FUNDAMENTALS STUDY COURSE FOR TESTING ADJUSTING BALANCING \8 OF ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS SECOND EDITION 1985FUNDAMENTALS STUDY COURSE FOR TESTING ADJUSTING BALANCING OF ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS SECOND EDITION 1985eo eo ~ LESSON IF FUNDAMENTALS THE NEBB STUDY COURSE FOR TESTING, ADJUSTING, BALANCING OF ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS NE|Be A ASSIGNMENT Environmental Systems Technology READ: Front matter, Introduc tion, and Chapter |—"His- tory" Also page through the entire bookso that you become familiar with the general format and the location of the “Engineering Data, Tables & Charts” section (Chapter 18) and the “Glossary (Chapter 19). PURPOSE OF THE NEBB STUDY COURSE ‘This second edition of the NEBB “Study Course for “Testing, Adjusting, Balancing of Environmental Sys tems" has been developed to meet the need of addi- tional education and training for testing, adjusting. and balancing (TAB) Supervisors of NEBB member firms. Since NEBB was established, a key element of the program has been the continuing professional edu- cation for management level supervisors. A college level course for TAB was prepared, based on the NEBB Management Training Course Syllabus. Chapters have conducted special TAB training through local colleges and universities using the NEBB Syllabus for guidance. These local classes have proved to be highly successful. However, many Chapters have a subsequent need to train additional supervisors, but have an insufficient number of candidates to warrant local classes. This prompted the NEBB Board of Di- rectors to have the NEBB R&D Committee supervise development of a study course tailored to individuals who do not have access to a local college program in TAB. This revised study course re- flects an innovative and unique action by NEBB to bring the sa- lient principles to TAB management and procedures together in a self-study curriculum, It represents the efforts of leading authorities in TAB work. A consci- entious and dedicated student can benefit signifi- cantly from the course contents. G STUDY COURSE OBJECTIVES The objective of this NEBB study course is to train members of firms, who are in management positions, to direct and be responsible for the TAB operations of their firm. ‘The study course is designed to teach the relation- ships existing among the key factor procedures in- volved in TAB work, and the techniques for problem solving or troubleshooting. The study course is notan end in itself; rather it provides a foundation on which professional competence can be enhanced through continued experience and study. The materials are aimed at management-level super visors who have an educational and technical back- ground equal to three years of engineering college and three years of experience in HVAC work. With any study course, a disciplined and determined ap- proach by the student is required for successful com- pletion of the curriculum,STUDY COURSE FOR TESTING, ADJUSTING, BALANCING, OF ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL BALANCING BUREAU “The revised NEBB Study Course was developed by W. David Bevirt, PE NEBB Technical Committee: Dan Langford, Chairman WW, Gay Mechanical Cont., 524 Stockton Street Jacksonville, FL 32204 B. Wesley Thornburg Morgan & Thornburg, Ine 4076 Hatcher Circle Memphis, TN 38118 Those who participated in the original Study Robert Cherrington BTB CO. 315 Mau Park Cit ‘horn Drive UT 84060 George Theisen Mechanical Construction Gorp. RO. Box 752 Poughkeepsie, NY 12602 Course development William CG. Abernathy, NEBB Co-Administrator 5410 Grosvenor Lane, Suite 120 Bethesda, MD 20814 James R. Bell Ham-mer Consulting Engineers, Inc William Bishop, P-E. Bishop Engineering 1025 St. Paul Street Baltimore, MD 21201 Willard W. Brockway Howard Mechanical Company 6701 W. Alameda Avenue Denver, GO 80226 ‘The original NEBB Study C By National Environmental Balanc All sigh. reserved, This book may not be reproduced i ay form wi Copyrighe © 1985 arse material was written and edited by W. under the guidance of the William E. Simmons Schwenk, Inc. 3200 Fiberglass Road PO, Box 15016 Kansas City, KS 66115 W. David Bevirt, PLE. NEBB Go-Administrator 8224 Old Courthouse Road Vienna, VA 22180 George B. Hightower, P-E, Conditioned Air Engineers, Inc. 409 Bishop Street, N.W Atlanta, GA 30318 Raymond C. Jung The Poole & Kent Company 4530 Hollins Ferry Road Baltimore, MD 21227 Lester W. Lang Lackland Sheet Metal Company 9730 Lackland Road St. Louis, MO 63114 John Wingate, Win, 1647 Chicago Avenue Riverside, CA 92507 David Bevirt, RE. Bineas, Printed inthe US.A, it writen pertissien of the copyright owner:Dp STUDY COURSE BOOKLETS Section 1—Fundamentals Lesson IF —The NEBB Study Course for “Testing, Adjusting, Balancing of Environmental Systems Lesson 2F —Environmental Systems, An Introduction Lesson 3F —Fluid Mechanics Lesson 4F —Heat Transfer Lesson 5F —Heat Transfer Equipment Lesson 6F —Psychrometrics Lesson 7F —Design of Air Distribution Systems Lesson 8F —Design of Hydronic Distribution Systems Lesson 9F —Basic Electricity, Motors and Motor Controllers Lesson 10F ~—Automatic Temperature Control Lesson ITF —Fundamentals Examination Section II—Air Systems Leson 1A —Air‘TAB Instruments Lesson 2A —Preliminary Procedures and Use of Instruments Lesson 3A —Air TAB System and Equipment eck Lesson 4A —Fans and Duct Systems Lesson 5A —Fan Testing Lesson 6A —Air TAB Procedures (Common) Lesson 7A —Specific Air TAB Procedures Lesson 8A —Practical Sohttions to Air TAB Problems Lesson 9A —Practical Solutions to Air TAB Problems (Continued) Lesson 1A —Management Principles Lesson 1A —Air Systems Examination Section I1I—Hydronic Systems Lesson 1H —Hydronic TAB instruments Lesson 2H —Hydronic Preliminary Procedures Lesson 3H —Hydronic TAB System and Equipment Check Lesson 4H —Pumps, Pump Curves and System Curves Lesson 5H —Testing Pumps Lesson 6H —Hydronic System Evaluation and Combustion Equipment Lesson 7H | —Hydronic TAB Procedures (Common) Lesson 8H —Specific Hydronic TAB Procedures Lesson 9H tical Solution to Hydronic TAB Problems Lesson 10H —Management Principles and ‘System Problem, Lesson 11H —Hydronic Systems Examination £ STUDY COURSE MATERIALS 1. Materials furnished ‘¢ Section I—"Fundamentals” (11 booklets) # Section II—“Air Systems” (11 booklets) @ Section III—"Hydronic Systems” (11 booklets) © NEBB “Environmental Systems Technology” (text) © SMACNA “HVAC Systems-Duct Design” (manual) ¢ NEBB “Procedural Standards for Testing, Adjusting, Balancing of Environmental Systems” (manual) @ Assorted industry brochures and publications. 2. Optional References "¢ American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc (ASHRAE)—Heandbooks, “Fundamental “Applications”, “Systems”, and “Equipment” {latest editions) Carrier Systems Design Manual Groft—American Electrician's Handbook National Fire Protection Association (NFPA}— National Electric Code Handbook MCAA “Start, Test and Balance” # SMACNA “HVAC Systems: Testing, Adjusting & Balancing # Trane Co—“Air Conditioning Manual NOTE: There will not be any questions in NEBB exani- nations on materials found only inthe optional references. F STUDY METHODS “The method of study for this course is entirely an in- dividual matter. Each student must establish his own. approach and procedures to meet his goals. Four fac~ tors are essential and crucial to every student’s suc- cess—(1) proper motivation; (2) effective organiza~ tion; (3) self-discipline; and (4) strong determination. serious weakness in any of these factors may reduce the individual's performance to a level where the NEBB National Examination cannot be passed. ‘The techniques and approach to study will be af- fected by the student's overall background in heating,ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) as well as ‘TAB work. So one rigid set of rules applicable to all is not practical or feasible. However, some suggestions and guidelines for study are presented in the follow- ing paragraphs, They should be changed or modified to meet the individual needs of the student, based on hiis educational and experience background. ‘The NEBB textbook “Environmental Systems Tech- nology” has an extensive “Table of Contents” and a comprehensive “Glossary” and “Index” in the back of the book. These should not only enable the student to obtain a quick reference or cross-reference while studying, but they also could be used later when seek- ing solutions to everyday problems SG 1. Inventory the furnished materials to assure that all items have been received. 2. Proceed through the course sequentially, com- pleting and understanding each lesson before proceeding to the next. 3. Before starting on the first lesson, review the NEBB “Environmental Systems Technology” textbook and NEBB “Procedural Standards” manual in order to become generally familiar with their contents. These books, which will be studied during the course, will subsequently be used as references during performance of ac- tual TAB work. 4, Try to limit yourself to one location while studying and working on the course. Keep course materials and other references available in that location. 5, Read all of the “Assignments” references care- fully. Study the illustrations and charts, and learn their relationships with the printed text. Pay particular attention to the illustrative prob- lems in the text and study course. Learn the principles that the problems reflect, as well as. the methods used for solution. 6. There are illustrative examples (with solutions) in many of the “Text Review” portions of the study guide booklets. Try to solve each prob- lem prior to checking the solution. This pro- cedure will enable you to check your under- standing of the assignment objectives. 7. The final lesson (Lesson 11) of each Section (Fundamentals, Air Systems, and Hydronic Systems) is a test on the entire section. These tests are as much “learning vehicles” as any GUIDELINES FOR STUDY PROCEDURES other portions of the course. Each test is to be completed by the student on the answer sheet which is to be mailed by the student to the NEBB National Office. The test will be graded by NEBB and returned to the student with the correct answers. Any questions or problems missed on these tests should be reviewed or re- worked to assure that the principles involved are understood. DO NOT PROCEED TO THE NEXT SECTION IF YOUR TEST GRADE IS BELOW 70 PERCENT. 8, If your Section test grade is below “70”, the en- tire Section must be reviewed and the test (Lesson 11) must be resubmitted to the NEBB National Office with worksheets that show how the soltt- tions to the test questions were obtained. 9. Ifyour Section test grade is “70” or above, pro- ceed through the next Section. After all three Sections (Fundamentals, Air Systems and Hy- dronic Systems) have been completed and pa ing grades have been obtained, the NEBB Na tional Office will send a “Final Study Course Examination” to you. After the examination is. completed, it is to be returned to the NEBB National Office with all worksheets for grad- ing. 10. A “Certificate of Completion” of the NEBB Study Course” will be issued upon passing the “Final Study Course Examination.” @yy NEBB QUALIFICATION HH EXAMINATIONS NEBB National Qualification Examinations are of- fered once or twice each year on the date set by the NEBB National Office. The examination is admin- istered in areas of local NEBB Chapters that are par- ticipating. The National Office will assist in areas where there are no planned examinations. ‘The candidate TAB Supervisor and his firm must meet the NEBB requirements (outlined briefly be- low) to be eligible for the NEBB Qualifications Ex Successful completion of this NEBB Study Course, which includes passing all of the course exami nations, does not credit a student as having passed the NEBB National Qualification Examination for ‘TAB Supervisors described above. Passing the fi- nal test of the NEBB Study Course does not mean that the student does not have to take the NEBB Na- tional Qualification Examination nor that he or shewill pass it. Further, acceptance of a student for en- rollment in this Study Course does not automat cally assure that the student will be eli the NEBB National Qualification Examination. The NEBB Study Course, however, should assist a student in a preparation for the NEBB National ‘Qualification and Practical Examinations, but offers no firm assurance that the student will pass those e aminations. However, all questions in the NEBB Na- tional Qualification Examination will be on infor- ration and material that is found in the study course _ or the reference texts that are furnished. NEBB CERTIFICATION NEBB offers a Testing, Adjusting, Balancing Gert- ification Program for contracting firms that install hydronic and/or air handling systems, or that are en- ‘gaged in TAB work. There aiso isa NEBB Sound and Vibration Certification Program. In general, a firm desiring NEBB certification must meet the following requirements: 1. The firm must be a member in good standing of {:NEBB Chapter and the NEBB National Orga nization 2, The firm must have in its employ one oF more management level TAB Supervisors who are r= sponsible forall ofthe TAB work The drm must own the vious instruments which ave required for he requested type of certica thon (Afr anor Hydronic) and fave a program for calibration and maintenance of those ist tment tat mece NEBB requitements 4, The TAB Supervisor(s) must; 2. Held a management poston wth auborty to represen the firm wih consulting engineers and ether authors b. (0) Have an engineering degre from an ac treditedellog or university with atleast four years experience in HVAC install tion or design work, OR, (2) Have a minimum of ax years fll expe- Hence, na inating unin apprenticed perience, an a iim of fou eats e*- Dercnce in HVAC installation o design ork with project responsi ¢. Pass the NEBB written Qualification Exami- tation and a pracal examination THE NEBB TAB CERTIFICATION PROGRAM The National Environmental Balancing Bureau (NEBB) is a non-profit international organization, founded in 1971 as a joint venture of two of the most prominent national construction trade asso- cations, the Mechanical Contractors Association of ‘America (MCAA) and the Sheet Metal and Air Con: ditioning Contractors National Association (SMACNA). 1, Objectives The objectives of NEBB are to: ‘¢ Establish and maintain industry standards, pro- cedures and specifications for TAB work Establish qualifications for the supervision and performance of TAB work. © Certify those firms who meet the requirements of qualification. @ Establish educational programs which will pro: vide competent management and supervision of TAB work, 2. NEBB Achieves Its Objectives By: Creating national standards, procedures and pro: grams. Establishing Local or Regional Chapters which im- plement and promote NEBB programs through: a. Participation in the certification process. b. Courses of instruction for the training of su- pervisors, A tripartite (engineer, contractor, and owner or building official) review board which evaluates contractor compliance with NEBB's standards and procedures—in the event a dispute regard ing such compliance arises between a certified firm and the consulting engineer or owner's rep- resentative. Establishing professional qualifications for TAB Su- pervisors which include management responsibili- ties, reputable conduct, extensive experience, pass- ing of appropriate written examinations and demonstration of certain practical working know!- edge and proficiency in the use of instruments re- quired for effective TAB. Certification of a firm involves strict conformance to the high standards and procedures established by NEBB, the employment of qualified supervisors, the possession of certain necessary instruments, ao oa 6 eo competent instrument maintenance program and the use of NEBB Reporting Forms. Encouraging the advisory participation of design cengincers, technical societies, governmental bodies, owners’ organizations and manufacturers Requiring review of contract plans and specifica- tions to confirm that adequate provisions for testing and balancing have been included. 3. Certification Requirements In order for a firm to be certified it must meet the following requirements a. The firm must enjoy a reputation for responsible performance: letters of endorsement from con- sulting engineers and architects ate required b, The firm must possess the various instruments listed herein which are required for the category of certification sought. The local NEBB Chapter will visually confirm compliance. ¢. The firm will confirm in writing that it will con- form to the NEBB guidelines for the calibration and maintenance of the instruments required for the category of TAB certification. b, The firm must possess the NEBB ‘TAB Proce- dural Standards and the NEBB reporting forms for the category of certification The firm must designate in writing one or more supervisors who will represent this firm and be re- sponsible for the supervision of TAB work. The Supervisor shall have met the outlined qualifica- tions, Supervisor Qualifications A person must pass the appropriate written and practical NEBB National Qualification Examina- tions for the category of TAB work for which the firm is seeking certification. He or she must hold @ management position, be able to represent the firm on TAB matters, must have a reputation of integrity with consultants and awarding authorities, and must have expe- rience equal to either of the following: (1) An engineering degrce with at least four years of experience in HVAC installation or design work, oF Ficure 1-1 Tyrica Tas Test INSTRUMENTS(2) Aminimum of six years of field experience, not icluding union apprenticeship experience, and a minimum of four years of experience in HVAC installation or design work with project responsibility 5. Categories of Certification The categories are as follows: a. Certification for the Performance of both Air and Hydronic TAB. b. Certification forthe Performance of Air TAB only ¢. Certification for the Performance of Hydronic ‘TAB only. 4, Certification for the Performance of Air TAB and Managerial Certification for the Performance of Hydronic TAB by another certified firm. ¢. Certification for the Performance of Hydronic TAB and Managerial Certification for the Per- formance of Air TAB by another certified firm. £. Certification for measuring Sound and Vibration 6. Recertification ‘The NEBB Chapter must biennially verify continued compliance with NEBB certification requirements, for each certified firm, as follows a. The firm must still possess the instruments re- quired for the category of certification which they hold. b. The firm must submit records jo verify their con: formance with the NEBB guidelines for calibra tion and maintenance of the required instru. ments c. The firm must confirm in writing that they em ploy the designated TAB Supervisor(s) who pre- viously met the NEBB requirements for qualifi- cation . The firm must confirm in writing that the des- ignated TAB Supervisor(s) has attended at least ‘one seminar or refresher course annually given by the local NEBB Chapter 7. Suspension ‘A firm’s certification shall be suspended when the firm no longer meets all of the certification require- ments listed above. The certification of a suspended firm will be reinstated by NEBB at such time as the requirements for certification are met. 8. Loss of Certification Certification may be terminated for failure of the firm to abide by the objectives and performance standards of NEBB. INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED FOR NEBB TAB CERTIFICATION 1. Required for Air and Hydronic Certification Blectronic Tachometer 12" Mercury Thermometer, ~40°F to + 120°F 12" Mercury Thermometer, 0 10 + 220°F Dial ‘Thermometer, - 40°F to + 120°F Dial Thermometer, 0 to + 220°F Volt-Ammeter 2. Additional Requirements for Air Certification Inclined Manometer, 0 to 1 in. wg. Combination Inclined and Vertical Manometer, 0 10 Sin. wg U Tube Manometer, 18” Pitot Tube, 18” Pitot Tube, 36” Deflecting Vane Anemometer, range: 100 to 3000 feetimin. Magnehelic or Hayes Draft Gauge 0 to " in. wg Magnehelic or Hayes Draft Gauge 0 to 1 in. wg Magnehelic or Hayes Draft Gauge 0 105 in. wg. Smoke Candles . Smoke Generator, (Aspirating Type) Psychrometer Hd "bits 3. Additional Requirements for Hydronic Certification Contact Pyrometer, Thermocouple Type Calibrated Test Gauge, 0 t0 80 psi Calibrated Test Gauge, 0 t0 60 psi Calibrated Test Gauge, 0 10 200 psi. Calibrated Test Gauge, Compound, ~ 80 in. to 30 psi Calibrated Test Gauge, Compound, ~ 30 in. to 60 psi U Tube Manometer, 36" or Well Type Manometer, 18" aNEBB Certified TAB Contractors can rent any required instruments for TAB work that they do not own. True False Passing this Study Course" means tat the O scent docs nt neal to te the NEDE NEDB Qualified TAB Supervao Tae Fae NEBB TAB Supervisors must be at man- agement level positions in their firms. True False Check the course requirement status of the listed texts Requived Optional a) Environmental Sys tems Technology = b) ASHRAE Handbooks ©) Procedural Standards for TAB of Envi ronmental Systems d) Carrier System De- sign Manual = — ©) National Electrical Code — £) HVAC Duct System Design Manual = No test questions are to be taken from the optional reference materials, True, False LESSON 1F QUESTIONS NEBB TAB Firms must be certified in both air and hydronic TAB work. True, False __ NEBB TAB Firms may be (choose one) tified for a. the performance of air TAB, b, the performance of hydronic TAB, measuring sound and vibration. d._ all of the above, To become a qualified NEBB TAB super- visor, the person must (choose one) a. have ane neering degree b. be a member of a union, pass the NEBB National Qualification Examination, d. know a NEBB Chapter manager All three sections (Fundamentals, Air Sys- tems, and Hydronic Systems) of the study course must be passed to obtain a Certificate of Completion and to receive credit for the True, False The NEBB Qualified TAB Supervisor must attend at least one seminar or refvesher course annually True False ANSWERS MAY BE FOUND IN THE REAR OF LESSON L1F— UNDAMENTALS EXAMINATION” BOOKLET eycA. asstonment Environmental Systems Technology READ: Chapter 2—"Fundamentals": Section A— History”, Section B—“Energy" and Section C Heat Flow READ: Chapter 8—"HVAC Systems and Equip- ment”: Section A—“HVAC Equipment and Heat Pumps”. Section B—*Central HVAC Equipment”, and Section D—"Air/Hydronic System Relation- ship”. READ: Chapter 11—*Refrigeration Systems: Sec tion A—"Fundamentals of Refrigeration”, and Section B—"Compression Cycle” HEAT TRANSFER MEDIA Figure 2-1, which shows the con- version of energy in a heating sys- tem, illustrates the various types of energy (chemical, mechanical, electrical, etc.) that are being changed in this particular system which result in heat energy as an end product, This figure illus- trates a hydronic system because of the use of water as the heating medium, Note that the heating coil imparts its heat to air, so the final method of delivery is an air system, In Figure 2-2, the refrigerant is the heat transfer medium which transfers heat to waterat both the evaporator and the condenser. In the cooling tower and the room L—___ LESSON 2F FUNDAMENTALS ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS, AN INTRODUCTION NE|Be unit, water is the medium which transfers its heat to air, Latent heat also should be inckuded in this dis- ‘cussion. The condenser water system is an open sys- tem where water trickles down across the cells in the tower, evaporating as it falls. Figure 2-3 shows that 970 Buu are released for every pound of water that evaporates. While the tower does not work at a tem- perature of 212°F there is a change of state. So for every pound of water that evaporates, 970 But of ke tent heat is removed from the system. However, in a room unit which transfers its heat through an exchanger (no evaporation takes place), the operating ranges of the water are between $2" and 212°F (as shown in Figure 2-3). To heat water from 32°F to 212°F (or the reverse cooling), would re~ quire 180 Bus per pound of water flowing. Thisis the ———} sensible heat portion only of the process. One of the basic principles of en: ‘ering regarding efficiency is that every change or transfer toa different medium reduces the ef- ficiency of the system. In other | words, as shown in Figure 2-4 a marae ets ta a cae toe hn ee dee ot eee =e ie ee ie a oe omen ine ae et ee Seat In the same diagram, notice that the heat from the space being | fee gus che dows, root and walls, The indoor Spuce temperature i 75°F and SS —esseueuuuaruuuauMote convents sero machen \ ne at nary ft aerate cd _—» vat Ns sroay ane Sancones <—— "S Sos _<— Bar or convers a sat coors oaradiest FIGURE 2-1 ENERGY CONVERSION IN A Hor WATER SYSTEM the outdoor temperature is 20°F What would happen if the outdoor temperature rose during the day util it reached 75°F? The amount of heat loss from the building interior being maintained at 73°F would be reduced to zero as the two temperatures equalized EXAMPLE No. | 122°F on the Fahrenheit scale is equivalent to what reading on the Celsius scale? Souurion: (CE-32/1.8 01.8 (122°-32°V1.8 Y EXAMPLE No. 2 ‘Con the Celsius scale is equivalent to what read- on the Fahrenheit scale? SowwTion: oF = 18°C °F = 1,8(25°)+99° = 45°42" = 77 EXAMPLE No. 3 25°C on the Celsius scale is equivalent to what abso- lute temperatures on both scales? Sowvrion: 25°C = 77°F (from Example No, 2) Fahrenheit °T = °F +460" = = 298°K. Exampte No. 4 Hot water flowing at a rate of 10 gpm in a hydronic system leaves a boiler at 200°F and returns at 180°F. ‘What is the heat output of the boil SowuTion: Q(Buh) = 500xgpm x At 500 x 10 x (200° 180°) 100 10 20° Q = 100,000 Buh —_—_———————ExaMPLe No. 5 In Example No. 4, if the boiler is 80% efficient, what is the Buuh input of the burner? SoLution: Output 100,000 9 = Output _ Q* Fefficiency/100 ~ B0%/100 Q = 125,000 Biuh EXAMPLE No. 6 In example No. 5, if the burner is fired with oil con- taining 140,000 Bru/gallon which costs 95¢/gallon, what is the cost to operate the boiler at full capacity for 8 hours? Souution: Firing rate = | 140,000, =0.89 gallonshhour gph x hr x $0.95 = 0.89%8x0.95 = $6.76 (for 8 hours) Cost Exampte No. 7 What is the Buh heat flow through a surface of 550 sq, ft. that has 5°F on one side and 80°F on the other and a coefficient of heat transfer of 0.12: SOLUTION: Q=AxUx at 50x 0.12 x (80°— 5°) = 550 0.12% 75° 4950 Buuh EXAMPLE No. 8 What is the equivalent of 10 psi pressure in ft. of water? inches w.g.? inches Hg? SOLUTION: 10 psi = 102.31 = 23.1 ft. water = 23.1% 12" = 277.2 inw.g. 10X2.04 = 20.4 in. Hg ‘This illustrates that, as the outdoor temperatures rise and fall, a constant amount of heat cannot be added to the building from the system. Either the flow through the convector or the temperature of the sys- EXAMPLE No.9 / 100 pounds of water at 200°F are to be heated to steam at 0 psi. How many Btu must be applied? SOLUTION: Q, (to heat water to 212°F) = 100 x (212° 200°) Q, = 100x 12" = 1200 Blu Q. (to change 219°F water to steam at 0 psi) Q = 100x970 = 97,000 Bu Q(Total) = Q,+Q. = 1200+97,000 = 98,200 Bu tem water must be controlled. Failure todo this would allow a 55°F temperature differential to be main- tained between the inside air and the outside air. If the outdoor air temperature then was 75°F, the in- dloor air temperature would become 125°F (75°F + #) The tend toward lower indoor temperatures for summet conditions has stopped primarily because of energy conservation. Seventy-eight degrees (78°F) is considered by many system designers to be the cor- rect indoor design temperature for summer. Some heating systems are being set as low as 65°F instead of 70°F to 75°F. Also, the design conditions which are given in the ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals hhas grown less strict over a period of years. For ex- ample, instead of using 95°F dry bulb and 78°F wet bull for he Baltimore area, many designers are now using 91°F dry bulb and 75°F wet bulb, Less energy is hen required for cooling and heating. This means that the information given in Table 2-1 under items 1—"Outdoor design temperatures” and 2—"Indoor design temperatures” is being modified and will con- tinue to be modified as energy prices change. “The text also points out the various transfers of en- ergy from one media to the other, and the control or adjustments that must be made to maintain those transfers under stable conditions. Notice that the def- initions for all air, water, steam and refrigerant sys- tems depend on the medium which has final contact, with the space. Itis understood, however, that the ait within the space is being heated in this fashion. An. all refrigerant system directly cools the air within the space even though fans are used to circulate the space ait: In Figure 2-5—"Basie Central System? itis, the pressure within the conditioned space whichtom tnt | Transos oa fon eS , oe Ten ent Corpo at a tn cre rl ‘Sole eae nase ar onente oy (2 coagee_—_ —- 7 ae q cane q ce \ > ‘Chiller (Evaporator) Condenser —— i oe STS rset \ sont (Uguid Line pumps refrigerant vapor ra crear ie a (Specie test 100) ' we (Specie or beat = Oe) Heat Cortrt Bus por Ficure 2-3 CHANGES oF STATEOuroe Temperature OF Hest aving Heat ios to outdors \“ f Ce tomporatco—T8'F a \ tea Convector "o;000 Ban ot haat, Toconoder FiGuRE 2-4 Heat BALANCE IN A HoT WATER SYSTEM forces the air either through the relief damper orinto the return air. A return air fan frequently is used to supply this pressure unless the return duet runs are very short or ifthe conditioned space can stand a rel- atively high pressure of 0.05 to 0.0 inches of water gauge. G HEAT TRANSFER EQUATIONS All heat transfer equations are somewhat similar in appearance in that there isa temperature difference between one side of a dividing surface and the other side. Q = A x U x Ais used to calculate the heatflow through a material such as used in a wall or roof ‘The transfer of heat into a fluid depends on the spe- cific heat and density or specific gravity ofthe Aid ‘The basic equation for a gas is EQUATION 2-1 Q= 60x 6, xd x cm x de Where Q = Heatflow (Beub) G, = Specific Heat (Brwlb*F) d cfm = Airflow (cu fu/min) ae Density (Ib/eu fo) Temperature difference (°F) When the specific heat and density of standard air is used (G, = 0.24 and d = 0.075) the above equa- sion becomes EQuarion 2-2 Q = (60 x 0.24 x 0.075) x cfm x At Q = 1.08 x cfm x At Similarly, the transfer of heat into a liquid also de- pends on the specific heat and specific gravity of the fluid: @ = BEEBeeBeBtBReeBeaBeaeBe Ba BeBe BB Be Se FSEquation 2-3 e Q = 60 x C, x d x gpm x At Where: Q = Heaiflow (Buh) G, = Specific Heat (Btullb °F) d = Density (Ibvgal) gpm = Fluid flow (gal/min) At = Temperature difference CF) When using water (C, = 1.00 and d = 8.38) the above equation becomes EQUATION 2-4 Q = (60 x 1.00 x 8.33) x gpm x At : Q 500 x gpm x At The densities and specific heats of water and air were obtained from Tables 18-11 and 18-13 in Chapter 18 of the text, D SYSTEM DIFFERENCES Section D of Chapter 8 shows many different types of systems. For instance, all air systems can be broken into constant volume systems and variable volume sys tems; multi-zone systems where hot and cold air is blended within the unit; and dual duct systems where air from hot and cold ducts is blended by a terminal unit within the space. Each of these systems is sub stantially different in its engineering control and mass flow aspects ‘The obvious difference in classification ofthe systems is the medium of heat transfer, such as ait, water or frigerant, This classification also frequently deter- mines the wade that makes the installation such as sheet metal workers, steamfiters, etc. The systems are different depending on which variable is con- wwolled, the temperature of the medium, and/or its flow rate. For example, there isa basic difference be- tiveen the constant volume and variable volume sys- tems based on the system flow rate. Further differ ences involve the choice between using central station systems and terminal unit systems. In the central sta- tion application, the use of diffusers, grilles, registers oF other mechanically passive methods of air distri- bution are not considered as “terminal units” under the terminal unit system context. Using classroom heating and air conditioning units as an example, one method is to use a direct expan- sion (DX) refrigeration system which is self-contained within the unit. If the unit is a heat pump, the re- frigeration system also is used for heating (sometimes T= - “ne ong 1.8 \g 2 Pea © Canad, Theomaway—Standardor High Eiciney-~Slass, Metal Paper, Chaco @ Steam, Hor Wate, Eactraty © cites wate, Dxect pansion, ne © steam, Hot Water letaty Ficure 2-5 Tyricat EQUIPMENT ARRANGEMENT FOR CENTRAL SYSTEMSwith a supplementary electric coil). The heating also can be done by steam, hot water (hydronic system) or electric resistance coils. On the other hand, the same classroom units could be fan coil units served by cold water from a remote chiller and hot water from a boiler. SIMILARITIES OF ALL SYSTEMS Consider, in this maze of different systems, any sit ilarities from which certain procedures may be gen- eralized. The first and most obvious similarity is that all of these systems transport energy whether it be used for heating or cooling. If used for heating, en- ergy is added to the space; while if used for cooling, energy is removed from the space, The second sim- ilavity is that these things are all accomplished with a medium, whether it be a gas such as air or steam, a liquid such as water, o a mixture of both in which a phase change occurs, ie., a DX system. The cooling {ower illustration (presented earlier in this lesson) is aa good example of a phase change where water, the liquid, was being evaporated into a gas. In all ofthese systems, the medium transfers the heat energy: ‘Some process must be used to control the final space temperature, This usually is done by controlling some aspect of the medium, such as the flow or the temperature of the medium. In more complicated systems, such as multi-zone units with hot and cold decks, both the temperature and the flow can be con- tolled. Finally, regardless of the number of changes in the medium (from DX to water to air) the final ob- [ject is to maintain a specific temperature of the air in the room and a specific pattern of air circulation F SYSTEM ADJUSTMENTS Consider what is meant by the engineering term “steady state condition” Assume that there isa system transferring energy through a medium to a space which is losing energy at a constant rate. If the out: side air and space temperatures are constant (there- fore also the rate at which the room loses heat), and the circulation rate and temperature of the medium remain unchanged, there would then be a “steady state condition” A control valve in this system need not change position and for this instant, it is as ifone ‘was looking ata still picture. If any of these variables change, the control valve also must change to com- pensate. ‘The control valve can do this easily when only one variable is changed at a time. Consider the problems facing the control valve if all ofthe variables ‘change all of the time. The control valve constantly would be seeking to find the resultant balance for these changes: Depart from “steady state conditions” and examine cyclical variations of these variables. Assume that the ‘Tate 2-1 COMPARISON OF FLUIDS AND DESIGN CONDITIONS FOR A TYPICAL AREA IN THE UnrrEp States 7. Outdoor design temperatures winter minimum: oF ‘summer maximum 95°F range: 95F 2. Indoor design temperatures winter maintained: 70°F summer maintained: 75°F | range: SF | 3, Air system temperatures winter maximum: 125°F ‘summer minimum 55°F range: 70°F state: gas | 4. Hydronic system temperatures winter maximum: 200°F summer minimum: 40°F range: 160°F state: liquid 5. Steam (low pressure) winter: 212F summer: 212F range oF state: 92s to liquid Steam condensate may be cooled to any rea- sonable temperature by reuse as a supplemen- tary heat source. The physical limit is 92°F the freezing point of water. 6. Refrigerant temperatures (R-12, R22, etc.) The winter and summer conditions are dictated by the particular refrigerant and its application. -22, for example, is used in applications below = 100°F, but is also commonly used in window Units to produce normal comfort conditions of +75° to 80°F. The state of refrigerants during the cooling process changes trom liquid to gas.outside air temperature is on a twenty-four hour eycle and the temperature of the medium varies between two set points (called hot and cold for reference) within a two-hour cycle. Indications also show that the pump varies the flow of the medium on a ten hour cycle (Full off to full on). Because of the differ- ent peaks and valleys where the hottest temperature could coincide with the highest flow rate and che ‘warmest outside temperature (as opposed to other times when the reverse could be true), the task of the control valve would be almost impossible to achieve in actual practice What must be adjusted in order to maintain even temperatures in the space (which is the goal of the system)? Generally, the control valve must control one (or two at the most) variables, This means that all of the other variables must be constant and none cycli- cal, and any of the other media must also be held con- stant. System balancing is the method by which the other variables are held constant. The system designer de- termines where it’s best to hold it constant Table 2-1 indicates some favorite temperatures for the particular medium in either winter or summer conditions. The system designer must calculate the ‘amount of heat that is to be lost or gained; must select. the temperatures at which the systems will operate; and must select the type of medium and establish the flow rate at which it must circulate in order to wansfer the heat energy. Itis the job of the Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing (TAB) Contractor Supervisor to see that these variables operate within the outlined pa. rameters. Flow rates are set by adjusting the fan speed and/or balancing valve at the pump discharge. By adjusting a volume damper in the supply duct to each conditioned room, the medium (airflow) rate of a constant volume system is held constant to each space. [Fit should ever happen that the designer's cal- culations were exact, that the systems were installed exactly as shown, and that the equipment performed as specified; then after minor adjustments, every- thing would be theoretically “perfect and the TAB Contractors’ work would be done. However, buildings are too complex and too many things can’go wrong, for this to happen very often. G WHEN THINGS GO WRONG When systems malfunction, sometimes it is not im- portant to decide who was at fault. The problem can be too complex, and ofien costly to solve, The system designer estimates the load as accurately as possible and the equipment suppliers are dependent on their factories to produce properly performing equipment. However, something can go wrong at any time. Ifthe flow rate should happen to be different from that which was specified, the temperatures of the medium can be changed to yield the same transport of energy Each of these variables is dependent on the other. If ‘one cannot be achieved, very often others can be ad- justed to compensate. Sometimes the control valves can handle small changes. The TAB Contractor's ob- ligation is to report any differences to the designer so that the installing contractor can make the changes that are necessary to correct the problem. The de- signer often does not think that the differences noted on the test report forms will drastically change the system performance. Asan example, if the temperatures of the medium are stable and fixed, and the flow rate is somewhat low, but the designer's heat loss calculation proved to be a little higher than what actually was occurring, the uso conditions could offset each other and no cor- rection need be made. This is the reason that the cor rect information must be obtained and accurately recorded by the TAB Contractor. The calibration of instruments and the location and conditions where the reaclings were taken affect the accuracy of the in- formation obtained. H CONCLUSION The text furnishes the technical information which, when read with the discussion herein, should famil- iarize you with different mediums, the different pro- cesses, and the different types of systems that can be used to provide heating and cooling. There are too many different systems and combinations of systems o be listed. There can be no substitute for experi- | cence. You must keep adding to your own knowledge, ‘which can be obtained from field experiences, from reading materials, from seminars, from manufactur- er’s representatives, and from many others in the in- dustry. You must become thoroughly familiar with each type of system and you must have a basic un- derstanding of how the fundamental components of the systems relate to one another before you can be- come a NEBB Supervisor. System designers, en neers, and building owners are now aware that test- ing, adjusting and balancing is very important, indeed crucial, to the proper operation of HVAC sys- tems. This is where the expertise of the NEBB TAB, Supervisor has become recognized.A system, in which water circulates at a rate of 1s ‘gpm, provides heat transfer equal to 200,000 Buuh when being cooled through 20°F If fluid havinga specific heat of 0.50 anda density which is the same as water is substituted for the water, and continues to flow at 20 gpm but is cooled through a 30°F range, the rate of heat transfer will be changed to —__Buuh. ‘The purpose of air conditioning is to produce the required environmentiin the occupied space, regardless of seasonal variations of outdoor tem- perature. True False A ton of refrigeration is the quantity of heat ab- sorbed by one ton of ice melting in a 24 hour pe- riod. True, False 4 If one variable in the system cannot be main- tained where intended by the designer, the bal- ancer can often adjust another variable to com- pensate True False Which of the following terms is not a natural heat flow process in HVAG systems? A. Convection B. Conduction C. Intensity D. Radiation LESSON 2F QUESTIONS ‘The refrigeration compressor is a pump that provides the pressure differential to cause the refrigerant to flow in a direct expansion (DX) system. True False ‘The specific heat of water is 1 and 1 Buu of heat will raise the temperature °F for 1 pound of Yes___, No Fluids and refrigerants evaporate and condense at given temperatures (for given pressures) and, ‘water evaporates at 212°F at sea level. True, False A glass window hasan area of 20 square feetand an overall coefficient of heat transfer (U) of 1.1 ‘When outdoor air is 95°F and indoor tempera- ture is 75°F, the window glass transfers heat to the room at a rate of 440 Beuh. If the glass is changed to a type of glass for which U = 0.88, and the area of the glass is increased by 40 square feet, the heat flow through the new glass window will be ——Btuh when outdoor and in- door temperature remain as before. ANSWERS MAY BE FOUND IN THE REAR OF LESSON 1F— “FUNDAMENTALS EXAMINATION" BOOKLET EEE s @ 7{sn RE CS SSNS A ASSIGNMENT Environmental Systems Technology READ: Chapter 2—"Funda- mentals": Section D—"Fluid Flow” READ: Chapter 6—“Air Distri- bution Systems": Section A— “Fundamentals of Duct System Airflow” READ: Chapter 7—"Hydronic Systems”: Section A—"Fun: damentals of Hydronics’ S FLUIDS Anything which can flow isa uid. Gasoline, oil, airand water are all fluids. Gasoline and oil are not generally used as heat transfer fluids in heating sys tems because of their obvious dangerous potential for explosion. Air and water are frequently tsed as heat- ing mediums because of their ready availability Steam and refrigerants are used in both liquid and vapor forms. In fact, its this phase change which al: lows large quantities of heat to be wansferred. This is the reason why these fluids are desired as heating cooling media, Each medium has characteristics which particularly suit it to certain applications, as well as drawbacks when they are used in other applications, A reftiger ant certainly would not be used as the cooling m LESSON 3F FUNDAMENTALS FLUID MECHANICS dium for an automobile engine radiator when water is more eco- nomical and readily available. However during freezing weather, glycol or some other type of antifreeze solution must be added to the medium. When this is done, the mixture no longer has the same heat transfer properties as before. In this example, the specific heat has been changed from 1.0 10 a lower number: The medium will not carry as much heat with the glycol as it cid be- fore without the glycol The text states above that steam and refrigerants depend on a phase change to be useful in HIVAG work, and that 970 Btu are required to change 1 pound of water t© 1 pound of steam at 212°E Refrigerants “boil” to con: duct heat away, but carbon diox- ide, a litle used medium, evap- orates directly from the solid state to the gaseous state to transfer heat. G PRESSURES The two main types of pressures used in TAB are static and dynamic. The static pressuresare the easiest to understand. The pressure required to pump up a tire oF o inflate a balloon isa static pressure. Ibis ex- erted equally inal directions which is what gives the distended balloon its spherical shape. The proof thait is exerted in all directions is simple. A hole any- where in the balloon causes all the air to leak out, ‘This is not always true in dynamic situations. In cer- tain locations within a piping system such as on the leaving side of an orifice, dynamic pressures can be negative or zero. Static heads also can be caused by heights of liquids or can be caused by external pres- sures. For example, the automatic cold water make: up valve in a boiler heating water system may be set between 15 and 30 pounds and it will operate to maintain that setting in the system. This then is the base operating point of pressure. Al fluids below that level will be higher in pressure, all fluids above that datum line or height will be lower in pressure In any system with a fan, pump or that has gravity flow, dynamic heads are developed. Head in this case ‘only means resistance, friction, or pressure loss, ‘which can be expressed in terms of heights. Dynamic pressures are caused by velocity and they act in the direction of flow. An example of this is putting one's hand into the airstream while a passenger in a car moving at 60 miles per hour: The pressure effects of the air can be felt upon your hand. As the velocity of the car decreases, so do the effects of the air pres sures, until stationary object is disturbed only by the wind currents in the af The fotal pressures within a system are the sum of its dynamic (velocity) and static pressures which are ex pressed in the following equation: EQUATION 3-1 TP = SP +V, Where: TP = Total pressure (in. w.g.) sP= V, = Velocity pressure (in. wg.) atic pressure (in. W.g.) This equation is used extensively in TAB work. Re member that a fluid flowing ina conduit at a certain velocity has a velocity pressure which is used to over: ‘come the resistance of the walls of the conduit pon the medium, The equation for obtaining velocity pressure (V,) from the airflow velocity of a duct in feet per minute (fpm) is: EQUATION 3-2 Where: v V, = Velocity pressure (in. w.g:) V = Velocity (fpm) * Forduct systems, use the following equation to obtain the velocity EQuarion 8-3 v= Where: V = Velocity (fpm) Q = Airflow (cim) A = Cross-sectional Area (sq. ft.) EXAMPLENO. 1 ¥ What is the total pressure of 48" x 30° duct with a flow of 10,000 cfm when thye static pressure is meas- ured at 2.0 in. wg? SoLuTION: Q _ __10,000 (cfm) 20 ° gpm, = 100 VOB = 100 (.707) gpm, = 70.7 nH n nl zu x o* B »a ae a ee ee ® @ ° —_+—— ‘The discharge of pipe “P” in Figure 3-1 (A) termi- nates in cooling tower spray nozzles which require an inlet pressure of 5 psi o operate properly “A” is 62 feet, the length of the pipe is 98 fect and it has a fric- tion loss of 0.1 feet of water per feet of pipe. Deter- mine the pump discharge pressure. ("1 5 ) Exampte No. 4 SouvTion: P= P, +P, +B Where: P, = Pump discharge pressure P, = Nozzle pressure = 5 psi (given) P, = Static pressure (elevation) = 62 x 0.433 = 26.85 psi P; = Friction pressure loss 08" x 0.1 x 0488 = 403 psi. P, = 5 + 26.85 + 4.03 = $5.88 psi |e EXAMPLENO. 5. If the discharge pipe “P” in Example No. 3 is 244 inside diameter, find the velocity SouuTior ) x F = 0.034 54 ft 100 gal/min 2 = GD seoimin x 7.5 galou fe = 0,222 cu, fais: » 0222 v = 22 6.54 fee E FLUID FLOW In Figure 3-2, Velocity Profile, the lengths of the ar- rows indicate the relative velocity of the fluid. The long arrows in the middle mean that the fluid is flow- ing faster than it does near the walls where the arrows are short. This makes sense if you realize that the re sistance caused by the fluid rubbing the walls holds the fluid back or slows it down. The fluid (gas or liq- uid) is capable of going slower at its edges than at its center. This slowing down of the fluid adjacent to the pipe or duct wall is caused by friction (or resistance) \ a} \ (2ero ot Wat) between the pipe or duct wall and the fluid. Pressure is required to overcome that resistance, {There are two kinds of pressures: 1. Static, caused by height differences, and 2. Dynamic, caused by flow. ( Reviewing Equations 3-4 and 3-3, “P = FIA” (Pres- }) sure = Force divided by Area) isa static equation; ancl Q = AX V Glow rate = Area times Velocity) is a dynamic equation as the term “velocity” would indicate. In duct systems, the static head or weight of a column of air becomes insignificant in calculations used for HVAG systems, but the velocity head becomes ex- tremely important, which is just the opposite of hy- dronie systems. The velocity of the fluid in hydronic systems pipe sizing tables varies from 1 foot per sec ‘ond (fps) to 20 feet per second (ips) which is 70 feet per minute (fpm) to 1200 feet per minute (fpm). But | most systems are sized at approximately 4 tps (240 | tpm) which has a velocity pressure (V,) of only 0.004 lin, wg. vy 240) v= (Gas) ~ Ct This amounts to an insignificant 0.00013 psi (0.004/ 12/2.31 = 0,00013 psi) in systems that measure pres sure drops in terms such as 100 psi or feet of water: = 0,004 in. w.g. However, velocities in HVAC duct systems normally vary from 400 fpm (V, = 0.01 in. wg.) to 4000 fpm (V, = 1,00 in. weg.) in systems where available pres sures from fans are in the 0.30 in. w.g. to 10.0 in. wg. The terms laminar flow and turbulent flow will be used frequently in balancing and technical data, Most flow conditions usually encountered will be turbulent. Laminar flow is sometimes encountered inside coils and in long, unbroken straight sections of ducts. Laminar flow just means that every portion of the medium is flowing smoothly: Turbulent flow indi- cates the presence of eddy currents and wildly changing flow patterns within the medium. Thisis desired for good heat transfer through surfaces dividing sep: arate airstreams, The resistances to flow in each of these two cases are different. Obviously, a smoothly flowing medium offers less resistance than does one that's turbulent. Let’s assume, however, that the flow is always turbulent, Fitting las coefficients, which are based on velocity pressures, are obtained by labora- tory testing of the turbulent airflow: When there are branches or circuits of different lengths within the system, the circuit with the highest resistance determines the highest system pressure loss (frictional resistance), or the longest equivalent length. This is not necessarily the same as saying that itis the smallest pipe or duct that runs the longest, or the biggest pipe or duct that runs the longest; but j often it depends on the flow rates found in the system. | However, the longest equivalent length, or evtical run \as itis often called, determines the design pressure \that the prime mover (pump, fan or whatever is mov: Jing the fluid around) needs to overcome When the design pressure is available, the fluid will flow through all the other circuits as well, and gen- erally; must be kept from “short circuiting” by means of balancing valves or dampers. These valves or dam. pers make the pressure drop or pressure loss in short Circuits equal to the pressure loss in the longest cir cuit, thereby balancing the flow. However, a well de- signed system should almost be self-balancing. It is this adjustment operation that the testing and bal- ancing team needs to accomplish for an efficient sys {tem that meets the design conditions A. Copper total pressure sensing manifold with ‘sensors pasitioned on an equal area basis, B. Aluminum honeycomb 94" parallel cell oriented in 3" depth . Total and static pressure external ports D. 14 ga galvanized steol casing with 114" flanges, all-welded construction E. Copper static pressure sensors with bullet ‘hosed tips to assure laminal flow over sensing holes Figure 3-3 Duct Monrror Device REePrrrerrrEeErErRrrnrET FfWhat is the pressure under a 20 foot Head of Air in: a) ——— psi, b) ©) ——— in Hg, in. wg., Whats the pressure under a 20 foot Head of Water in a) - psi. b) ing. in. wg. onsidered to be fluids. (Choose one, wo, ot three.) a) liquids by gases ) ice d) steam Pressure exerted by the weight of liquid at restis called . _pressure A U-tube manometer with one end connected to a source of pressure and the other end open to atmosphere will measure: a) Aumospheric pressure b) Absolute pressure ©) Gauge pressure A U-tube manometer with one end open to atmosphere and the other end sealed and subjected to a perfect vacuum will measure a) Atmospheric pressure bb) Absolute pressure ©) Gauge pressure “8 LESSON 3F QUESTIONS If A is the symbol for area, F the symbol for force, and P the symbol for pressure, theit correct relationship is given by the equation: a) P=FXA b) F= PIA © P=FIA d) P= AMP A perfect vacuum would give a gauge pres- sure reading of — in. Hg. ‘Atank 6 feet in diameter, with an open top, is being filled to its top with water. If the only measuring device available is a 6 foot rule how could we measure the pressure at the bottom of the tank, and in what units of pres sure would the answer be obtained? Ata point in a duct system, the statie pressure is 2.0 in. wg, with a low of 10,000.cfm. If the airflow decreases 10%, what will be the new static pressure at the same point? What will be the percentage increase or decrease in pressure? ANSWERS MAY BE FOUND IN THE REAR OF LESSON 11F— “FUNDAMENTALS EXAMINATION” BOOKLETLESSON 4F FUNDAMENTALS HEAT TRANSFER EQUATION 4-1 QeAxUxKat Where | CA. assicnnen SSIGNMENT Q = the rae of heat Environmental Systems transfer or flow (Bruh) Technology ! the area of a surface READ: Chapter 2—"Funda- (sq. fe ae ae e Flow" (Review). U_ = cvetficient of heat P READ: Chapter 4—“Building uansfer Heat Flow”: Section A—"The Outdoor Environment tion B—“Building Heating Loads”, At = difference between the temperatures on each side of the material through which heat is flowing CF) The Greek letter “Delta” (A) as used in Equation B 4-1 usually indiatsa small change or difference: in HEAT FLOW this case, A is the temperature difference. In Equation 4-1, neither At or Qrepresent heat. In the Figure 2-1 of Lesson 2F shows the chemical energy of past heat was thought to be a tangible quantity ike a fuel being converted by combustion into heat en gallon of water, a pint of milk, ora bushel of berries ergy which is transferred by water to an airstream to Despite this carryover from the past, one cannot feel the space being heated. Figure 2-2 shows the transfer hoy" as heat isnot a tangible quantity: What one does of heat energy in a refrigeration system. Figure 2-3 feel is temperature. Temperature can be “hot” when indicates the temperatures at which changes of state compared to some other reference point (such 3s (from gas to a liquid to a solid or the reverse) occur, 98.6°F body temperature), but one cannot feel how and the heat content in Buu per pound required dur~ much heat is in an object. The amount of heat con- ing the changes of state, Figure 4-1 indicates atypical tained within the abject varies with the object’s tem temperature spectrum which is not to be confused perature, mass, and substance. The amount of heat with heat energy. in any given object at any given temperature can be |." Figures 4-2 and 4-3 give examples of heat conduc- calculated, but the HVAC industry does not find that tion, convection, and radiation. Conduction, convec- a particularly useful function. What is useful is to v | tion, and radiation are the three methods of heat___know how fast heat is given up from that object, or twansfer in environmental systems. the rate of heat transfer (Q) expressed in Btu per SSsae tg i oe fom tantric fo Figure 4-1 1 PICAL TEMPERATURE SPECTRUM. hour: In this study course many different equations for calculating "Q” (heat- flow) will be found. igure 4-4 shows the heatflow through a structure and indicates the effect of the coefficient “U” on the flow rate. Figures 4-5, 4-6, and 4-7 show the differ- ence between counterflow, parallel flow, and cross- low airstveams in coils or heat exchangers. The A asant heat a ee (A) Ros heat by tre es heated by tame bocomos ht a5 Feat ows by condo kom rt he shee portance of the illustration in Figure 4-8 is that the final temperature attained by both of the mediums is affected by the direction of the flow af the two dif- ferent mediums at the heat transfer points. EXAMPLE No. 1 A room (70°F) has two separate walls which have an) unheated space on the other side. ‘The wall exposed © outdoors (30°F) is 20" x 8" with a “U" factor of 0.12. The other inside wall is 24° x 8" with a “U" fac- tor of 0.30. If the unoccupied space on the other side is at 55°F which wall has the greatest heat loss? SOLUTION: Outside wall: QHAxUx at = 20" x 8° x 012 x (70°F-30°F) = 160 x 0.12 x 40 = 768 Buh Inside wall Ax Ux dt 24" x 87 x 0.80 x (70°E-55°F) = 192 x 0.80 x 15 = 864 Buh (or the wall with the higher loss) HIVAG systems can be balanced by temperature or by Fieaiflow, but they ave not the same. The following ex- ample illustrates the difference between temperature and the heatflow rate, showing that a system can be balanced to either, but not both, Assume that the air- flow being supplied to different rooms is to be bal- anced so that each room has the same temperature reading. This procedure also can be used in existing buildings when original engineering calculations are ost tows om warmer body to cooler body by eondscton (6) Two bos in contact FIGURE 4-2. HEAT TRANSFER By CONDUCTION & RADIATION§ f ; Hc system ingen von ‘ ton ‘apes > > (Hoon (eon Keon Peston FiGure 4-3 CONVECTION Heat TRANSFER not available and when the building is experiencing large differences in temperatures between rooms. ‘The TAB team would then attempt to balance the svs- tem by adjusting the airflow so that each room had the designed space temperature. } Balancing by heatflow is used in new buildings where the designer has calculated the airflow rates that nor- mally establish equal temperatures for each of the various room spaces. The TAB team then balances the airstream flow rate (cfm) to that scheduled for each room, The rooms should achieve the desired temperatures if the calculations were correct. If a change in temperatures is required after occupancy the additional balancing should be done at the system designer's direction and expense, In any event, the 8 ck, Exeter <___ aa ‘TAB team balances to the flow rate of the medium, which is actually balancing to the hea flaw rae that is being transferred by the medium. Balancing by “heat- fs” an “Yemperature” ae therfore no the same ‘This text points out that molecular activity within a substance is responsible for its temperature. Using “popcorn” in an example to represent this activity many popcorn kernels bounce around while popping. within a kettle. The term “temperature” more accu: rately’ refers to the average velocity of the kernel, while the term “heat” is analogous with the average mass of each kernel times its average velocity (squared) times the total number of kernels in mo- tion. In other words, the fofal energy of the popcorn kernels is a measure of its heat content orywat tho wat has anes! oof 2600 Bh th 82" ar spaco (U~ 026), Feplacing te a: vein insulin 0.09) Wrrecuce te Boat tow to 000 buh Outdoor Indoor TerecT. Tome, A | —_ Ficure 4-4 Hearrtow THrouc WALL CONSTRUCTION e = =FIGURE 4.6 PARALLEL FLOW AIRSTREAMS Ta (HOT) T (WARM) TEMPERATURE a 5 3 3 Te (COLD) Distance Through Exchanger COUNTERFLOW AL Aa oe AIRSTREAM ce ce sal EXCHANGER Ess Ant “A” AIRSTREAM. FIGURE 4-7 CROsS-FLOW AIRSTREAMS In Equation 4-1,Q = A x U X At, Uisthe variable affected by building insulation materials, Insulation ‘values” can become quite confusing. They can be given per inch of thickness of material or for the ac- tual thickness of the material, such as.a"six inch thick batt” Values can be given as conductance or resistance A chapter in the ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook is devoted exclusively to “U values for different ma- terials and for different thicknesses. Many of these ta bles are shown in Chapter 4 of the test T, (HOT) x I, 4 T, (WARM) TEMPERATURE T, (WARM) aoe Tp(COLD) Distance Through Exchanger PARALLEL FLOW FIGURE 4-8 PARALLEL AND COUNTERFLOW HEAT TRANSFER CURVESciviy" (0 indicates how much heat will pass through an fnch of a material while “Conductance” {C)isa somewhat similar value, Buti fora gen hick ness of material, “Resistances” (R), which are the re- Giprocals of "K" or "C", can be added sequentially for the beat low through combinations of different ma- terials. Conductivity (K) and conductance (C) values may not be added in this manner. Therefore, addition of the resistance of each component of the wal is the only way the ta resitance (Ry) can be obtained fora particular wall construction. Other building enco- Sure surfaces are treated in a similar manner (win dows, floors, ceilings, etc). "R” values of air surface films must be used as indicated EQUATION 4-2 R= RFR FR. ER, After the total resistance is obtained by adding the in- dividual resistances, the “U” value is obtained by tak- ing its Inverse as shown in Equation 4-3. Insulating materials play a large role in reducing the heat flow rate into or from objects such as buildings, ducts, pipes, etc, Obviously, exterior surfaces having high resistances or low U values will have less heat transfer bevween the outside environment and the interior of the structure, duct, or pipe. EQuation 4-3 U Ry Where: U = the overall coefficient of heat wansfer Ry = the total of the resistances EXAMPLE No. 2 An outside wall of a building has the following re- sistances: Outside surface film — 0.17 Masonry — 1.60 Furring — 094 Drywall — 0.45 Inside surface film = — 0.68 SoLuTion: Rr=R, +R +R, R, = 0.17 + 1.6 + 0.94 + 045 + 0.68 R, = 3.84 Lia ued = 0.26 R, 3a > 78 G HEAT TRANSFER Most of the energy sources listed in the text are fossil fucls. When energy conservation was a national topic ‘of concern, alternative energy sources (sola; tidal ac- tion, wind generators, geothermal, etc.) were in var- ious stages of development. As far as the TAB team need to be concerned, the energy sources required for the building environmental systems are: electric- ity fossil fuelsand, occasionally, district steam or solar collectors. When fossil fuels are used, a boiler or fur- hace is necessary to convert the chemical energy of the fuel to the heat energy of the medium (water or air) through a combustion process. Electrical energy) is converted 0 heat energy either directly by resist ance coils, or more efficiently using the refrigeration |. cycle of heat pumps. Solar system heat transfer media! can either be hydronic or air. There will be additional information on the subject of heat transfer equip- ‘ment in Lesson 5F. ‘When comparing the refrigeration cycle in Figure 2- 2 (Lesson 2F) to the steam cycle in Figure 4-9, notice that there are high pressure and low pressure sections of the systems in each, that heat is absorbed and re- jected, and that a pump or compressor is needed to keep the medium flowing to complete the cycle. The difference between Figures 4-10 and 4-11 are the di: rection of the arrows from the heat exchangers, otherwise, they have the same heat flow direction in the piping systems. The highest pressure occurs at the pump discharge and the lowest at the pump inlet. Pressure differences are again required for airflow and heat rejection and absorption is again part of the cycle. Implicit in all of these diagrams, although not specifically shown, is that a temperature difference requires that heat be absorbed or rejected, i. trans ferred from one medium to another. Differences in pressure create the meclium flow and the tempera- [ ~ |e Ficure 4-9 Steam Cycie @ nRrPuaiwT@?wTewyewFTFEetTFTteetwe | ert ber Ficure 4-10 HEATING WATER CyCLE ture differences cause the heat flow into or out of the mediums. An interesting concept expressed in the text is that the same amount of heat that is given up by one me- dium is gained by the other, and that all heat can be accounted for (energy can neither be created nor de- stroyed). This concept is generally called the conser- vation of energy. This is not quite true today in this atomic era, but it can be used as a basic principle for TAB work, Equation 4-4 Q = 500 x gpm x At Where: Q = Heatflow (Buuh) gpm = Gallons per minute At = Temperature difference °F) Note that in Equation 4-4, the “500” is a “constant” that is used specifically for water. This constant will change when the system medium is other than water, such as a glycol mixture, steam, refrigerant, or air: In fact, the comparable equation for sensible heatflow of air is shown below. EQuarion 45 Q = 1.08 x cfm x At Where: Q = Heatflow (Btuh) cfm = Cubie feet per minute At = Temperature differeice CF) Sensitle heat is defined as the heat associated with tem perature differences only as measured by a ther mometer, This is not affected by the method of heat transfer, such as radiation, convection and conduc- tion. Transmission heat gains are those which occur through conduction of the heat through a surface such as a wall. Convection has been taken into ac~ count by film coefficients on each side of the wall— Figure 4-11 Coouine Warer Cyet whether inside or outside. Latent hea is defined as the heat associated with moisture, such as people sweat- ing or the moisture contained in outside air that en- ters.a building, Twa! heat (enthalpy) is the sum of the sensible heat and the latent heat Examete No. 3 30 gpm of water at 200°F circulates through a heat ing coil. Lf 4000 cfm of air increases in temperature from 50°F to 120°R, what is the temperature of the water leaving the coil? SoLuTION! Using Equation 4-5: Q = 1.08 x cfm x At = 1.08 x 4000 x (120-50) 302,400 Buuh Using Equation 4-4 Q = 500 x gpm x At —2_ 500 * gpm At = 20.16°F = (T, - T) T, = T, — At = 200 - 20.16 = 179.84°F The water temperature leaving the coil was 179.8°F, Figure 4-12 Aim CvcLeChapter 4—"Building Heatflow’ of the text contains information and data that can be used to determine the amount of heat that a building loses or gains. The building gains heat in the summertime when the out- side temperature is 95°F and the inside temperature is 78°F because the heat must flow from the outside tothe inside (always warmer to the cooler). The build ing loses heat in the wintertime when the inside tem- perature is 72°F and the outside temperature is 10°F or some similar reading below 72°F. Itisnot necessary for the TAB team to become expert in building load calculations, as that is the function of the HVAC system designer. It is not necessary that ‘one even “speak this language”. However, be recep tive to the vatious terms, concepts and issues that are important to the designer. Building heat gain calew- lations will vary from designer to designer for the same building and the same temperatures. It's not that the science is poorly developed or even poorly applied. The difference arises from the many com- plex vatiables that must be used to accurately deter- mine the heat flow into and out of a building Such vatiable factors include the film coefficients of walls mentioned earlier. These coefficients are af- fected by the wall surface (rough or smooth). the type of material used, air motion (vertically or horizon- tally), heat flow (in or out), and the velocity of the wind or air. These factors can double the value of the filin coefficient which is one of the resistances used to determine the U value of the wall, even though they are small in comparison with the overall coefficient for the total wall composition, One might wish to look at the complexities created by weather which could affect the value of the film coef- ficient and the rate of heat transfer into and out of the building. However, there are many other factors which are more important than film coefficients. Itis for this reason that a designer has learned to use professional judgment of which factors to include or neglect. System designers cannot always be sure that they have calculated every possible variation in determin- ing the maximum rates of heatflow. A safety facor has traditionally been used to make sure that the equip- ment being installed is adequate in size and that the HVAC systems will work properly. These safety fac- tors vary, but occur throughout the calculations de- pending on the conservativeness of the designer or engineer, the type of client, the type of building, etc. | With the rapidly increasing cost of energy and equip- | ment, designers must reduce or eliminate these safety factors, so the most efficient and economical HVAC systeins can be installed and operated, Regulations ofien make these “facts” a requirem Zio newove use Bunk io i FIGURE 4-13 STEAM TO WATER HEAT TRANSFER EQUIPMENT.ao oa A 200 ton chiller discharges water at 95°F. After going through the cooling coils, the water returns at 55°F. If the chiller is oper- ating fully loaded, the water flow rate is gpm, A hot water boiler supplies 200 gpm at 200°E After passing through a heat exchanger, the water returns to the boiler at 180°F. The heat ‘output of the boiler is Buh. ‘The heat exchanger in Question 2 receives 200 gpm fromn the boiler at 198°F and the water leaves the exchanger at 182°R. a) The heating capacity of the exchanger is — Buh b) The heat lost through the pipes to and from the boiler is Buh. A heating coil receives 28 gpm of water. Inlet temperature is 18°F outlet temperature is I71°F, and 4000 cfm of air passes over the coil. The discharge temperature of the air is 55°F and the entering air temperature is — A glass window has an area of 50 square feet and an overall coefficient of heat transfer (U) of LL a) When the outdoor air is 95°F and indoor temperature is 75°F the heatflow through the window glass will be Buh, b) If the glass is changed to a type of glass for which U = 0.88 and the area of the glass is increased to 140 square feet, the heatflow through the new glass window will be Buh more than the old win dow (outdoor and indoor temperatures remain as before), 10 LESSON 4F QUESTIONS “Temperature” is a measure of heat (inten- sity) (quantity) while a “Btu” is a measure of heat (intensity) (quantity). When circulating water is chilled in a refrig- eration machine, the temperature of the water is changed by: a) sensible heat ) latent heat ©) both The three common modes of heat transfer fa eserereearesererereeentss svt unssEesEnOOTE b) ° A composite building wall is said to have an R® value of 4.0. The overall heat transmis- sion coefficient (U) is The following “R” and “C” values are given forall ofthe components of a wall, the surface area is 500 square feet and the temperature difference is 60°E. The heatfiow is Buh R values—0.17, 0.10, 2.77, and 0.68 C values—2.27, 0.58, and 2.22. eyLESSON 5F FUNDAMENTALS HEAT TRANSFER EQUIPMENT N = [eB A ASSIGNMENT Environmental Systems ‘Technology REVIEW: Chapter 8—"HVAC Systems and Equip- ment”: Section A—"HVAG Equipment and Heat Pumps”, Section B—"Central HVAC Equipment”, Section D—*Air/Hydronic System Relationship" REVIEW: Chapter 11—"Refrigeration Systems" Section A—"Fundamentals of Refrigeration”, Section / B—"Compression Cycle” j READ: Chapter 11: Section | ‘C—"Absorption Cycle”, Sei tion D—"Refrigerants”, Sec> “Refrigeration Sys READ: Chapter 12—"Com- | bustion Equipment”: Section | ‘A—"Principles of Gombus- tion”, Section B—"Fossil | Fuels", Section C—“Fuel Burners" B INTRODUCTION ‘The length of the above assign- ‘ment indicates that there is a great deal of information to learn about heat transfer equipment. The amount of information also requires that many more questions be included at the end of this lesson. Since this lesson is about equipment that is found in the field, people with field experience will have somewhat of an advantage, since they already know most of the basic principles of equipment op- eration. They should not, however, become compla- cent, as there should be sufficient theory within the lesson to hold their attention. At this point the novice will begin to feel that this is no place for the “inex- perienced:” Be encouraged, however, with the thought that knowledge is increased in direct rela- tionship to the amount of work done and time spent in acquiring it. Also realize that in a reasonable pe- riod of time using this study course, one can achieve the same understanding of this complex business that took others years to acquire. (|G fon ‘One of the basic principles of heat transfer is that two medi ums are involved, that one | must be warmer than the other, and that they must be isolated from each other. When fuel cil is burned in the combustion chamber of a furnace or boiler, the resulting hot gases become a “medium”, The heat from this medium is transferred to water in a boiler which some: times becomes steatn, or to an airstream in a furnace. This hot water, hot air or steam might be used to heat domestic hot water, and the heat from the hot water and steam might be transferred to an airstream for space heating. In each exchange of energy, some heat is lost, as no heat is transferred between mediums with 100% efficiency. Looking at each of the heat exchange processes as being a link in a chain, there is some friction loss where the two links meet and rub together, Referring to the above example, it’s obvious that the first ink: the chainmust be a primary source of energy. in thisse case the fuel oil. Therefore boilers and furnaces are called primary heat generating devices. Primary heat generating devices also include electric resistance heaters, infrared heaters, and solar devices. These devices generate heat from a primary source, such as oil, gas, electricity, or from solar collectors, When the heatflow is in the opposite direction, it is called cooling. Examples of primary heat absorbing de- vices are brine coolers, packaged air conditioning equipment, direct expansion coils, refrigeration ma- chine chillers and heat pumps. Refrigeration com- ressors use electricity as the primary energy. The absorption refrigeration cycle discussed in Sec- tion C of Chapter 11 is somewhat different from the ‘one with compressors. The primary source of energy in this cycle is steam, but actually any heat source such as a gas flame or high temperature hot water could be used. Since absorption chillers are generally large tonnage machines, they find wide application | where district steam is available. As district steam is classed as one of the primary energy sources, ab- sorption machines are considered primary devices, ‘Another class of primary devices are the heat rejecting devices, such as cooling towers, spray ponds, evapo- ative condensers, and air cooled condensers. ©D rouenent 1. Resistance Heat Devices There are several different types of electric resistance heat: electric baseboard, electric duct coils, electric furnaces, and coils used as supplemental heat for heat { pumps and solar systems. Due to the electrical shock | hazard, equipment with open resistance wire (as | shown in Figure 5-1) should not be used whenever Open" Resistance Wire Porcelain Electrical Insulators human contact ot contact with water is possible. TAB personnel should use caution when working with this equipment, being certain that the proper voltage is connected and that the equipment is grounded. One should also be aware that line voltage thermostats are often used with resistance heaters, 2. Heat Absorbing Devices ‘The general categories of refrigeration units are: a) reciprocating and rotary compressors, b) centrifugal ‘compressors, and c) absorption units. Reciprocating ‘compressors are used in the ¥2-ton to 125 ton capacity range, centrifugal compressors from over 100 tons to several thousand tons, and from_3 tons to 1000 tons, for absorption machines. Balancing refrigerant flow » is nota TAB function, The balancing of chilled water and condenser water flows through centrifugal and. absorption refrigeration units is part of TAB work. 3. Heat Rejecting Devices Cooling towers, evaporative condensers, and air cooled condensers have been mentioned. Evapora- tion (a change of state) tremendously increases the capacity of these units. With small tonnage recipro- | cating refrigeration, air cooled condensers are usu- | ally used, These circulate ambient air over cols con- | taining the hot refrigerant, with an exchange of heat energy from the refrigerant to the air. Generally, as the tonnage gets somewhat larger, cooling towers are J used to cool condenser water (from 95°F to 85°F is a common range). This cooled water is then circulated through a condenser, which is usually shell and tube type heat exchanger: Cooling towers are occasionally still used with small air conditioning systems. “Closed system” cooling towers are used with energy efficient, “incremental” room units that contain a hot water heating coil and a self-contained water cooled com- pressor-condenser unit, Both the heating boiler and Sheath Resistance ttf Wire Electrical Insulation: Open Enclosed Sect A-A FIGURE 5-1 ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE ELEMENTS.the cooling tower use the same circulating water sys- tem. Any dependable source of cold water, such as a stream or city water can be used to replace a cooling tower. Spray ponds are used on some installations in lieu of cooling towers. These spray ponds can be made quite attractive with functional and decorative fountains. They work with natural evaporation that ‘occurs from the spray nozzle and depend on the high thermal mass of the fluid in the pond. High thermal ‘mass means that the pond acts asa heat sink, and that ittakes considerable time for the average temperature in the pond to change. The system designer must re- member that cooling towers and spray ponds are sub- ject to freezing. 4. Heat Exchangers Figure 5-2 illustrates different types of heat exchan- gets. A shell and tube condenser can be used as an interface between condenser (cooling tower) water Pont not { maren Figure 5-2 Basic HEAT EXCHANGER TyPES Figure 5-3 Tyricat Arr Con. and a refrigerant in a reciprocating compressor sys- tem. Looking at the figure, one can immediately see that two different fluids can be used. For instance, in a swimming pool heating application, pool water is circulated within the tubes and steam is supplied to the shell Figure 5-3 shows that the only difference between an air heat exchanger and a shell and tube exchanger is that the outer sealed shell is absent, but the inner coils are still present. There is a casing to contain the me- dium on the secondary side which isair: The medium in the coils can be steam, refrigerant, hot water, cold water ora transfer fluid. Figures 4-5, 4-6, and 4-8 in Lesson 4F illustrate the difference between parallel and counterflow heat transfer for both heating and cooling. Notice in Figure 4-8 (the parallel low ap- plication), that air (Fluid B) can only approach, but not equal, the final temperatures of the water (Fluid A). Thisis true whether heating or cooling and is gen- erally considered a limiting factor for parallel flow. 5. Coil Heat Exchangers Wall convector radiation, finned-tube radiation and baseboard convectors are so named because natural convection is the mode of heat transfer from the heat- ing unit which has either steam or hot water in the tubing to heat the air. Technically, the same thing is true of duct heating coils or unit heaters where the air is forced through the finned tubes by a fan. Itis true that a small amount of heat transfer by radiation can occur: The almost extinct cast iron or steel radiators were so named because it was felt that the primary means heat transfer was by radiation instead of con- vection, although convection does also take place. ‘The main difference depends on the unit design and, how it was installed, Some other types of heat transfer equipment dis- ‘cussed in the text are used in many areas of the coun- try. The unit ventilator is typically a packaged round e eFicure 5-4 Unrtary Hear Pump ScHEMATIC. air conditioner that has been used extensively schools (as a room unit under the window sills and as an auditorium unit with duct systems), ‘The “Heart” of the heat pump illustrated in Figure 5-4 is the reversing valve. The two coils are not la- beled as to which is the evaporator coil and which is the condenser coil. Asthe reversing valve changes the system from a heating toa cooling mode, the function ‘of each coil changes to that of the other; that is, the evaporator coil during heating becomes the con- denser coil during cooling. 6. Other Heat Exchange Equipment Another of the types of heat transfer equipment or systems are heating and/or cooling panels. These fre- quently are called radiant panels, radiant ceilings, or radiant heat slabs. They are not used as often as they were a few years ago. Terminal devices such as grills, registers, and diffus- cers are essentially mass transfer devices. They intro- duce the airflow so that proper heat exchange or dif- fusion can take place within the space. This is similar to spray nozzles on cooling towers that break up the ‘water flow into very small droplets so thatthe heat ex- ‘change between the water and the air can be im- proved. £ BOILERS There is a step-by-step procedure for starting up a boiler. Each of the steps has its own reason, Some are obvious, some not so obvious; some are important, ‘others less so, For example, in a preliminary inspec- ‘ion, itis fairly obvious to make certain that the steam boiler gauge glass is unbroken, as water would leak out of the broken gauge glass. Therefore, the water level in the boiler would not be able to be maintained Checking the operation of blow-off valves would be very important. If automatic safety controls malfunc- tion during the start-up and the steam pressure con- tinues to rise above the safety relief valve's set point, opening the blow-off valve can quickly reduce pres. sure to prevent an explosion. This is obvious, but much more important than a broken gauge glass. ‘The same reasoning applies to finding the location of all manual stop/start electrical circuit interrupting devices (safety switches). Ifthe controls of the burner fail, it would be necessary to immediately disconnect the power to prevent rapidly rising pressures “Bumping” motors to check rotation and checking that the speed, voltage, phasing, and amperage is correct for the application is a normal function of TAB personnel. One of the important things to remember about boil esis that they can explode. A great many safety con trols are required which puts a great deal of respon~ sibility upon the TAB Team. They are frequently responsible for the proper operation of this poten: tially hazardous equipment. This is why they should always comply with the proper and appropriate codes, and insure that all safety controls are working properly, No boiling takes place within hot water generators, Except for “high temperature systems”, the TAB Team then is not dealing with high pressures and high temperature gases as in some steam systems, ‘Thus, the likelihood of a pressure explosion is much reduced, although a combustion explosion can still take place. Electric boilers remove the dangers in- herent in combustion, but add the potential hazard of electrocution. It should be obvious that care must be exercised in the operation of all of these pieces of equipment. The careful TAB Team has learned not to show contempt for even the smallest of boiler or the lowest voltages. ‘There are a number of steps that must occur before the start-up procedure is reached. Many checks are required before the burner is actually fired with the fuel. Its only within the last few steps of the proce- dures that firing can safely take place, afier which the safety features of the boiler must be quickly checked Combustion or CO, readings are not a part of the NEBB TAB procedures, and are usualy parcof the | contract between the installing contractor and the burner manufacturer.se HEAT TRANSFOR cguIPMENT Tame 5-1 REFRIGERATION REFRIGERANT TEMPERATURE VS PRESSURE e EQUIPMENT [— Pg = 1. Refrigerants * a ce In the ast lesson there was a discussion of the heat ° content of air and water at specific temperatures. In “40 tora | 06 | 79" “Table 5-1, enthalpy (h) isthe “total heat content” of the “20 ss’tg | 49 | 1a" Hg listed refrigerants at 100°F. his the difference (from 20 os’ Hy | 102 | a1 liquid at 100°F or 120°F to gas at 40°F) in enthalpy of “10 45 is | 78 the same refrigerant at the two listed conditions, ° 92 241 | 138 10 146 329 | 198 which are common condensing temperatures and 204 422 ‘vaporator temperatures in refigeraton cu ws | ze | we | ass ‘The mid-range section ofthe column indicating de- 2 277 sso | ase grees F and the column indicating R12 refrigerant 20 2a5 552 | ae pressures contain somewhat similar numbers. 20°F 35 364 e768 | 451 corresponds to 21.0 psig of pressure in R12, 80°F cor- 40 | 370 69.0 462 responds to 84.2 psig of pressure in RI2. However, a | a7 76 | 519 at both ends of the scale, the ~ 40°F and the + 160°F 50 487 sa7 | sre readings do not correspond at all to the pressures. S set | gag | paz ‘The similarity of numbers occurs only between ap- i eae ete ero proximately 20°F and 100°F and is handy for ap oo Paal foestt aca proximating temperatures from R12 pressure read ee Pro ee eeaaelercss ings in the field. The pressures for the other 20 342 450 | 1025 refrigerants do not follow this same approximation es se | ise | inne Refrigerants R12, R22 and R500 do not exceed 500 % (Be | 709 | sa12 e psig operating pressure which is the normal range of 2 fons | 1935 | s913 ‘operation of any good gas compressor, while RI] and ae eel Sect RI1I3 (not shown) generally have low pressures as fan a conte tier they relate to the temperature. Although the HVAC ng Tate industry did use large quantities of RI2 refrigerant we far ca boson ion + in equipment and systems, ‘urrent compressor 125 169.1 2807 | 204.0 systems use R22 refrigerant. Many refrigeration 130 1810 2007 | 2182 service gauges contain the temperature conversion 135 1935 sigs | 2332 | numbers, but the following R22 numbers are good to 140 206.6 3403 | 2488 memorize: 105°F equals 213 psig and 40°F equals 69 145 2203 9620 | 265.2 psig 150 234.6 3ea6 | 2023 155, 249.5 408.3 | 3002 2. Refrigerant Cycle 160 cl occueel|sieed Avery important concept lstrated by Table 5-1 i that any given temperature corespends toa given | oi Fae LS pressure fora particular refrigerant, such as 145 psig Weight Liquid @ 100°F (Ib/f®) | 78.80 | 71.35 | 69.28 Frese abays occas a S0'F fr RIE. sume in |EWaby@ 1OF au) 91.16 | ose sear Figure 5-5 that the compressor raises the pressure of iqui re eee the refrigerant flowing tothe inlet ofthe condensor [AN UAW @ 120, Gas @A0"F| 46 55, to 262.5 psig and that the refrigerants R22. Henn be determined from Table 6-1 thatthe temperature of the refrigerant will be 120°F Since this “high side” temperature is higher than 95°F which is the tem- When sufficient heat is given up by a refrigerant in perature of the air being passed through the con- the gaseous state, it condenses into a liquid. The sys- denser, heat will flow from the hot fluid to the cooler * tem pressure then forces the liquid into an expansion ‘95°F air. Thus, heat is absorbed by the condenser air valve ora throttling device which causes a large pres- @ from the refrigerant. sure drop in the system. In this case the pressure ises ves compressor Low site| Hin See ‘Sight Glass Expansion Vavo Tea Conenser Ficure 5-5 RerRiceRant Cycle reduced from 262.5 psig to 69 psig. From Table 5-1, 69 psig indicates that the refrigerant will be at 40°F, If 70°F air is passed over the evaporator coils which are 40°F heat will low from the higher temperature air to the lower temperature refrigerant. The liquid refrigerant will absorb heat and evaporate or boil into gas. When the gaseous refrigerant enters the suction (low side) of the compressor, itis once again compressed. vis very important that the compressor deal only with refrigerant gas, and the expansion valve only with liquid refrigerant. Any “air” bubbles seen in the | sight-glass indicate a system that could operate im- properly or inefficiently due to a low refrigerant | Ghange. Ifsufficient amounts of liquid refrigerant en- | er into the head of the compressor, major damage 1 (could occur: This process is called “slugging”, and the amount of liquid refrigerant that a compressor can tolerate varies with the type of compressor The compressor usually is controlled by a thermostat and/or suction pressure switch. The compressor will run whenever the head, suction, and oil pressures are \within normal operating ranges. When a solenoid valve is used, it is installed just ahead of the expan. }sion valve. This valve is opened and closed by an ex- ternal control such as a room thermostat. When the controlling thermostat calls for cooling, the solenoid | valve opens. This allows the pressure on the suction |side to rise, activating controls which allow the com- {pressor to start and run. The expansion valve is not controlled from the space thermostat. In Figure 5-5, the remote bulb, which is mounted on the outlet of the evaporator coil (suction header), controls the expansion valve (open to close), As the liquid boils away in the evaporator coil, the es- tablished superheat must be maintained, that is, no matter how much heat is taken up by the refrigerant, the temperature must remain near 40°F until all ofthe refrigerant has evaporated. Then the tempera- ture can begin to rise again. If the superheat setting for the expansion valve control bulb is correct, the point in the coil or piping where the last drop of liq- uid refrigerant has just evaporated is located a short distance ahead of the bulb. Superheat is the temper- ature increase in the refrigeration gas after evapo- ration has been completed. If warmer air is passed over the evaporator coil, the refrigerant will evaporate more quickly and the last drop of refrigerant will evaporate ata point at ot be- fore the coil outlet. This will cause the suction header to increase in temperature. The expansion valve bulb will then sense the increase in supetheat and cause the expansion valve to open further. This action will allow more refrigerant to flow through the expansion valve into the coil to overcome the higher rate of evaporation (and increase in “superheat”), thereby again moving the point where the last drop of refri- gerant evaporated to the location just ahead of the | bulb. Itisin this manner that the expansion valve and. | ts sensing bulb act to closely control the cooling load | of the system by measuring the effects of the load at | the outlet of the evaporator coil. Example “C” in Figure 5-6 is an undesirable location because liquid refrigerant can be trapped at the lo- cation of the bulb, giving a false temperature read- ing. The location of "B” is incorrect because the bulb ert rn Ficure 5-6 Locations oF THERMAL EXPANSION ‘VaLve Butas NEAT TRANSFER EQUIPMENT can never sense the refrigeration gas ot liquid prop- erly in the lower portion of the coil. Location “A” is good from an “accuracy of sensing” standpoint, but | liquid refrigerant cannot be allowed to drain directly into the compressor or slugging could occur: The so- lution, therefore, is to use location “A" and to allo ‘supetheat to occur. ; All refrigerant liquid evaporation should occur far enough ahead of location “A” in Figure 5-6 to allow a temperature rise of 5°F to 15°F (or the temperature recommended by the manufacturer)to occur before the sensing bulb. This superheat establishes the point, where the last drop of refrigeration evapo- rated, deeper into the evaporator coil, thereby pre- venting liquid refrigerant from flowing into the suc- tion line and then into the compressor. In other words, “insurance” is being added so that all refri- gerant is evaporated by the time it reaches the bulb. This is also the reason that loops are used in suction line piping to collect liquid refrigerant in the event of| an expansion valve malfunction, Looking at superheat in a slightly different way, if at a certain rate of heat transfer or load condition, the bulb was maintaining a fully opened expansion valve, then lowering supetheat would require an adjust ment to slightly close the valve to insure that all liquid had evaporated belore reaching the compressor. For example, when the load on a coil required an ex- pansion valve to be half-open, a compressor running fully loaded would quickly reduce the suction pres- sure from the evaporator coil and the low pressure control should stop the compressor: Since the expan- sion valve would still remain at the half open point, presstrre would again build up in the coil and suction piping, restarting the compressor. This rapid stop- ping and starting of a compressor is called “short cy- cling” which can quickly damage a compressor Many compressors have “unloading” devices to pre- vent short cycling, or a hot gas line bypass might be used. These unloading devices selectively allow one or more of the cylinders of the compressor to adjust | fo the changing load condition, To continue the example with the half-opened ex- pansion valve, ifthe compressor has 4 cylinders, 2 of the cylinders could be unloaded or ineffective. The compressor now would run probably without being: able to reduce the suction pressure to a point sufli- cently low enough to shut itself off. Ivis in this man- ner that the compressor adjusts itself to match the load. | When the compressors unloaded tits minimum ca- pacity during light load conditions, the compressor e @= e e 7 J once again can “short cycle” To prevent this, an anti- short cycle timer is used, This timer is put in the star ing circuit of the compressor so that when the con pressor stops, a set time interval (such as 5 minutes) | srequized to elapse before the compressor can again Leak testing, evacuating the system and charging it with refrigerant are important parts of refrigeration start-up, and are the responsibility of the installing contractor. Subsection 5 entitled “Non-Condensables” {in Seaton D, Chapter of the ex ey gran in initial start-up procedures, particularly if a new hhermetic compressor is replacing a burned-out one. ‘Generally, small HVAC systems have air cooled con- densers containing fans which blow (ambient tem- perature) outdoor air across the condenser coils. Larger systems usually require remote cooling towers swith water cooled condensers, When a cooling tower is used, check that precautions have been taken by the installing contractor to prevent equipment and piping from freezing. This also includes the make- up water and chemical treatment system piping, G SUMMARY Heat generation devices, heat absorption devices, heat rejection devices, heat transfer devices and heat distribution devices have been discussed along with primary devices which use a primary fuel. The latter were compared to the firs link in a chain. Then heat transfer devices must make up the middle links; and * finally, room terminal units then become the last link A) Verio Projection Unt in the chain, From this theoretical “chain” it can be seen how primary fuels are linked directly to the space being heated or cooled. Chains can be very long, They can be made of many different materials and sizes. Big chains might represent large heat transfer processes; while small chains would illustrate lessor transfers of energy. The friction losses between the links were also used to illustrate the less than 100 percent efficiency of thermal conversion, Ichas been proven that energy can neither be created cor destroyed in the simple and common usage, but energy losses are not to be confused with destroying energy: Energy is still there, but i's in an unusable form. To illustrate this, atypical boiler burns a meas- tured amount of oil per hour for combustion, result- ing in a net heat output of a predictable amount of Bur per hour. Most of the heat goes into producing J steam, with the balance going up the flue. Ifa heat | recovery device is installed, part of that wasted en- ‘ergy can be used to heat the boiler feed water: Nat- urally all of the heat escaping up the flue cannot be recovered. This is the heat thats rendered unusable. However, this heat energy has not been destroyed, but is part of the heat that noticeably warms the at- mosphere around cities and industrial areas. A ‘TAB Supervisor cannot become thoroughly fa miliar with all the types of heat transfer devices on he market today unless constant contact with the in= dustry is maintained. Five years from now, new de- vices will be available and the use of some of the pre- sent devices will have fallen into disfavor. However, | this evolution process is called “progress”! This is 1 |also one of the reasons wity the NEBB Qualified Su- |pervisor must attend a minimum of six hours of | NEBB approved educational seminars each 8) Horizont Alton Ficure 5-7 Unrr HEATER Cons NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL patawein TTzl Good selection of equipment for refrigeration systems usually results in a ton of refrigera- tion being obtained for an input of horsepower: a5 b) 8 ©) 10 4) 15 ¢) 20 Unfired pressure vessels are heat exchangers where actual combustion does not take place. True, False Hot water at 180°F flows through a coil at a rate of 30 gpm with a leaving temperature of 160°E. With 4000 cfm of air entering the coil at O°F. The discharge temperature of the ait is__F If the airflow across the coil in Question 3 is increased to 6000 cfm, the flow to 45 gpm, and the entering air, the entering water and the leaving water temperatures remain the same, the new air discharge temperature is Fr In Question 3, if the return air damper ‘opened to where 50% of the airflow to the coil was 65°F return air (and 50% was 0°F out- door air), the new air discharge temperature ‘would be °F During a hot afternoon the ambient temper- ature surrounding an air cooled condenser has increased and the pressure of the refrig- erant within the condenser has increased This increase in pressure indicates that: a) The refrigerant has become saturated; b) the boiling point of the refrigerant has increased; ©) no sub-cooling is taking place; 4) the ambient wet bulb is too high. 7 8 ‘9 ‘10 “Il LESSON 5F QUESTIONS Refrigerant pressures can be used to indicate refrigerant temperatures. When such pres- sures are measured, the principle which ap- plies is the temperature/pressure relationship of: a) liquid refrigerant b) sub-cooled refrigerant ©) saturated refrigerant d) super-heated refrigerant ‘The pressure under a 51 foot column of oil whose specific gravity is 0. psi The refrigerant whose pressure most closely fits its temperature in normal operating ranges is a) RI2 by R22 ©) R500 @d RU €) none of the above An air-to-air heat recovery device has a Atof 50°F for 10,000 cfm of outdoor makeup air. If the device is 70% efficient, and 9500 cfm of exhaust air from an oven is entering at 880°, the exhaust air temperature leaving the de- vice is at___°E A fluid flows in a pipe 150 feet long. The fric- tion loss factor is 2 feet of water per 100 feet and the velocity is 10 feet per second. The pressure loss (assuming the fluid is water) is —— psig. @ » oee 12 ‘The fluid in Question 11 is oil whose specific gravity is 0.9. Itis pumped up a grade and discharges into an open tank. The discharge of the 150 foot long pipe is 51 feet above the pump. If the pump suction pressure gauge reads 5 psi, the pump discharge gauge reads — pai. 1 Using Figure 5-8, “Unitary Heat Pump Sche- matic”, place the appropriate letter design: tion "HG" for hot gas line, “L” for liquid line and “S" for suction line at each arrowhead marked “H” and "C”, For example: “C" from the indoor side coil is “S" for suction line. vt oo Fan Fan Coil ; - Reversing = Valve + ——H — e Compressor fold . Indoor Side | Mania Outdoor Side Check Valve Heating Cooling Ficure §-8 UNrtary Heat PUMP SCHEMATICMatch the following items of equipment with 14 we cpiremrine commen tom Cann A and from Column B. Items in either column, may be used more than once. EXAMPLE: 16 Propeller Unit Heaters Boilers Centrifugal Chillers Cooling Towers Counter Flow Coil Finned Tube Convectors Furnaces Grilles Heat Wheels - Humidifiers —— Infra-red Heaters 2 1 Reciprocating Chillers = Shell & Tube Condensers HEAT TRANSFER EQUIPMENT ‘Types of Devices (A) 1 4 6 7 Comments (B) i 2 3 4 14, 15, 16. Heat Generation Heat Absorption Heat Rejection Heat Distribution Special Heat Transfer Energy Conservation Primary Terminal Gives highest water temperature Up tw 200 tons Very large tonnage (usually with district steam) Up to 2000 tons Primarily uses convection Primarily uses radiation Mass transfer & mixing of mediums occurs Evaporates water to store heat energy Evaporates water to cool medium. Evaporates water to inject into air stream Gondenses either steam or D-X. to transfer energy Preheats or precools outside air Air and water temperature can be same within exchanger Depends on propeller to improve convection ANSWERS MAY BE FOUND IN THE REAR OF LESSON L1F— “FUNDAMENTALS EXAMINATION" BOOKLET 2 e s HERE BHRBRBEBEBE BEBE RE BR SB BEBE SBE Be SeLESSON 6F FUNDAMENTALS PSYCHROMETRICS Environmental Systems | ‘Technology READ: Chapter 3—“Psychro- metrics”: Section A—"His- tory”, Section B—"Properties of Air”, Section C—"Air-Va- por Relationship”, Section D—"Psychrometric Chart and Use", Section E— “Air Mixture Condition Ghanges”, Section F—"Sam- ple Job Problems’. READ: Chapter 16—“Exam- ples and Problems”: Section A—"Heat Transfer Problems’. GENERAL In this industry certain shortcuts have been found and utilized. The psychrometric chart is a good ex- ample of one of the shortcuts. Many organizations in- volved in air conditioning system design, such as ASHRAE, Carrier Corporation and Trane Company, publish psychrometric charts. A sample Cartier psy- chrometric chart is shown in Figure 6-1. Psychro- metric equations used in the study of heat transfer are unbelievably complicated. These equations can be used to solve changes of conditions mathemati cally, but time can be saved without the loss of accu- racy by using the tables and charts. Answers obtained by working on charts from different sources can vary somewhat. This is due to the variations from the chart devel- ‘opment and printing processes. Psychrometric charts are ‘graphic representations of these equations superimposed upon one another. A square grid is made up of air dry bulb tem- peratures on the vertical axis and the moisture content of the air on the horizontal axis. Wet bulb lines fall on the diagonal. The dry bulb tines and the mois- ture content lines are linear, ic., hey are straight lines and each lock” is the same distance from the adjacent “block”. Wet bulb lines are not lin: car, but are straight lines unevenly spaced. There is less distance between the 25°F and 30°F lines than there is between 80°F and 85°E with one set being about three times as far apart as the other. Since wet bulb lines are normally coincident with enthalpy lines, then enthalgy lines are also not linear. Non- linear humidity lines are superimposed over all of the other grids. These lines are obviously not linear; in fact, they are not even straight, Air density lines, al- though straight, are slanted differently as would be the sensible heat factor lines if they were superim- posed on the chart. The sensible heat faclor lines are straight but oriented differently, radiating from a common point, which causes them to be non-linear con the scale at the right, Imagine trying to use complicated equations in order to solve relatively simple problems. The use of the charts makes this time consuming procedure un-TTT TTT TR freanace: of Froure 6-1 SAMPLE PsyCHROMETRIC CHART necessary. Any point on a psychrometric chart indi- cates everything about the conditions of air at that point. If any two points are picked on the chart, the differences in the conditions of the air between these two points can be measured. For example, for a change in dry bulb temperature, the points would be ‘on a horizontal line; for a change in moisture content of the air, the points would be on a vertical line. A combination of the two changes ina particular rat ‘would result in a slanted line, which would then con- form to some sensible heat factor line. Changes in en- thalpy can also be plotted between these two points by reading the slanted wet bulb lines. G ENTHALPY ‘The sensible heat content of air is the heat that changes the temperature of the air without a change in mois- ture content. Changes in dry-bulb temperature are indicative of changes in sensible heat. “The latent heat of air is the amount of heat required to change water to water vapor without changing cither the pressure or the dry-bulb temperature. The latent heat content of air at any given condition is, equal to the latent heat of vaporization of that amount ‘of water vapor which is present in the air at that par- ticular condition. Enthalgy is a measure of the total heat energy of the air, Although there are some rather complex defini- tions of enthalpy, for practical purposes, enthalpy is the sum of the sensible heat and the latent heat con- tents of the air. Changes in wet-bulb temperature are indicative of changes in enthalpy. In order to have specific values for practical use, en~ thalpy is stated as the amount by which the heat con- tent is greater than the heat content that existsatsome base point condition of the air. For general informa- tion, currently published data uses a base point at which the enthalpy of dry air is taken to be zero at O°F and the enthalpy of the water component is taken to be zero at 32°F. Table 3-1 in the text is an example of data showing total heat, or enthalpy, of air. s e e aa uw we we ee SEE ETE ESE SE SE EE“The following equations may be used to calculate the quantity of heat transferred (given off, or absorbed) by air as it flows or circulates: General equation for a gas or air of any densi EQUATION 6 [Sita = on xa x cfm xoy—hy | Where: Q = Total heatflow (Btuh) d = Gas density (Ib/eu ft) cfm = Cubit feet per minute Enthalpy of entering air (Beullb) hy = Enthalpy of leaving air (Btw/b) NOTE: The factor 60s the number of minutes in an hour, ‘and must be included since the rate of heat transfer is in Btu ‘per hour while airflow rate is in cubic feet per minute Substituting the density of Standard Air in Equation 6-1 (d = 0.075), Equation 6-2 is obtained — - EQUATION 6-2 PQ cota = 4.5 x cfm x Ab atid on Where: nee Q = Total heatflow (Buh) cfm = Airflow (cubic feet per minute) Ah Enthalpy difference (Bew/Ib) 3p, CHANGES IN THE CONDITION OF / THEAIR In the changes of sensible heat and moisture content of air from one point to another, two different equa- tions are used. Equation 6-3 is used for sensible heat changes only; that is, no change in moisture content. EQUATION 6-3 Q sens.) = 1.08 « cfm x At Wher Q = Heatflow (Bruh) cfm = Cubic feet per minute At = Temperature difference (F) Psychrometric charts base all the information given in content per pound of dry air. The standard equa- tions are derived from these values and give a very FIGURE 6-2 COOLING PROGESS REPRESENTED ON PsycHRoMETRIC CHART close approximation of the actual calculation if all of the conditions would have been worked out using the basic figure on the psychrometric chart. From any two given points on a psychrometric chart, the Btu obtained for enthalpy is always equal to or greater than the Btuh obtained for sensible heat only. The reason for this is that the moisture contained in the air has heat content. Figure 6-2 shows the process of cooling moist air. The dashed line and the solid line indicate that the air may use different paths in order to arrive at the same final point from the same initial point. This does not affect the equations, the final results, or any of the calcu- lations. This is then said to be a conservative field. A conservative field is one in which the path taken by the air makes no difference in the results; only the lo- cation of the initial and final points. EXAMPLE No. I Air at 85°F DB and 50 percent RH enters a cooling coil at a rate of 10,000 cfm. If the air is cooled to a condition of 50°F DB, 90 percent RH, find the cool- ing load, in Buuh and in tons of refrigeration. SOLUTION: ) Locate the initial condition on the psychrome- tric chart, as “Point 16” in Figure 6-2. The cor- responding wet-bulb temperature is 70.8°F, and the enthalpy is approximately 34.8 Btu per pound of dry air bb) Locate the final condition on the chart as “Point 17”. The wet-bulb temperature is 48.6°F and the enthalpy is approximately 19.6 Bru per pound of dry ait. Cel©) The decrease in enthalpy is: Ah = 34.8 - 19 ) Q (Total) = 4.5 x cfm x dh = 4.5 x 10,000 x 15.2 15.2 Btu per pound. 684,000 Bruh Buuh_ _ 684,000 ¢) Tons of refrigeration = 75-595 = 3,000 = 57.0 tons It is sometimes necessary to calculate the weight of the air. This is shown in the solution to Example No. 2. We are not used to thinking of air having weight. Air is a fluid and has weight just as water is'a fluid ‘and has weight. Air at 0.075 pounds per cubic foot is very much lighter than water at 62.4 pounds per cu- bic foot. “Standard air” used in TAB work has a den- sity of 0.075 pounds per cubic foot. The specific vol- tume of this standard air is the reciprocal: 1/0.07: 18.88 cubic feet per pound. EXAMpLe No. 2 Obtain the solution to Example No. 1 using the weight of the airflow volume. SoLution: 000 cfm. 13.33 cu. fvlb 780.19 x 60 minutes = 450114 pounds per hour 450114 x 15.2 (Ab) = 684,173 Beak, 684,173/12,000 = 57.01 tons = 750.19 pounds per minute Figure 6.3 shows the mixing of two airstreams. Fig ures 6-2 and 6-3 illustrate the only two methods of capacity control that are possible within an air con- ditioning system. Figure 6-2 would illustrate the con- trol ofa refrigerant which matches the enthalpy of the refrigerant cycle to the enthalpy of the air cycle. The discharge air temperature or return air temperature FIGURE 6-3 MIXING OF TWO AIRSTREAMS A B x B a B z i B a a a i A i i e" a ican be maintained. Figure 6-3 illustrates the use of applications such as multi-zone units or terminal in- duction units. It als illustrates the mixing of outside airstreams and return airstreams which is usually found in most air handling unit system applications. ‘When two airstreams are mixed and are plotted in graph form, the following steps should be used: 1, Assume that the airstreams are being mixed in a 150% ratio which causes the mixed point to be di- rectly between points “18” and “19 2. Then assume that a damper moves to a position to take in less hot outside air (at 19”). This will cause the point to move away from “19” (as the line “19” to “20” gets longer when less air is taken in). By the time it reaches “I8", 100% of the air of quality “18" will be used 3. The mixed air temperature will be closest to the air temperature of the largest airstream. 4y Only the dry bulb air temperature can be ob- 1 tained by using this method or using Equation 3- || 10 from the text 5. The wet bulb of the mixed airstream can be ob- tained by substituting the enthalphies of the two airstreams in Equation 6-4 and calculating the enthalpy of the mixed airstream. From this value, the mixed airstream wet bulb temperature can be obtained from the psychrometric chart or from Table 8-1 of the text. EQUATION 6-4 Where: H,, = Mixed air enthalpy (Buu/lb) X, = Percentage of outside air H, = Outdoor air enthalpy (Bew/b) X, = Percentage of return air H, = Return air enthalpy (Beu/lb) Vv EXAMPLE No. 3 Calculate the dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures of the mixed airstream of Figure 6-3 using the equa- tions in the text and by plotting in graph form, “ut Souytion: a) Using Equation 3-10 (for dry bulb temperature): P+ 80% Xx 75° Ta = 100 1900 + 6000 _ 7900 _ os 100 “100 pane) b) From Table 3-1 (text): we 80°F WB = 43.69BUMb 63°F WB = 28.57 Buuilb Using Equation 6-4: XH, + XH, uD i00 1, = 20% X 43.69 + 80% x 28.57 - 100 873.8 + 2285.6 = SBS + 22856 _ 31.59 Bow « 0 31.59 Bew/lb Using Table 3-1 (text): 31.59 Btu/lb = 67°F(WB) Approx. ©) The plotted solution is shown in Figure 6-3. Changes in airstream conditions caused by adiabatic saturation are shown in Figure 6-4 where the dry bulb can change drastically from 85°F to 66°F without a change in enthalpy. This change in airstream conditions occurs in cooling towers, when sprayed coils are used, and in evaporative cooling such as the “fan-wet burlap” combination still found in the Southwest. It does not occur when refrigerated cooling coils and “dry-ait” evaporative coolers are used. Ficure 6-4 EXAMPLE OFADIABATIC SATURATIONUSING THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART ‘The chart in Figure 6-5 shows two typical condition points, A and B, Once the points located, everything can be determined about that point. Topics such as dry bulb lines, density lines, wet bulb lines, enthalpy and relative humidity lines have been reviewed. No- tice that moisture content lines can be read in either pounds of moisture per pound of dry air or in grains of moisture per pound of dry air. Another set of lines are dew point lines. [fair is cooled without a change in moisture content, the relative hu- midity rises progressively until saturation is reached. This point, where moisture begins to condense out of, the air, is called the dew pint. Everyone has seen mois- ture condense on the outside of a glass containing ice. This is because the air nearest the surface of the cold glass has become saturated and its dew point has been reached. ‘The equation for the air-vapor relationship is impor- tant to know, but its use is limited. The theory is that pressure and volume divided by temperature is equal toa constant, for any given gas including air (Equa- tion 6-5). Let’s illustrate the functional use of this equation by holding the pressure (P) constant and al- lowing “T” to increase. To keep the equation from becoming unbalanced, “V” must also increase. What this means in practical terms is that as the tempera- ture of the air gets hotter, its volume expands. This means that a pound of hot airs larger than a pound of cold air and will therefore float above the sur- rounding cooler air rather than sink below it. This il- Justration of the gas theory can be boiled down to the old saying that “hot air rises”. EQUATION 6-5 Where: P = Absolute pressure (Ib/sq fi) V = Total volume (cu ft) Gas constant Absolute temperature (460° + *F) f Fiure 6-5 PsvcHROMETRIC CHART—TyPICAL CONDITION POINTSHEEB BEEBE EE HREHEHE HEHEHE ERE @ Let’s now look at Figures 6-6, 6-7, 6-8, and 6-9, The same answers found in Figure 6-6 can be obtained us- ing Equations 6-2 and 6-3. Pick some number such as 100 cfm of air and use Equation 6-3 (Q = 1.08 x fm x At) with a selected temperature difference (At). Plot this on a psychrometric chart (as a sensible heat change only) so that the line is absolutely hori- zontal. Read up from those two points to obtain en- thalpy of each; and then use Equation 6-2 (Q = 4.5 x efim x Ah): Remember that there can be some var- iation when you compare the two points. The “Bush” (Q) obtained from both equations should be the same, as the latent heat component is zero. “No change” in the wet bulb temperature indicates that there was no moisture addition to (or removal from) the air. In Figure 6-7, Equation 6-2 (Q = 4.5 x cfm x Ah) may be used, but Equation 6-3 is meaningless as At = 0. However, in Figures 6-8 and 6-9, both Equation 6-3 and 6-2 can be used. The latent heat change may be obtained by subtracting the Buuh (Q sensibie) ob- tained from Equation 6-3 from the Bruh (Q Total) ‘obtained from Equation 6-2. Figures 6-8 and 6-9 are also excellent for illustrating the importance of the di- rection ofa line graphed on the psychrometric chart. a BR ge FIGURE 6-6 SENSIBLE HEATING AND CooLING Hab Ewen or ven ec Ficure 6-7 Husapiricarion ANp DenuMIpIFICATION AIR LEAVING AIR ENTERING °F DB. a "FOB st CF so AH RH 658 "FWe 53 “FOP 598° °F OP 26 BTUILb 314 BTUILy 1 Gilt 61 uty = Ficure 6-8 COOLING AND DeHuMIDIFYING AE Zones FiGurE 6-9 HEATING AND HUMIDIFICATION Cooling and Dehumisitying ‘The only process that has not been discussed is chem- ical dchumidification, In most of the other processes, cooling accompanies dehumidification with the use of cooling coils. The chemical dehumidification “line” on the chart is different in that dehumidifica- tion occurs, but the air gets warmer. Many people have come in contact with this process without know- ingit. When dryers are installed in refrigerant liquid lines, the refrigerant passes over a chemical, usually silica gel, to remove undesirable water vapor from the refrigerant, This moisture, which can be in field in- stalled piping, generates enough heat during re- moval that a difference in the temperature between the dryer and the connecting piping can be noticed Figure 6-10 illustrates the similarity of the mixing of two different water temperatures. The variation of the resultant mixture temperature is based on the amounts of hot vs. cold water being mixed. This can bee related to the mixing of the two airstreams. Figure 6-11 is a typical air conditioning application ona psychrometric chart. Any problem solved on psy- chrometric charts is done in a “conservative field”, so path does not matter. Consider what path air actually does take in cooling and dehumidification. As it leaves point G, itis sensibly cooled. This increases the relative humidity. As it approaches 70% to 90% rel- ative humidity (depending on the conditions), the path begins to curve downward. Some dehumidifi- cation is now occurring. This happens even though7 Gallon T Gaon 7 Gaon Wer ater Water 100° x 1 Gal + 50? x1 Gal = 15° x2 Gal 7 Gallon 7 Galo Batons ster Water War 100" x 1 Gal+ $0" x 3 Gal = 625" x 6 Gal FIGURE 6-10 TYPICAL TEMPERATURE- VOLUME WATER MIXING it’s not at saturated temperatures, because the con- ditions in the air are not uniform. The air closest to the cold coils has moisture being condensed, while that further away has not reached condensing tem- peratures. The example of the glass of ice water used earlier caused condensation from the air near the glass, not in the whole room. As air dry bulb temperatures be- come colder and colder and approach the "saturated line”, more and more dehumidification takes place. ‘The chart “air process line” is beginning to cross wet bulb lines. It can never cross them faster than dry bulb lines, butit is crossing them reasonably fast. The colder the air becomes, the closer it approaches the saturation line, however it never touches it. To touch it would mean that all the air across the coil has mois- ture condensing. Going back to the “glass of ice water” example, the same reasoning applies about the air across the coil, but it is condensing a large amount of water. Notice how the “grains of moisture” on the chart drop rap- idly, However, this process stops atthe point when the air is discharged from the coil. That point has been labeled point “A”. ‘The path that the process takes makes no difference to the total amount of heat that was transferred, only oMixture & ‘B= Air Entering Coil 2that it went from point “G” to point “A” Point “A” is selected by the designer from experience as not being to0 cold for good air distribution. This temperature is approximately 55°F when 75°F is being maintained in the conditioned space. Notice that the line that leaves from point “A” and goes to the point labeled “room and return air” is not totally flat. This line is the line calculated by the heat loss and heat gain cal- culations which took latent heat into account, The amount of latent heat from people, coffee pots, etc., keeps this line from being perfectly fiat (or totally sensible), Computer rooms have the flattest lines that mi found, while churches, auditoriums and other places of assembly are frequently the highest in latent heat gain with the steepest lines. If point “A” of this room, response line is carefully moved to the point at 80°F and 50% relative humidity (being sure to keep the angle of the line the same), the sensible heat ratio can be read at the far right hand scale. Notice that the line from the “room and return” point to the point la- belled “outside air” is similar to the one in Figure 6- 3. The room air is returned to the cooling coil mixed with the outside air in the proportions desired, It is ‘emphasized that the processes of mixing and cooling of airstreams are most important. This typical ex- ample contains one set of each. EXAMPLE No. 4 ‘Aroom hasa dry bulb temperature of 72°F anda wet bulb temperature of 54°F. Determine the other air properties from a psychrometric chart. SowuTion: Relative humidity = 29% Specific humidity = $4 gritb (0.0048 Ib/lb) Specific volume = 18.50-cu feb Dew point temperature = $7.7°F ‘Total heat (enthalpy) = 22.5 Btullb, J EXAMPLE No.5 (600 cubic feet of air per minute at 60°F and 50% hu- midity enter a heating coil and leave at 100°F. Hot water enters the coil at 180°F and leaves at 160°F. De- termine the relative humidity of the leaving air and the required water flow supplied to the coil in gpm. Souvtion: a) Locate the initial point on a psychrometric chart and note that the specific volume is 13.2 cu fulb, The total heat is 20.4 Buu/lb and the specific humidity is 38.2 gr/lb. Now move hor- izontaly to the right along a constant specific heat ine until the 100°F dry bulb temperature Tine is imersected and note thatthe relative hu midity is 14% and the total heat is 30.8 Buulb, ) Using Equation 6-1 and Equation 2-3 from Lesson 2F (dropping the "60" which leaves the heat flow in Beu/min instead of Btulhr): ye Q =d * cfm x Ah (ait) Q.=6, xd x gpm x At (water) If the heat in the ait equals the heat in the water: Q = 4x cfm x ah © xd x gpm x At (Q,) 1 @ = Beek x (80.3 ~ 20.4) 4 Q = 450 Buw/min = Q, ~ ©) Asteam table indicates that at 180°F the specific volume of water is 0.01651 cu fulb (or 60.57 Ib! cu fi for density). A gallon of water at this tem- perature weights f x 600 cfm x, 60.57 Ib/eu ft 8.10 Ib/gal Sm Gxax at 450 Bew/min Spm “ TO Buullb x 8.10 Ib/gal x (180°-160%) gpm = 2.78 In HVAC work, water density correction normally is not used. If the standard value of 8.33 Ibsigal were used, the answer for Example No, 5(¢) would be 2.70 gpm instead of 2.78, a difference of only 1.4%. DISCUSSION OF PSYCHROMETRICS NEBB TAB Supervisors have worked many problems in psychrometrics, but were calling them “heat trans- fer problems? They will continue to work many of the same problems, but now will plot them on the psy- chrometric chart. At this point, constant practice in working problems and graphing them on the chart is needed. These must become an integral part of their thinking, Without this theory, they could be locked in SSa series of expensive trial and error balancing situ- ations. Everything up to this point is basic and fun- damental. | Let us now take psychrometrics one step further. | here will not be questions on the NEBB National } Qualifications Examination on this phase). Each psy- chrometric chart is based upon a pound of air (unless it isa metric chart), A pound of air at standard con- ditions has a certain volume, but no fixed flow rate. A sample “pound” may be taken out of an airstream containing 100 cfm or out of an airstream containing up to tens of thousands of cfm. Itis only through the equations which contain “cfm” that one can calculate the Btu per hour and/or pounds of water per hour removed or added. In certain variable volume sys- tems, where the actual cfm is impossible to obtain at any given time, itis easier to think of a three dimen- sional psychrometric chart, Imagine Figure 6-11 being shrunk to half size. Now imagine Figure 6-1] to be magnified to twice its orig- inal size. Let’s have copies of the small, medium, and large charts with the cycles on them reproduced on transparent plastic. Do the same with small incre- ments for a total of a hundred sizes, ranging from the smallest to the largest, and stack them so that one can look through them. Notice that the temperatures or the points don't change as the scale gets smaller as one looks through the big ones into the small ones Point “A” stays at 55°F and point “G” stays at 80°F, ‘Wet bulb temperatures and relative humidities do not change, ‘There are some changes however. The smallest chart refers to a half a pound of ar, the largest to 2 pounds of air. The grains per pound, therefore, must change as does the total heat per pound. The relative lengths ofeach of the lines represents the change in cfm. The cfm could change from 200 to 50, from 2000 to 500, €tc., or any of the increments in between for which there is that size chart in its proper place. Using this ‘mental image, this concept, as one goes deeper from { larger to smaller, the airflow rate changes. But as the enthalpy content is also changing (getting smaller), the temperatures stay the same. Basically, this is how variable air volume systems work. ‘The next step is to apply the psychrometrie chart to testing and balancing. Asan example, an air handler serves the first floor of a building. The airflow rate (cf) being supplied to and returned from the space has been measured and sling psychrometer readings, have been taken from the discharge air atthe coil and from the space return air. These two conditions can be plotted on a psychrometric chart, and using the cfm, the total load on the unit can be calculated. The {toad will seldom be exactly the same as the design en- gineer has calculated or specified for the air handling ‘One should remember that engineers design for max- imum outdoor conditions, while the above measure- ments will usually have been taken at some more moderate condition. It should also be remembered, that while the engineer estimates the interior loads (such as the number of people in a space), he has no ‘control over the actual concentration of people in a given area. Variations here would affect the slope of the line on the chart. The TAB Supervisor need not be overly concerned about departures from the de- sign load as long as equipment maximum ratings are not exceeded. Almost all systems are designed to handle the load actually present. The thermostats are usually set to control the space or return air temper atures at a fixed point. As long as this temperature is maintained, the supply air conditions may be of little importance. ‘Thermostats are dry bulb temperature controllers and are not designed to control humidity. When the ‘occupants of the space voice “humidity” type com: plaints, verification can be made by use ofa sling psy- chrometer. Deviations of more than 15% in relative humidity may be a trouble indication. For example, if the occupants complain of high humidity (they say they “sweat a lot”), sling psychrometer readings might indicate that the space is the 65% relative hu- midity range at 75°F Sling psychrometer readings of the air leaving the coil would then be taken to try and, determine the cause of the trouble Several possibilities might exist The first is that air is leavit f the correct Conditions, but that we was much steeper than the design. engineer had anticipated. The TAB team has then solved the problem. They can tell the engineer that the unit is working properly, but that the space has been overloaded with people. The solution to the problem is then between the engineer and the owner, which could have been a misunderstanding in the original design concept of the owner's requirements regarding the number of people that would occupy the space. A second possibility is that the equipment is not per- | forming and that the supply air discharge tempera- ture is higher than it should be. Instead of discharg- ing at 56° it is now being discharged at 60°F. When, air is leaving a cooling coil above design conditions, the refrigeration compressors may not be functioning, properly, the chilled water temperature might be too high (as a result of an overload elsewhere in the sys- tem or a chiller malfunction), airflow or water flow © ©( could be incorrect, excessive amounts of high hu- / midity outdoor air might be entering the system due ) to damper or control malfunctions, ete. air to enter the space in order to achieve the 75°F dry bulb reading. This would have the effect of moving the entire cooling triangle on the psychrometricchart upward, which would explain why the 60% relative humidity is present. In this case there is no solution to the problem, as humidity control has not been de- signed into the system. The equipment is working properly and a rise in relative humidity in the space can be expected under light load conditions. It is also possible that the air is being discharged at (60°F under full load conditions when the outside air temperature is at or above the outdoor design tem- perature. However, this would cause the space tem- perature t0 rise above the interior design tempera- ture, such as from 75°F to 80°F. This could indicate that the equipment was inadequate. Ifthe unit cfm, which is higher than specified, is being discharged from the coil at 60°F and is being returned from the room at 75°F Equation 6-2 (Q = 4.5 x cfm x Ah) will apply. The load could be exactly as designed, but if the cfm is higher, then the Ah must be smaller, which means that the unit would discharge air at 60°F and still have the proper capacity. Acthis point, cum to Chapter 3 and reread the assigned sections D, E. and F while plotting their meanings on the psychto- metric chart in Figure 6-11 Exampte No. 6 A humidifier must be installed to maintain a 50% rel- ative humidity at 75°F room temperature. The infil tration load has been determined as 14 air changes per hour in the space. ‘The area of the space is 2000 square feet with 10 foot ceilings, and the outside air is 25°F and 60% RH. How much water must be added to the space to maintain the required humidity level in pounds per hour and pounds per day? ) Another possibility is that the load only requires 60°F ¢ SoLution: «) cfm = Ait changes % Volume 60 minutes 5 (2000 x 10) _ 30000 60 * 60 Moisture required @ 50%/75°F = 0.009 Ibilb of dry air Moisture infiltrated @ 60%/25°F = 0.0024 Ib Ib of dry air ‘Amount that must be added = 0.009 Ib/lb = 0.0024 Ib/lb = 0.0066 Ib/lb of dry air Air @ 25°F/60% = 12.3 cu fulb ©). Water to be added (0 cfm x 0.0066 Ibilb_ x 60 min/hr 123 cu fillb cfm = b) = 16.10 Ibhhr = 16.10 Ibthr x 24 hriday = $86 Ib/day CONCLUSIONS ‘The psychrometric chart is an invaluable aid to the NEBB TAB team when used properly. The previous ‘examples and those found in Section F—"Sample Job Problems” in Chapter 3 of the text illustrate the con- cept of designing equipment or systems, solving job problems, or troubleshooting with the psychrometric chart. “Troubleshooting” is a very complex function, There is no way to teach the logical process that one’s thinking must take in order to solve problems. One can not always be assured that his mind will always adapt to new situations as they arise, However, the psychrometric chart and its graphical displays of problems are available to help clarify your thinking, With practice and the use of these charts, you will ae- quire the ability o see the inter-relationships of com- plex variables upon the system. This is the first step in successful troubleshooting and problem solving, el