CHAPTER 2

Software and
Hardware Interaction
LEARNING OUTCOMES WORDS TO KNOW
After you have read this chapter, you should be able to: arithmetic logic unit
 Explain the roles and importance of the major central processing unit
hardware components including the CPU, input, clock speed
output and storage devices.
 Explain how to use system requirements. control unit
 Discuss the purpose of software updates. execution cycle (E-cycle)
 Use Windows Update to keep the operating system
gigahertz (GHz)
up to date.
hard-disk drive (HDD)
instruction cycle (I-cycle)
OVERVIEW machine cycle
This chapter explores the interactions between hardware megahertz (MHz)
and software to process data and perform other basic
motherboard
tasks. You’ll start by identifying the major hardware
components that affect performance, and learn how a multicore processor
component’s characteristics determine the software you
multiprocessing
can use on your system.
multithreading
nonvolatile memory
CONTENTS optical disc
Hardware Components port
The central processing unit power supply
Peripheral devices
printer
Understanding system requirements
Updating software read-only memory (ROM)
solid-state drive (SSD)
system unit
volatile memory
word size

9
2.1 Hardware Components
At the most fundamental level, software interacts with hardware components to perform computing tasks.
How efficiently hardware and software complete these tasks is called performance. Because a computer’s
internal hardware components directly influence its performance, you should be familiar with these
components and how they work together to process instructions from software.

System Unit
The system unit, also known as the system chassis, is a container that houses most of the electronic
components that make up a computer system.
TABLE 2-1 Components inside the system unit

COMPONENT DESCRIPTION

Motherboard
It is the main circuit board of a computer and controls communication
for the entire computer system. All internal and external devices and
components connect to it. The motherboard is typically a large flat
circuit board covered with a variety of different electronic components:
 Sockets provide connection points for chips (silicon chips,
semiconductors, integrated circuits).
 Slots provide connection points for specialized cards or circuit boards
 Bus lines provide pathways to support communication

Microprocessor
The central processing unit (CPU) is contained on a single chip called
the microprocessor. The microprocessor is the “brains” of the computer
system. It performs the processing operation (converting data into
information).

Memory
Memory is a holding area for data, instructions, and information. Like
microprocessors, memory is contained on chips connected to the
RAM
motherboard. There are 3 well known types of memory chips: random-
access memory (RAM), read-only memory (ROM), and flash memory.
 RAM chips hold the program (sequence of instructions) and data that
the CPU is presently processing. They are called temporary or
volatile storage because their contents are lost when the computer is
off.
 ROM chips are permanent or nonvolatile storage and have
information stored in them by the manufacturer. “Read only” means
that the CPU can read, or retrieve, data and programs written on the
ROM ROM chip. However, the computer cannot write—encode or change—
the information or instructions in ROM.
 Flash memory offers a combination of the features of RAM and ROM.
Like RAM, it can be updated to store new information. Like ROM, it
does not lose that information when power to the computer system is
turned off. Flash memory is used for a wide range of applications, one
example is the start-up instructions for a computer called the
FLASH
system’s BIOS (basic input/output system).

GRAPHICS CARD NIC Expansion Slots and Cards

Most computers allow users to expand their systems by providing
expansion slots on motherboards to accept expansion cards.
Some of the most commonly used expansion cards are:
 graphics cards which provide high-quality 3D graphics and
animation for games and simulations
 network interface cards (NIC; network adapter cards), and wireless
network cards which are used to connect a computer to a network.
 SD cards are fingernail-size expansion cards used primarily for
EXPANSION SLOTS laptop computers, tablets, and smartphones.

Module 1 Computing Fundamentals 10

 Power Supply Unit
Power supply units convert AC to DC and power desktops. AC adapters
power laptops and tablets and recharge batteries. Some smartphones
use wireless charging platforms.

Cooling Components
Cooling components are used to cool off the CPU and the system unit
because heat can damage components and cooler chips can run faster.
Fans and heat sinks (typically made out of aluminum with fins that
help to dissipate heat) are the most commonly used cooling component.

Ports
A port is a socket for external devices to connect to the system unit
while cables are used to connect external devices to the system unit via
ports. There are four standard ports:
 USB (universal serial bus)—widely used to connect keyboards, mice,
printers, and storage devices.
 HDMI (high definition multimedia interface)— provides high-
definition video and audio.
 Thunderbolt—provides high-speed connections to up to seven
Thunderbolt devices at once, such as external hard drives and
monitors.
 Ethernet—high-speed networking port that has become a standard for
many of today’s computers.

2.2 The Central Processing Unit

Definition: Central processing unit (CPU)
Sometimes referred to as a microprocessor, the central processing unit (CPU) is the brain of the
computer. It is a single chip that contains all the electronic circuitry a computer needs to process
data and execute instructions. A chip is a small, thin piece of silicon containing electronic circuits,
which is why a chip is also called an integrated circuit (IC).

The CPU has two basic components:

 Control unit: tells the rest of the computer system how to carry out a program’s instructions. It directs the
movement of electronic signals between memory, which temporarily holds data, instructions, and processed
information, and the arithmetic-logic unit. It also directs control signals between the CPU and input and
output devices.
 Arithmetic-logic unit (ALU): performs two types of operations: arithmetic and logical. Arithmetic operations
are the fundamental math operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Logical
operations consist of comparisons such as whether one item is equal to (=), less than (<), or greater than (>)
the other.

Machine Cycle
When software sends an instruction to the CPU, the CPU carries out the instruction by repeating four basic
operations in the machine cycle: (1) fetch, (2) decode, (3) execute, and (4) store.

FIGURE 2-1
Machine cycle

Chapter 2 Software and Hardware Interaction 11

 Fetching retrieves an instruction or data item from memory, and decoding translates the instruction into
a form the computer can execute. The fetching and decoding operations make up the instruction cycle (I-
cycle). Executing carries out the commands in the instruction, while storing, in this context, means writing
the result to memory. The executing and storing operations make up the execution cycle (E-cycle).

CPU Performance
Word Size
The word size indicates the number of bits (such as 16, 32, or 64) that can be accessed at one time by the CPU.
The bigger the word size the more data a computer can process at one time. Eight bits group together to form
a byte. A 32-bit-word computer can access 4 bytes at a time. A 64-bit-word computer can access 8 bytes at a
time. Therefore, a computer designed to process 64-bit words has greater processing capacity.

Clock Speed
The speed of the processor directly influences the speed of the machine cycle, and therefore, the overall
performance of the computer. The processor’s clock speed indicates the number of instructions the CPU can
process per second. Clock speed is stated in megahertz (MHz) or a million cycles per second, and gigahertz
(GHz) or a billion cycles per second. (A hertz is one cycle per second.) A CPU that runs at 2 GHz completes 2
billion clock cycles in one second.

Processor Type
The type of processor also significantly affects the CPU and computer’s overall performance. Multi-core
processors provide two or more separate and independent CPUs and allow the operating system to use
multiprocessing to split tasks among the processors, with each processor working on a different task at the
same time.
In contrast, a single-core processor cannot use multiprocessing. To enhance performance using a single-
core processor, the operating system can use two other techniques: multitasking and multithreading.
Multitasking operating system can run more than one program at the same time. With multithreading, the
operating system handles many parts, or threads, of a single program.

2.3 Peripheral Devices

Definition: Peripheral device
A peripheral is a device used to put information into or get information out of the computer. There
are three different types of peripherals:
 Input, used to interact with, or send data to the computer (mouse, keyboards, etc.)
 Output, which provides output to the user from the computer (monitors, printers, etc.)
 Storage, which stores data processed by the computer (hard drives, flash drives, etc.)

Input Devices
An input device is any piece of equipment that is used enter data and commands into the computer. Input
devices translate data and programs that humans can understand into a form that the computer can process.
The most common input devices are the keyboard and the mouse.
1. Keyboard. An input device used to enter letters, numbers, and other symbols. Keyboards can be stand-
alone and connected to the computer with a cable or through a wireless connection, or they might be
integrated into the computer itself, such as with a laptop or notebook.
2. Pointing devices. Pointing devices are used to (a) select and manipulate objects, (b) input certain types of
data (such as handwritten data), and (c) issue commands to the computer.
a. Mouse. Mouse is the most common pointing device that the user slides along a flat surface to move a
pointer around the screen and clicks its buttons to make selections. Like keyboards, a mouse typically
connects via a USB port or via a wireless connection. Popular types of mouse include:
i. Optical mouse uses a laser to detect movement.
ii. Wireless mouse uses radio waves or infrared light waves.
iii. Touch pad operates by touching or tapping a surface. It is widely used instead of a mouse with
laptops and some types of mobile devices.
b. Touch Screens. Touch screens allow users to select actions by touching the screen with a finger or pen-
like device. Multi-touch screens accept multiple-finger commands.

Chapter 2 Software and Hardware Interaction 12

 c. Game Controllers. Game controllers provide input to computer games. Widely used controllers include
gaming mice, joysticks, gamepads, and motion-sensing devices.
d. Stylus. A stylus is a pen-like input device used to draw or write electronically on the display screen of
tablets or mobile devices. A stylus interacts with handwriting recognition software to translate
handwritten notes into a form that the system unit can process.
3. Scanning devices. Scanning devices move across text and images to convert them into a form that the
computer can process.
a. Optical scanners. An optical scanner converts documents into machine-readable form. The four basic
types are flatbed, document, portable, and 3D.
b. Card readers. Card readers interpret encoded information located on a variety of cards. The most
common is the magnetic card reader that reads information from a thin magnetic strip on the back of
a card. Smart cards contain microchips to encrypt data and improve security.
c. Bar code readers. Bar code readers or scanners read bar codes on products. There are a variety of
different codes including the QR code, UPC and MaxiCode codes.
d. RFID readers. RFID readers read RFID (radio-frequency identification) tags. These tags are widely
used for tracking lost pets, production, and inventory and for recording prices and product descriptions.
e. Character and Mark Recognition Devices. Character and mark recognition devices are scanners that
are able to recognize special characters and marks. Three types are magnetic-ink character recognition
(MICR), optical-character recognition (OCR), and optical-mark recognition (OMR).
4. Image capturing devices. Image capturing devices create or capture original images. These devices include
digital cameras and webcams.
a. Digital camera. Digital cameras record images digitally and store them on a memory card or in the
camera’s memory. Most digital cameras record video too.
b. Webcam. Webcams are specialized digital video cameras that capture images and send them to a
computer for broadcast over the Internet. Webcams are built into many smartphones and tablets, while
others are attached to the computer monitor.
5. Audio-input devices. Audio-input devices convert sounds into a form that can be processed by the
computer. By far the most widely used audio-input device is the microphone.
a. Voice recognitions systems. Voice recognition systems use a microphone, a sound card, and special
software. Siri, Cortana, and Google Now are digital assistants that use voice recognition. Specialized
portable voice recorders are widely used by doctors, lawyers, and others to record dictation. Some
systems are able to translate dictation from one language to another, such as from English to Japanese.

Output Devices
An output device accepts processed data from the computer and presents the results to the user, most of the
time on the display device (monitor), on paper (via a printer), or through a speaker.

TABLE 2-2 Common output devices

OUTPUT DEVICE DESCRIPTION

Monitors are the most used output device. Output is often referred to as soft copy.
The old-fashioned large and bulky cathode-ray tube monitors (CRT) have been largely
MONITOR replaced by much less bulky flat-screen technology including liquid crystal display
(DISPLAY (LCD) and light-emitting diode (LED) displays.
SCREEN) The screen’s resolution is the number of pixels (dots) used to build a picture. Fewer
pixels provide lower resolution or image quality while more pixels means higher
resolution and image quality.

Printers translate information processed by the system unit and present the
information on paper. Printer output is often called hard copy.
Printers can be categorized into two:
 Impact printers produce text and images by striking an ink ribbon (e.g. dot matrix
printers) or burning dots onto coated paper (thermal printers).
PRINTER
 Non-impact printers produce images without actually striking the paper (e.g. laser
or ink-jet printers)
Print resolution is measured in dots per inch (DPI), more dots per inch results in
higher quality output. Print speed is measured in pages per minute (PPM) and
usually ranges from about 15 to 65 ppm.

Audio-output devices translate audio information from the computer into sounds that
AUDIO-OUTPUT
people can understand. The most widely used are speakers and headphones.
DEVICES
Headsets are a combination of speakers and microphones. These devices connect

Chapter 2 Software and Hardware Interaction 13

 either by cable to an audio jack on the system unit or by a wireless connection.
Bluetooth technology is widely used to connect wireless devices.

DATA AND Projectors are used to display output from a computer to a wall or projection screen.
MULTIMEDIA It is mostly commonly found in classrooms and conference rooms. It can be wireless
PROJECTOR or integrated into devices.

Secondary Storage
An essential feature of every computer is the ability to save, or store, information. Recall that before data can
be processed or a program can be run, it must be in RAM. For this reason, RAM is sometimes referred to as
primary storage. Unfortunately, RAM provides only temporary or volatile storage. That is, it loses all of its
contents as soon as the computer is turned off.
Secondary storage provides permanent or nonvolatile storage. Using secondary storage devices such as a
hard-disk drive, data and programs can be retained after the computer has been shut off.
These are important characteristics of secondary storage:
 Media are the physical material that holds the data and programs
 Capacity measures how much a particular storage medium can hold
 Storage devices are hardware that writes and reads data and programs to and from storage media
 Access speed measures the amount of time required by the storage device to retrieve data and programs
TABLE 2-3 Secondary storage devices
SECONDARY STORAGE DESCRIPTION
Hard-disk drives use rigid metallic platters that provide a large amount of
capacity. They store data and programs by altering the electromagnetic charges
on the platter’s surface. Hard disks can be internal (located within the system
unit) or external (removable). Both are used to store programs and data files
and use the same basic technology.
Solid-state drives (SSD) are similar to internal hard-disk drives except they use
solid-state memory; are faster, more durable, and more expensive; and
generally provide less capacity. Hybrid systems contain SSD and magnetic
disks.
Flash memory cards are small solid-state storage devices that are widely used
with portable devices. They are used with a variety of specialized input devices
including digital cameras to store and transfer images and digital media
players like the iPod to store and transfer music and video files.
USB drives (flash drives) are so small that they fit onto a key ring. These drives
connect to a computer’s USB port and are widely used to transfer data and
information between computers, specialty devices, and the Internet.
Optical discs use laser technology. The most widely used optical discs are:
 Compact discs (CDs) were the first; typical storage 700 MB; often used to store
music.
 Digital versatile discs (DVDs) standard optical discs; typical storage 4.7 GB;
often used to store movies and software.
 Blu-ray discs (BDs) are the newest; designed to store high definition video;
typical storage 50 GB.
Each of these optical discs has three basic formats:
 Read-only (ROM for read-only memory) discs cannot be written on or erased
by the user.
 Write-once (R for recordable) discs can be written on once. After that, they
can be read many times but cannot be written on or erased.
 Rewritable (RW for rewritable or RAM for random-access memory) discs are
similar to write-once discs except that the disc surface is not permanently
altered when data is recorded.
With cloud computing, the Internet acts as a “cloud” of servers. Cloud storage
(online storage) is supplied by these servers and provide storage, processing,
and memory.
Advantages for users include less maintenance, fewer hardware upgrades, and
easy file sharing and collaboration. Disadvantages for users include slower
access speed and less control over file security.

Chapter 2 Software and Hardware Interaction 14

 FIGURE 2-2 Common hardware components

2.4 Understanding System Requirements

System requirements
Before installing software to a computer, you need to compare the application’s system requirements to the
computer system you are using. System requirements are hardware characteristics such as the amount of
memory and speed of the processor. An application lists these hardware specifications on the product’s box or
Web site. Consider the specifications as minimum requirements. In other words, your computer should have
the same or better characteristics as those listed in the system requirements. If your computer does not meet
the application’s system requirements, the application will not be able to run or will run ineffectively.

Optional hardware requirements

Some applications include features designed for particular hardware. For example, word-processing software
might include a feature that accepts voice input from a microphone so you can speak commands instead of
clicking buttons or narrate text instead of typing it. Many popular applications now include features that
accept input from touchscreens so you can use a fingertip to select commands or handwrite text input. These
are optional hardware requirements. You can use the software without the hardware, but having the hardware
extends the features of the software.

2.5 Updating Software

Software is constantly changing to keep up with hardware developments and user requests. Users and
developers might discover problems with security that could allow unauthorized users to access computer and
its data. In these cases, the software is revised to address the problems. You can download a patch, update, or
service pack from the Internet to include the latest revisions. The table below describes each of these:

TYPE DESCRIPTION

PATCH Small program that corrects or enhances existing software

Collection of files (larger than a patch) that revises software to fix problems or provide
UPDATE
enhancements

SERVICE PACK Collection of updates, fixes, or enhancements to software delivered as a single file

Chapter 2 Software and Hardware Interaction 15

 When developers make major improvements, add new features, or change the software design, the new
version is called an upgrade. You can download most software—whether the original version, an update, or
an upgrade—from the software developer’s Web site.
System and application software often include tools for managing updates. Most provide an automatic
update feature, which automatically checks for software updates and then downloads them when they are
available. For operating system updates, Microsoft, Apple, and other developers recommend that you use the
automatic update feature to ensure that your computer has the software it needs to run smoothly and reliably.

Updating Operating System

Personal and mobile operating systems provide tools to keep the operating system up to date by contacting a
server and then downloading the files containing the updates. In Windows, you use Windows Update to check
for the latest updates and review your update settings. Windows Update can download three types of updates:

TYPE DESCRIPTION

IMPORTANT Updates you should install to maintain the security and reliability of Windows

Updates that enhance your computing experience or repair problems that are not
RECOMMENDED
considered critical

OPTIONAL Updates that are not critical and do not apply to all Windows users

CHAPTER REVIEW
Before moving on to the next chapter check that you now know how to:

 Explain the role and importance of the basic components of computer systems including the CPU,
input, output and storage devices.
 Explain how the central processing unit (CPU) processes software instructions.
 Explain how to use system requirements.
 Explain the purpose of software updates.
 Use Windows Update to keep the operating system up to date.

Chapter 2 Software and Hardware Interaction 16