsum in the higher amount (about 5%–7%). Authors
obtained material with extremely low bulk density (200 kg/m3) but with the very low strength
(0.18 MPa) also. González Madariaga and Lloveras Macia used the recycled polystyrene [8].
328 Magdalena Doleželová, et al., Int. J. Sus. Dev. Plann. Vol. 12, No. 2 (2017)

Interesting results were achieved by Gutierrez-Gonzales et al. [9] by utilization of the

waste polyamide powder generated in an industrial laser sintering process. The material with
the high amount of polyamide powder with the granulometry under 100 µm (up to the ­volume
ratio of the polyamide powder to the calcined gypsum 4:1) was prepared. Obtained bulk den-
sity of the tested materials was always higher than 750 kg/m3.
Waste granulated polyurethane foam from automobile and construction industry was tested
by the same authors [10]. The grounded polyurethane foam was added to the gypsum in the
amount up to the volume ratio 4:1. Prepared materials had bulk density between 500 to
1,300 kg/m3, but the compressive strength of the lightest materials was very low. Only mate-
rials with the amount of the polyurethane in the ratio to the volume of gypsum 1:1 and lower
had a sufficient strength for some building purposes.
Another waste material, tested as filler in the gypsum materials, is ground rubber from
used tyres. The strength of the materials with the rubber particles decreases significantly even
with the relatively small amount of rubber about 5%. Also the workability of the material was
worse, and it was difficult to achieve a homogeneous distribution of rubber particles in the
gypsum plaster [11]. Herrero et al. [12] tested the rubber particles with different granulom-
etry and best results were achieved with the finest particles (size 0–0.6 mm). Although the
mechanical properties worsened, the thermal and acoustic properties were improved, namely
the insulation capacity against both impact and airborne noise.
Rivero, et al. [13] used ground rubber from pipe foam insulation and also found that the
final properties of the lightened material depend mostly on the granulometry of the particles.
The best results were achieved with the finest fillers (1–2 mm).

2.3  Natural fillers

The fillers of natural origin (both vegetable and animal) have been used in the gypsum tradi-
tionally, mostly in the form of fibres. Some of them could also serve as lightweight fillers
(chopped straw, sawdust).
Nowadays Hernández-Olivares et al. [14] used cork granules with the size under 12 mm.
Materials with the 20% of cork filler had bulk density about 800 kg/m3 and very favourable
compressive strength about 5 MPa. By the addition of 2% of glass fibres the tensile strength
increased nearly two times.

3  DIRECT LIGHTENING
The term direct lightening is used when the pores are incorporated directly into the gypsum mat-
ter, either chemically or mechanically. The pores can be introduced into the gypsum material by
gas-releasing chemical reaction or by mechanical frothing using surface active substances.

3.1  Chemical lightening by gas

There is significant difference between the chemical composition of the gypsum and other
inorganic binders. Whereas cement and lime contain calcium hydroxide and are strong basis,
gypsum (CaSO4·0,5H2O) is neutral or mildly acid. Therefore the gas-releasing chemical
reactions have to be different from the reactions, which are utilized for the lightening of the
cement or lime.
As a foaming gas the carbon dioxide is used mostly, because there can be applied several
suitable chemical reactions. The most common is the reaction of carbonate (or hydrocarbon-
ate) with the acid component (1).
 Magdalena Doleželová, et al., Int. J. Sus. Dev. Plann. Vol. 12, No. 2 (2017) 329

As a carbonate component the calcium carbonate (e.g. in the form of chalk or grounded
limestone or marble dust), sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) or ammonium bicarbonate
(NH4HCO3) can be used [15, 16].
As an acid components mostly inorganic acids or salts are usually used (e.g. aluminium
sulphate, sulphuric acid, boric acid) [17], but organic acid can be used also. Gamarra in the
first patent concerning the chemically foamed gypsum [18] describes the acid component
composed from tartaric acid and calcium chloride.
Typical reactions are the reaction of the aluminium sulphate with the calcium carbonate (1)
or the decomposition of the ammonium bicarbonate in the water (2). The preparation of the
lightweight gypsum foamed by gas released from this reaction can be seen at Fig. 1.

Al2(SO4)3 + 3 CaCO3 + 9 H2O → 2 Al(OH)3 + 3 CaSO4·2H2O +3 CO2(1)

NH4HCO3 → NH3 + CO2 + H2O(2)

From the environmental point of view there is no need to be afraid about the carbon ­dioxide
formation, because the amount of it, produced by the reactions is negligible and moreover the
most of CO2 stays enclosed in the pores of the solid material. On the contrary, the large scale
of the waste products can be utilized in the reaction.
Another carbon dioxide producing reaction is the reaction of the isocyanate with water
(3) [19]. Because the isocyanates are potentially dangerous irritants to the eyes and res-
piratory tract and are classified as potential human carcinogens, the reaction is not
preferable.

R-NCO + H2O → R-NH2 + CO2 (3)

Less frequently the oxygen as a foaming gas is used. In the US patent [20], the gypsum slurry
is foamed by the oxygen, produced by decomposition of hydrogen peroxide using a cobalt
compound prepared by oxidation of a water soluble cobalt salt. Oxidation is effected by pre-
treating the cobalt salt with hydrogen peroxide in the presence of an alkali (4). Authors declare
that produced materials have excellent sound absorption and the bulk density about 500 kg/m3.

2 H2O2 → 2 H2O + O2 (4)

Figure 1: Preparation of the chemically foamed gypsum in the mixer.

330 Magdalena Doleželová, et al., Int. J. Sus. Dev. Plann. Vol. 12, No. 2 (2017)

Figure 2: Structure of chemically foamed gypsum without perlite and chemically foamed
gypsum with 5% of perlite.

The most common method for the preparation of the lightweight concretes is foaming by
hydrogen, produced by reaction of the aluminium with the calcium hydroxide (5). By this
method, the aerated autoclaved concrete (AAC) is produced.

2 Al + 3 Ca(OH)2 + 6 H2O → 3 CaO∙Al2O3∙6H2O + 3 H2(5)

Reaction (5) could not be used for the foaming of gypsum directly, because it needs the
calcium hydroxide, and it occurs only in the alkali environment. Nevertheless the method can
be used for the foaming of the compound binders, containing besides gypsum also calcium
hydroxide (e.g. in cement or lime). In the first experiments, the material, prepared from the
65% of gypsum, 33% of hydrated lime and foamed by 1% of aluminium powder achieved the
bulk density 640 kg/m3, but its compressive strength was under 1 MPa [21].
The main problem of the chemically foamed gypsum is less homogenous structure, because
the released gas could sometimes create very large pores (larger than 5 mm), which have
negative impact on the mechanical and water transport properties. The problem can be solved
by the addition of the small amount of the fine aggregate, preferably lightweight (e.g. perlite)
[22]. The fine particles effectively break the big bubbles and the final structure is more
homogenous (Fig. 2).

3.2  Utilization of waste products for chemical lightening

For the chemical reaction producing carbon dioxide as a foaming gas, the wide range of the
waste products can be used. Any product containing sufficient amount of calcium carbonate
can be utilized in the reaction. The use of the mud from sugar making production or the Class
C fly ash was described in the several patents [23, 24].
We prepared the lightweight gypsum material, foamed by the help of the waste stone dust,
which was used as a source of the calcium carbonate.
The amount of waste dust from cutting and polishing of stone became a serious problem in
some countries, because it is mostly land filled yet. The dust usually contains some amount of
the calcium carbonate, because there are a number of minerals with the high calcium carbonate
content (e.g. marble, limestone, chalk or travertine) and therefore it can be used for foaming.
We used the stone dust, mostly constituted from marble and granite, from local stonema-
son producer (Kamenictví Jež, Beroun, Czech Republic). It was taken in the form of the
sludge after the underwater cutting of the stones. The sludge was dried and then ground to the
maximal particle size 100 μm. Amount of the calcium carbonate in the dust was 68%, which
was sufficient for successful foaming.
 Magdalena Doleželová, et al., Int. J. Sus. Dev. Plann. Vol. 12, No. 2 (2017) 331

Figure 3: Gypsum with the bulk density 460 kg/m3 foamed by the stone dust.

As an acid component the aluminium sulphate was used and the reaction occurred accord-
ing to reaction (1).
The materials with the amount of dust 8%–25% were prepared. The bulk density of
­prepared materials ranged from 460 kg/m3 to 1000 kg/m3 (Fig. 3). The material with the
­highest amount of dust achieved the bulk density 586 kg/m3 and its compressive strength
was 1.1 MPa. The mixture achieved also very favourable coefficient of thermal conductivity
0,082 W/m.K, and therefore, it could be classified as thermally insulating material.

3.3  Lightening by the surface active substances

The lightening by the surface active substances (SAS), i.e. substances which lowers the sur-
face tension can be performed by two methods. In the first method, SAS is added directly into
the gypsum slurry, and then the mixture is intensively whisked at the high speed in the special
mixing machine until the required bulk density is achieved. The second method lies in the use
of the pre-prepared foam from foam generator. Then, the foam is either cautiously mixed into
the gypsum slurry or the dry components are successively added into the foam. Lightening of
gypsum by SAS is described in several patents and papers.
As a surface active substance, mostly the commercially detergents are used, mostly based
on the sodium lauryl sulphate [15, 25]. Also the substances, based on the common food addi-
tives methyl cellulose and iota carageenan gum were tested [26]. The Chinese patent [27]
describes the complex foaming compound, containing sodium bisulfite, lauryl alcohol,
maleic acid monoester sodium, sodium hydroxide, glue, horn powder, vegetable proteins,
lauryl diethanolamine, gelatin, polyoxyethylene octyl phenol ether, lauryl dimethylamine
acetate lactone, methyl glucoside dioleate.
Materials, lightened by the help of SAS have generally very low strength [26, 27], usually
under 1 MPa, even when their bulk density is relatively high. Brencis et al. [28] tried to
improve the mechanical properties by the addition of the hemp fibres. They achieved slight
increase of the compressive strength (from 0.3 MPa to 0.5 MPa), but these values are not suf-
ficient for the building purposes yet. Authors recommend to use the material as a part of the
acoustic constructions because of its very good sound absorption. In this case the low
mechanical properties are not such an issue.
332 Magdalena Doleželová, et al., Int. J. Sus. Dev. Plann. Vol. 12, No. 2 (2017)

Figure 4: Failure of the material by the subsequently released gas.

4  COMPARISON OF THE LIGHTENING METHODS

The method of chemical lightening seems to be the most convenient, because the large scale
of suitable gas-releasing reaction could be used and by the right choice and amount of the
foaming additives the material with desired properties could be prepared. Moreover a lot of
waste products could be used as foaming agents. The main disadvantage of the method is
occasional formation of the large pores and therefore less homogenous structure of the
foamed material. Also synchronization of the kinetics of the foaming reaction and setting of
the gypsum matrix could be sometimes difficult. When the setting is finished before the gas-
releasing reaction is terminated, the subsequently released gas could destroy the already
solid, but insufficiently hardened material (Fig. 4).
The indirect lightening by the lightweight aggregates seems to be simple, but very often it
is difficult to achieve uniform distribution of the particles, because they tend to cluster and
rise to the surface. The advantage of the method is also in the large scale of the waste prod-
ucts, which can be used as a filler, but the utilization of the organic materials usually worsens
the fire properties. The bulk density of the indirectly lightened materials is usually higher
than the bulk density of the chemically foamed materials.
The mechanical properties of the materials, lightened by the help of SAS are mostly insuf-
ficient for the building purposes. This method is not preferable also because it requires the
use of special equipment (foam generator or high-speed mixer).

5  CONCLUSIONS
Lightweight gypsum is a material resembling the AAC, and therefore, it can be used in
similar way. The lightweight blocks and panels for walls, partitions and acoustic construc-
tions could be made from it, similarly to the AAC. In addition to the interior thermal-insulating
plasters, light weight fireproof plasters, ready-to-use dry mortars and the core of the ther-
mal insulating gypsum boards may be also produced from the lightweight gypsum
materials.
The main disadvantage of gypsum-based materials, compared to AAC is that gypsum
could not be used in the wet environment. Gypsum is partially soluble in water and its strength
decreases with the increasing moisture of the material, therefore the gypsum products have to
be protected against water.
Nevertheless this disadvantage is compensated by the significantly better ecological and
economical properties of the gypsum. In comparison, AAC is made from quicklime, burned
from the limestone at the temperature about 1,000°C. AAC also has to be autoclaved (cured
in pressurized steam) to obtain final properties, so another energy demanding technology is
 Magdalena Doleželová, et al., Int. J. Sus. Dev. Plann. Vol. 12, No. 2 (2017) 333

utilized in its production. On the contrary, gypsum is prepared at the relatively low tempera-
ture under 200°C, and it could be produced from several waste products (e.g. from FGD
gypsum or phosphogypsum). Gypsum industry is also one of the forerunners in transforma-
tion to the circular economy in the construction industry, because gypsum products are
indefinitely and fully recyclable. With regard to these facts the larger utilization of the
­gypsum-based products is highly desirable.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research has been supported by the Czech Science Foundation under project No.
16-01438S.

REFERENCES
[1] Degirmenci, N., Utilization of phosphogypsum as raw and calcined material in manu-
facturing of building products. Construction and Building Materials, 22(8), pp. 1857–
1862, 2008.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2007.04.024
[2] Tesárek, P., Drchalová, J., Kolísko, J., Rovnaníková, P. & Černý R., Flue gas desulfur-
ization gypsum: study of basic mechanical, hydric and thermal properties. Construction
and Building Materials, 21(7), pp. 1500–1509, 2007.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2006.05.009
[3] Demir, I. & Baspinar Serhat, M., Effect of silica fume and expanded perlite addition on
the technical properties of the fly ash-lime-gypsum mixture. Construction and Building
Materials, 22(6), pp. 1299–1304, 2008.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2007.01.011
[4] Gencel, O., del Coz Diaz, JJ. & Sutcu, M., Properties of gypsum composites containing
vermiculite and polypropylene fibers: numerical and experimental results. Energy and
Buildings, 70, pp. 135–144, 2014.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2013.11.047
[5] Baspinar Serhat, M. & Kahraman Erhan, N., Modifications in the properties of gypsum
construction element via addition of expanded macroporous silica granules. Construc-
tion and Building Materials, 25(8), pp. 3327–3333, 2011.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.03.022
[6] Garcia Santos, A., PPF-reinforced, ESP-lightened gypsum plaster. Materiales De Con-
struccion, 59(293), pp. 105–124, 2009.
[7] Sayil, B. & Gurdal, E., The physical properties of polystyrene aggregated gypsum
blocks. In 8th International Conference on Durability of Building Materials and Com-
ponents (8dbmc). Vancouver, Canada: Research Council Canada. Durability of Build-
ing Materials and Components 8, Vols. 1–4, Proceedings, pp. 496–504, 1999.
[8] Gonzáles Madariaga, A.F.J. & Lloveras Macia, J., Mezclas de residuos de poliestireno
expandido (EPS) conglomerados con yeso o escayola para su uso en la construcción.
Informes de la Construcción, 60(509), pp. 35–43, 2008.
[9] Gutierrez-Gonzales, S., Gadea, J., Rodriguez, A., Blanco-Varela, M.T. & Calderon, V.,
Compatibility between gypsum and polyamide powder waste to produce lightweight
plaster with enhanced thermal properties. Construction and Building Materials, 34, pp.
179–185, 2012.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.02.061
334 Magdalena Doleželová, et al., Int. J. Sus. Dev. Plann. Vol. 12, No. 2 (2017)

[10] Gutierrez-Gonzales, S., Gadea, J., Rodriguez, A., Junco, C. & Calderson, V., Light-
weight plaster materials with enhanced thermal properties made with polyurethane
foam wastes. Construction and Building Materials, 28(1), pp. 653–658, 2012.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.10.055
[11] Serna, A., del Rio, M., Gabriel, P.J. & Gonzalez, M., Improvement of gypsum plaster
strain capacity by the addition of rubber particles from recycled tyres. Construction and
Building Materials, 35, pp. 633–641, 2012.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.04.093
[12] Herrero, S., Mayor, P. & Hernandez-Olivarez, F., Influence of proportion and particle
size gradation of rubber from end-of-life tires on mechanical, thermal and acoustic
properties of plaster-rubber mortars. Materials & Design, 47, pp. 633–642, 2013.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2012.12.063
[13] Jimenez Rivero, A., de Guzman Baez, A. & Garcia Navarro, J., New composite gypsum
plaster - ground waste rubber coming from pipe foam insulation. Construction and
Building Materials, 55, pp. 146–152, 2014.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.01.027
[14] Hernandez-Olivarez, F., Bollati, M.R., del Rio, M. & Parga-Landa, B., Development of
cork-gypsum composites for building applications. Construction and Building Materi-
als, 13(4), pp. 179–186, 1999.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0950-0618(99)00021-5
[15] Colak, A., Density and strength characteristics of foamed gypsum. Cement & Concrete
Composites, 22(3), pp. 193–200, 2000.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0958-9465(00)00008-1
[16] Rubio-Avalos, J.C., Manzano-Ramirez, A., Yanez-Limon, J.M., Contreras-Garcia,
M.E., Alonso-Guzman, E.M. & Gonzalez-Hernandez, J., Development and character-
ization of an inorganic foam obtained by using sodium bicarbonate as a gas generator.
Construction and Building Materials, 19(7), pp. 543–549, 2005.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2004.12.001
[17] Knott, E.D., Foaming plaster. Patent US 20090324931, 2005.
[18] Gamarra Ch. Method of making aerated gypsum and resulting product. Patent
US1912702, 1933.
[19] Stahl, D. & Puchel, E., Process for preparing foamed gypsum and constructional ele-
ments composed thereof. Patent US 4153470, 1979.
[20] Saito, M., Hirai, E., Endo, M. & Nishino, T., Foamed gypsum moulded articles and
production thereof. Patent US 4330589, 1982.
[21] Vimmrová, A., Nazmunnahar, M. & Černý R., Lightweight gypsum-based materials
prepared with aluminum powder as foaming agent. Cement Wapno Beton, 19(5), pp.
299–307, 2014.
[22] Vimmrová, A., Keppert, M., Svoboda, L. & Robert, C., Lightweight gypsum compos-
ites: design strategies for multi-functionality. Cement & Concrete Composites, 33(1),
pp. 84–89, 2011.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2010.09.011
[23] Larionov, M.T. & Filakhtova, E.A., Kompozicija dlja izgotovlenija gazogipsa. Patent
SU 857044, 1971.
[24] Mazur, S. & Kolarz, B., Sposób wytwarzania gazogipsu. Patent PL 54325, 1966.
[25] Bazelova, Z., Pach, L. & Lokaj, J., The effect of surface actice substance concentration
on the properties of foamed and non-foamed gypsum. Ceramics-Silikáty, 54(4), pp.
379–385, 2010.
 Magdalena Doleželová, et al., Int. J. Sus. Dev. Plann. Vol. 12, No. 2 (2017) 335

[26] Akthar, F,K. & Evans, J.R.G., High porosity (> 90%) cementitious foams. Cement and
Concrete Research, 40(2), pp. 352–358, 2010.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2009.10.012
[27] Zheng, B., Titanium gypsum foamed building block and preparation method thereof.
Patent CN 103467056, 2014.
[28] Brencis, R., Skujans, J., Iljins, U., Ziemelis, I. & Osits, N., Research on foam gypsum
with hemp fibrous reinforcement. In 14th International Conference on Process Integra-
tion, Modelling and Optimisation for Energy Saving and Pollution Reduction, Florence,
ITALY: AIDIC SERVIZI SRL, Vol. 25, pp. 159–164, 2011.

View publication stats