SREE VIDYANIKETHAN ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(Autonomous)
Sree Sainath Nagar, A. Rangampet-517 102

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS LAB

(16BT40431)
 SREE VIDYANIKETHAN ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(Autonomous)
Sree Sainath Nagar, A. Rangampet-517 102
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Name of the Lab : ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS LAB (16BT40431)

Class & Semester : II B. Tech (ECE-B) – II Semester.

Int. Marks: 50 Ext. Marks: 50 Total Marks: 100 L T P C

- - 3 2

PREREQUISITES: Courses on Analog Communications.

COURSE DESCRIPTION: Simulation and study of various modulation schemes and Analog Communication systems.
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
CEO1: To impart practical knowledge in analog communication systems.
CEO2: To develop skills in analysis, design, problem solving, usage of tools, team work and communication in
analog communication systems.
COURSE OUTCOMES: On successful completion of this course, the student will be able to:
CO1. Demonstrate knowledge in different analog communication systems.
CO2. Analyze the characteristics of different communication circuits like
 Pre-emphasis & De-emphasis.
 Mixer.
 Radio Receiver.
CO3. Design and simulate various modulation systems for Communication needs.
CO4. Solve problems pertaining to modulation schemes and communication systems.
CO5. Use MATLAB tools for simulation of modulation schemes.
CO6: Function effectively as an individual and as a member in a group.
CO7: Communicate in verbal and written form.

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

Exp.No. Name of Experiment

1 Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation.
2 DSB SC Modulation and Demodulation.
3 SSB Modulation and Demodulation.
4 Spectral analysis of AM signals using spectrum analyzer.
5 Frequency modulation and Demodulation.
6 Pre-emphasis & De-emphasis.
7 Characteristics of mixer.
8 Squelch circuit.
9 Radio receiver measurements – Sensitivity Selectivity and Fidelity.
10 Pulse Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation
11 Pulse Width Modulation and Demodulation
12 AGC characteristics.
1. AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND DEMODULATION
Scientech 2201 board:
Experiment No: Date:

AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

AIM: To Generate Amplitude modulated signal for different modulation indexes and perform demodulation.

PRE LAB: Basics of signal representation and analysis, Amplitude Modulation, Modulation index, Power relation.

HARDWARE REQUIRED: Scientech 2201& 2202 board, CRO Probes, DSO, Spectrum Analyzer etc.

THEORY: In communication the term baseband is used to designate the band of frequencies of the signal delivered
by the source or the input transducer. In telephony the baseband is the audio band of 0 to 3.5 kHz. In television the
baseband is the video band occupying 0 to 4.3 MHz. In baseband communication baseband signals are transmitted
without modulation that is without any shift in the range of frequencies of the signal. Because the baseband signals
have sizable power at low frequencies, they cannot be transmitted over a radio link but are suitable for transmission
over a pair of wires, coaxial cables or optical fibers. In analog communication, message is analog and the carrier is
sine wave, which is also analog in nature. The modulation techniques in analog communication can be classified into
amplitude modulation (AM) and angle modulation techniques. The amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in
accordance with the message to obtain modulated signal in case of amplitude modulation. In AM information signal
is used to control the amplitude of the carrier wave. As the information signal increases in amplitude, the carrier
wave is also made to increase in amplitude. Likewise, as the information signal decreases, then the carrier amplitude
decreases.

Time Domain Representation of the AM Wave:

Consider a sinusoidal carrier wave c(t) defined by c(t) = Accos(2πfc t)

Let m(t) denote the baseband signal that carries the specification of the message signal.

AM wave may be described in the following form Where Ac is carrier wave amplitude, fc is carrier frequency & s(t)
is modulated wave.

S( ) = Ac [1 + ( )] cos(2πfc t)
Model waveforms:

1. Message signal

2. Carrier signal

3. Undermodulated signal

4. Critical modulated signal

5. Critical modulated signal

6. Recovered Modulating Signal

We can observe that envelope ( ) has same shape as that of baseband signal.

Modulation index µ=

Frequency spectrum of AM wave: The frequencies present in the AM wave are the carrier frequency and the first
pair of sideband frequencies, where sideband frequencies are defined as fSB = fc + nfm

Fourier transform of AM wave is given by

S(f) = Ac /2 [δ(f − fc ) + δ(f − fc )] + kaAc/ 2 [M(f − fc ) + M(f + fc)

OBSERVATIONS:

S.No Amplitude of Vmax Vmin µ%= *100

Modulating
Signal (Am)
1.

2.

3.
 PROCEDURE:

Objective 1: To generate an Amplitude modulated signal

1. Turn on power to the Scientech 2201 board.

2. Observe the output of ‘Audio Oscillator’ block at ‘Audio Signal Output’ test Point. Amplitude and
Frequency of this audio signal can be varied using the respective Amplitude and Frequency control pots. The
amplitude varies from 0 to 2vpp approx and frequency varies from 300Hz to 3KHz approx.
3. This is the audio frequency sine wave which will use as modulating signal input to Balanced Modulator and
Band Pass Circuit 1.
4. 1 MHz Crystal Oscillator Block generates a sine wave of 1 MHz frequency and 120mV pp amplitude
approx, which is used as a carrier input to Balance Modulator and Band Pass Filter Circuit 1.
5. Balanced Modulator and Band Pass Filter Circuit 1 use to perform ‘Double Side Band Amplitude
Modulation’. Balance pot is used to vary the depth of modulation AM waveform. Initially turn the pot to its
maximum position and observe the DSB AM output together with the modulating Audio Signal output l.
6. The output from the balanced modulator & band pass filter circuit 1 block is a double sideband AM
waveform, which has been formed by amplitude modulating the 1MHz carrier sine wave with the audio-
frequency sine wave from the audio oscillator.
7. To determine the depth of modulation, measure the maximum amplitude (Vmax) and the minimum
amplitude (V min) of the AM waveform.

Objective 2: To demodulate Amplitude modulated signal using diode detector

1. Turn on power to the modules.

2. On the Scientech 2201 module, examine the transmitter's output signal,together with the audio
modulating Audio signal.
3. Ensure that the following initial conditions exist on the Scientech 2202 board:
a. RX input select switch in Socket position.
b. R.F. amplifier's tuned circuit select switch in ‘INT’ position.
c. R.F. amplifier's gain pot in fully clock-wise position;
d. AGC switch in ‘IN’ position.
e. Detector switch in ‘Diode’ position.
f. Audio amplifier's volume pot in fully counter-clockwise position.
g. ‘Speaker’ switch in ON position.
h. Beat frequency oscillator switch in OFF position.
i. On-board antenna in vertical position, and fully extended.
4. Since Scientech 2201 TX output is fed to the transmitter's antenna.
5. Using the Detector Select switch, select diode detector as Detector for demodulation of Am signal.
6. Connect CRO probe at the output of Audio Amplifier across the Load Resistor(T14) and select the
output across the load using Output Select button.
7. Perform tuning until; demodulated signal appears across the output in CRO.

Result:
2. DOUBLE SIDEBAND MODULATION WITH SUPRESSED
CARRIER (DSB-SC)
MODULATION AND DEMODULATION
DSB/SSB AM TRANSMITTER

DSB/SSB AM RECEIVER
Experiment No: Date:

DOUBLE SIDEBAND MODULATION WITH SUPRESSED CARRIER

MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

AIM: To Generate Double Sideband modulated signal and also to perform demodulation.
PRE LAB: Basics of signal representation and analysis, Amplitude Modulation, Modulation index, Power relation.

HARDWARE REQUIRED: Scientech 2201& 2202 board, CRO Probes, DSO, Spectrum Analyzer etc.

Theory : In the process of Amplitude Modulation, the modulated wave consists of the carrier wave and two
sidebands. The modulated wave has the information only in the sidebands. Sideband is nothing but a band of
frequencies, containing power, which are the lower and higher frequencies of the carrier frequency.

The transmission of a signal, which contains a carrier along with two sidebands can be termed as Double Sideband
Full Carrier system or simply DSBFC. It is plotted as shown in the following figure.

However, such a transmission is inefficient. Because, two-thirds of the power is being wasted in the carrier, which
carries no information.If this carrier is suppressed and the saved power is distributed to the two sidebands, then such
a process is called as Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier system or simply DSBSC. It is plotted as shown in the
following figure.
Output Waveforms :
Fig. a). Modulating Signal

Fig. b). DSBSC Signal

Fig. C). Carrier Signal

Fig. d). Revecovered Modulating Signal at Receiver Output

Fig. e). Phase Reversal in DSBSC at Zero Crossing of Modulating Signal.

Procedure:
1. Ensure that the following initial conditions exist on the board:
a) Audio input select switch in INT position.
b) Mode switch in SSB position.
c) Output amplifier's gain pot in fully clockwise position.
d) Speaker switch in OFF position.
2. Turn on power to the Scientech 2201 board.
3. Observe the output of ‘Audio Oscillator’ block on Oscilloscope (Fig. 4.2).Amplitude and
Frequency of this audio signal can be varied using the respective Amplitude and Frequency
control pots. The amplitude varies from 0 to 2vpp approx and frequency varies from 300Hz to
3 KHz approx. This is the audio frequency sine wave which will use as modulating signal input to
Balanced Modulator and Band Pass Circuit 1.
4. Monitor the two inputs to the balanced modulator block and noting that:
a) The signal is the audio frequency sinewave from the audio oscillator block. This is the
modulating input to the balanced modulator block.
b) The signal is a sinewave whose frequency is slightly less than 455 KHz. It is generated by the
455 KHz oscillator block, and is the carrier input to the balanced modulator block.
5. Next, turn the ‘Balance’ pot to its minimum position and examine the output of the balanced
modulator block, together with the modulating signal, trigger the Oscilloscope on the
modulating signal. Check that the waveforms are as shown.
6. Now vary the amplitude of the modulating audio signal by varying the amplitude pot in the
audio oscillator block and observe the effect on AM waveform. The amplitude of two
sidebands can be reduced to zero by reducing the amplitude of the modulating audio signal to
zero. Do this by turning the amplitude pot to its MIN position, and note that the signal
becomes an un-modulated sine wave of frequency 455 KHz, indicating that only the carrier
component now remains.
7. Now continuing with the above setting (modulating audio signal amplitude reduced to zero),
turn the balance pot in the balanced block, until the carrier signal becomes almost of zero
amplitude. Once you get a zero amplitude line then gradually increase the amplitude of audio
oscillator signal and observe the output as shown in figure.
8. Change the amplitude and frequency of the modulating audio signal (by adjusting the audio
oscillator block's amplitude and frequency pots), and note the effect that these changes on
the DSBSC waveform. The amplitudes of the two sidebands can be reduced to zero by
reducing the amplitude of the modulating audio signal to zero. Do these by turning the amplitude
present to its MIN position, and note that the monitored signal becomes a D C level,
indicating that there .are now no frequency components present. Return the amplitude pot to
its MAX position.
9. Change the amplitude and frequency of the modulating audio signal (by adjusting the audio
oscillator block's amplitude and frequency pots), and note the effect that these changes on
the DSBSC waveform. The amplitudes of the two sidebands can be reduced to zero by
reducing the amplitude of the modulating audio signal to zero. Do these by turning the amplitude
present to its MIN position, and note that the monitored signal becomes a D C level,
indicating that there .are now no frequency components present. Return the amplitude pot to
its MAX position.
 Objective 2: To demodulate DSBSC modulated signal using product detector

8. Turn on power to the modules.

9. On the Scientech 2201 module, examine the transmitter's output signal, together with the audio
modulating Audio signal.
10. Ensure that the following initial conditions exist on the Scientech 2202 board:
a. RX input select switch in Socket position.
b. R.F. amplifier's tuned circuit select switch in ‘INT’ position.
c. R.F. amplifier's gain pot in fully clock-wise position;
d. AGC switch in ‘IN’ position.
e. Detector switch in ‘SSB’ position.
f. Audio amplifier's volume pot in fully counter-clockwise position.
g. ‘Speaker’ switch in ON position.
h. Beat frequency oscillator switch in OFF position.
11. Since Scientech 2201 TX output is fed to the transmitter's Output Socket, Connect it to the
Receiver Input using Connecting Wire..
12. Using the Detector Select switch, select Product detector as Detector for demodulation of DSBSC
signal.
13. Connect CRO probe at the output of Audio Amplifier across the Load Resistor(T14) and select the
output across the load using Output Select button.
14. Perform tuning until; demodulated signal appears across the output in CRO.
15. Observe the recovered modulating signal and compare it with applied modulating signal.

Result:
4.SPECTRAL ANALYSIS OF AM SIGNALS USING
SPECTRUM ANALYZER
Block Diagram:

Waveform Generator Spectrum Analyzer

33600A

Cable

Model Graph :

Fig: Spectrum of AM Signal

TABLE

AM WAVE:

S.No Frequency Level(dBm)

1. Carrier

2. Lower Sideband Frequency

3. Upper Sideband Frequency

Experiment No: Date:

SPECTRAL ANALYSIS OF AM SIGNALS USING SPECTRUM ANALYZER

AIM: To measure frequency and level of a given unknown AM signal.

APPARATUS: Spectrum Analyzer, BNC-BNC cable, Keysight 33600A Waveform generator.

THEORY:

The common way of observing electrical signal is to view them in the time domain using a cathode
ray oscilloscope. The time domain is used to recover relative timing and phase information, which
is needed to characterize electric circuit behavior. We know that it is not possible to characterize
all circuits from just time domain information. Circuits such as amplifiers, oscillators, and filters
are best characterized by their frequency response information. This frequency information is
best obtained by viewing the electrical signal in the frequency domain. To display the frequency
domain we need a device that can discriminate signals between frequencies while measuring the
frequency domains is the spectrum analyzer. it graphically displays voltage (or) power as a
function of frequency.

PROCEDURE:

1. Switch ON the spectrum analyzer and check if the instrument is meeting the calibration requirements
else refer to the manual supplied along with the instrument.
2. Switch ON the signal source (Function generator) & set as given below.
 Click on Waveform Option and Select Sine Wave and set frequency to 10MHz and level to -3dB.
 Click on the Modulate button in Waveform Generator and select type as AM.
Set the Am depth to 80% and Am Frequency to 1MHz.

3. Adjust the spectrum analyzer as given below

Click on Preset/ System First.

Center frequency 0.0Hz

Span 50MHz

4. Connect spectrum analyzer and signal generator via BNC-BNC cable as shown in figure.
 5. After connecting both the instruments, observe a spectral line other than zero frequency line.

6. Observe the Reference Harmonic, Lower sideband Frequency and upper sideband frequency.

7. By using Peak Search option, gives the Peak value of Spectrum at 10MHz(i.e Carrier Frequency), note
down its level and frequency.

8. Next click on Peak left, that gives Lowersideband component, note down its level and frequency.

9. Next click on Peak Right, that gives Upper sideband component, note down its level and frequency.

RESULT:
5. FREQUENCY MODULATION & DEMODULATION
Experiment No: Date:

FREQUENCY MODULATION & DEMODULATION

AIM:- To study frequency modulation and demodulation.

Apparatus:-
 Scientech 2203 TechBook with Power Supply cord
 CRO with connecting probe
Theory:-

Frequency modulation is one of the form of angle modulation in which the instantaneous frequency of
carrier is varied linearly with the base band signal. Frequency demodulation is the process that enables
us to recover the original modulating wave from the frequency modulated wave.
Procedure
1. Ensure that the following initial conditions exist on the Scientech 2203 TechBook.
 All Switch Faults in ‘Off’ condition.
 Amplitude potentiometer of Audio Oscillator block in minimum position.
 Frequency potentiometer of Audio Oscillator block in maximum position.
 Carrier Frequency potentiometer of Reactance Modulator block in center position.
 Carrier Frequency potentiometer of Varactor Modulator block in center position.
 Amplitude potentiometer of Low pass filter/Amplifier block in center position.
 VCO frequency Adjust potentiometer of Phase-Locked Loop detector (IC4046 based) block in
minimum position.
 Carrier Frequency potentiometer of Frequency Modulator (IC XR2206 based) block in
minimum position.
 VCO Frequency Adjust potentiometer of Frequency Demodulator (IC LM565 based) block in
minimum position.
 Amplitude potentiometer of Mixer/Amplifier block in maximum position.
2. Turn on power to the Scientech 2203 TechBook.
3. Audio oscillator block generates a sine wave (frequency: 300 Hz to 3.4 KHz approximately
and amplitude: 0 to 10Vpp). This signal is used as a modulating signal. Observe this signal at the
output test point of this block and vary the amplitude and the frequency with the respective
potentiometers.
4. Return the amplitude potentiometer to its minimum position.
5. Check that Reactance modulator block is selected for operation which is indicated by glowing
LEDs at the input and output of this block. If not, pressthe 'Modulator Select' switch to select
it. This selection switches the output of the Reactance modulator through to the input of the
Mixer/Amplifier block.
6. The carrier signal from the Reactance modulator block appears at output test point of this
block, before being buffered and amplified by the Mixer/Amplifier block.
7. Put the Reactance modulator’s Carrier Frequency potentiometer in its midway position then
examine the signal at the output test point of the Mixer/Amplifier block.
8. The frequency of the FM carrier signal should be approximately 455 KHz at the moment. This
carrier frequency can be varied from 452 KHz to 458 KHz (approximately) by adjusting the
carrier frequency potentiometer in the Reactance modulator block to maximum and minimum position
respectively.
9. The amplitude of the FM carrier is adjustable by means of the Mixer/Amplifier block's amplitude
potentiometer. Try turning this potentiometer slowly anticlockwise, and note that the amplitude of
 MODEL GRAPHS

Modulating signal

6Vp-p t

Carrier signal

6Vp-p
t

Modulated signal

6Vp-p t

Demodulated signal
6Vp-p t

Calculations

Modulation index = Δf/fm

=
 the FM signal can be reduced to zero. Return the amplitude potentiometer of Mixer/Amplifier
block to its maximum position.
10. Now gradually increase the amplitude of modulating signal from the Audio oscillator block
using the amplitude potentiometer and observe the frequency modulated waveform at the output
test point of Mixer/Amplifier block.
11. Try varying the amplitude & frequency potentiometer in audio oscillators block and observe the
variations in the frequency deviation of FM signal.
12. Also observe the effect of varying the carrier frequency potentiometer in the Mixer/Amplifier
block on FM signal. Return the carrier frequency potentiometer to its midway position.
Varactor Modulator :
1. Press the 'Modulator Select' switch to select Varactor modulator block and check that it is
selected for operation which is indicated by glowing LEDs at the input and output of this block.
This selection switches the output of the Varactor modulator through the Mixer/Amplifier block.
2. The carrier signal from the Varactor modulator block appears at output test point of this block,
before being buffered and amplified by the Mixer/Amplifier block.
3. Put the Varactor modulator's potentiometer in its midway position then examine the signal at the
output test point of the Mixer/Amplifier block.
4. The frequency of the FM carrier signal should be approximately 455 KHz at the
moment. This carrier frequency can be varied from 454 KHz to 457 KHz (approximately) by
adjusting the carrier frequency potentiometer in the Varactor modulator block to maximum and
minimum position respectively.
5. The amplitude of the FM carrier is adjustable by means of the Mixer/Amplifier block’s amplitude
potentiometer, from zero to its potentiometer level. Try turning this potentiometer slowly
anticlockwise, and note that the amplitude of the FM signal can be reduced to zero. Return the
amplitude potentiometer to its maximum position.
6. Now gradually increase the amplitude of modulating signal from the Audio oscillator block
using the amplitude potentiometer and observe the frequency modulated waveform at the
output test point of Mixer/Amplifier block.
7. Try varying the amplitude & frequency potentiometer in audio oscillators block and observe the
variations in the frequency deviation of FM signal.
8. Also observe the effect of varying the carrier frequency potentiometer in the
Mixer/Amplifier block on FM signal. Return the carrier frequency potentiometer to its center
position.
Demodulation:
Quadrature Detector:
1.Ensure that the following initial conditions exist on the Scientech 2203 TechBook.
a) All Switch Faults in ‘Off’ condition.
b) Amplitude potentiometer of Audio Oscillator block in minimum position.
c) Frequency potentiometer of Audio Oscillator block in maximum position.
d) Carrier Frequency potentiometer of Reactance Modulator block in center position.
e) Carrier Frequency potentiometer of Varactor Modulator block in center position.
f) Amplitude potentiometer of Mixer/Amplifier block in maximum position.
g) VCO frequency Adjust potentiometer of Phase-Locked Loop detector (IC4046 based) block in
minimum position.
h) Carrier Frequency potentiometer of Frequency Modulator (IC XR2206m based) block in
minimum position.
i) VCO Frequency Adjust potentiometer of Frequency Demodulator (IC LM565 based) block in
minimum position.
j) Amplitude potentiometer of Low pass filter/Amplifier block in center position.

2. Turn on power to the Scientech 2203 TechBook.

3. Check that Reactance modulator block is selected for operation which is indicated by glowing
LEDs at the input and output of this block. If not, press the 'Modulator Select' switch to select it.
4. Also check that direct path is selected to connect the Mixer/Amplifier output to Detector input
(bypassing the Amplitude Limiter block). If not, press the 'Amplitude Limiter Select' switch to
select it.
5. Also check that Quadrature Detector block is selected for operation which is indicated by
glowing LEDs at the input and output of this block. If not, press the 'Detector Select' switch to select it.
6. The output of Quadrature Detector is connected to Low pass filter input which is also indicated by a
glowing LED at the input of low pass filter.
7. The audio oscillator's output signal is now being used by the Reactance modulator for
frequency modulation of a 455 KHz carrier sine wave.
8. Now adjust the amplitude of the Audio oscillator block to 4Vpp and observe the FM waveform at the
output socket of the Mixer/Amplifier block. Also observe the same signal at the input test point of
Quadrature detector.
9.Observe the phase shifted FM signal at the test point 11 of Quadrature detector block.
10. Now monitor modulating input signal to the Reactance modulator block
together with the output from the Quadrature detector block. The signal at
output should contain three components.
a. A positive DC offset voltage.
b. A sine wave at the same frequency as the modulating signal.
c. A high-frequency ripple component of small amplitude.
11. The Low Pass filter/Amplifier block strongly attenuates the high frequency
ripple component at the detector's output, and also blocks the DC offset voltage.
Consequently, the signal at the output of the Low Pass filter/Amplifier block should very
closely resemble the original audio modulating signal.
12. Monitor the modulating input to the Reactance modulator and the output of the
Low Pass filter/Amplifier block and adjust the gain potentiometer (in the Low
Pass filter/Amplifier block) until the amplitudes of the monitored audio
waveforms are the same.
Reactance modulator :
1. Check that Reactance modulator block is selected for operation which is indicated by
glowing LEDs at the input and output of this block. If not, press the 'Modulator Select' switch to
select it.
2. Also check that direct path is selected to connect the Mixer/Amplifier output to Detector input
(bypassing the Amplitude Limiter block). If not, press the 'Amplitude Limiter Select' switch
to select it.
3. Now press the 'Detector Select' switch to select Detuned Resonance Detector block for
operation which is indicated by glowing LEDs at the input and output of this block. The output
of Detuned Resonance Detector is connected to Low pass filter input which is also
indicated by a glowing LED at the input of low pass filter.
4. The audio oscillator's output signal is now being used by the Reactance modulator for
frequency modulation of a 455 KHz carrier sine wave.
5. Now adjust the amplitude of the Audio oscillator block to 4Vpp and observe the FM waveform at
the output socket of the Mixer/Amplifier block. Also observe the same FM signal at the input test
point of Detuned Resonance detector.
6. Observe the AM converted signal at the test point 12 of the Detuned Resonance detector block.
7. Now monitor modulating input signal to the Reactance modulator block together with the output
from the Detuned Resonance detector block. The signal at output should contain three
components.
a) A positive DC offset voltage.
b) A sine wave at the same frequency as the modulating signal.
c) A high-frequency ripple component of small amplitude.
d) Check that the detected frequency component is a reasonable sine wave.
8. The Low Pass filter/Amplifier block strongly attenuates the high frequency ripple
component at the detector's output, and also blocks the DC offset voltage. Consequently, the
signal at the output of the Low Pass filter/Amplifier block should very closely resemble the
original audio modulating signal.
9. Monitor the input and output of the Low Pass filter/Amplifier block and note how the
quality of the detector's output signal has been improved by low pass filtering. Note also
that the DC offset has been removed.

Result :
6. PRE-EMPHASIS & DE-EMPHASIS
Experiment No: Date:

PRE-EMPHASIS & DE-EMPHASIS

AIM: To study the characteristics of Pre-Emphasis & De-Emphasis net works.

APPARATUS: CRO, Signal generator circuit board.

THEORY:

Frequency modulation is more immune to noise than amplitude modulation and is

significantly more immune than phase modulation. In FM system the carrier and noise
voltages will mix and if the difference is audible, it will naturally interfere with the
reception of wanted signals. The noise has a greater effect on the higher modulating
frequency than on lower ones. Thus, if the higher frequencies were artificially boosted at
the transmitter and correspondingly cut at the receiver, improvement in noise immunity
could be expected. This boosting of the higher modulating frequencies, in accordance with
a prearranged curve, is termed as pre-emphasis and the compensation at the receiver is
called de-emphasis.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PRE-EMPHASIS

470K

Vi 100µF 82K V0

DE-EMPHASIS

470K

Vi 100pF V0
 MODEL GRAPH :
PRE-EMPHASIS

Gain(dB)

Freq

DE-EMPHASIS
Freq

Gain(dB)
PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the Pre-emphasis circuit (De-Emphasis) as show in the fig.

2. Apply a since wave of 10V peak to peak amplitude and vary the frequency
100 Hz to 100KHZ in steps and each time note down the outputlevel.
3. Plot the graph between frequency and gain (db).
TABLE FOR PRE-EMPHASIS
Frequency Normalized Gain in
Sl.No Input(Vi) Output(Vo) Gain
of input Gain dB(Normalised)

1.

4.

TABLE FOR DE-EMPHASIS

Frequency Normalized Gain in

Sl.No Input(Vi) Output(Vo) Gain
of input Gain dB(Normalised)

1.

4.

7
RESULT:
7. CHARACTERSTICS OF MIXER
Circuit Diagram

+12V
50PF 50PF

4.7KΏ
22KΏ 6KΏ 3.5KΏ 27KΏ 27KΏ
Output
0.1/200V 100PF 100PF

0.1/250V

10KΏ 10KΏ Vy
100Ώ

Table : Mixer Characteristics

Sl.No RF input1(KHZ) RF input2(KHZ) Mixer o/p(KHZ) Theoretical Value

(fx-fy)
Experiment No: Date:

CHARACTERSTICS OF MIXER

AIM:- To study the characteristics of a mixer.

APPARTUS:- Mixer characteristics trainer, Dual trace oscilloscope

Theory :

In electronics, a mixer, or frequency mixer, is a nonlinear electrical circuit that creates new
frequencies from two signals applied to it. In its most common application, two signals are
applied to a mixer, and it produces new signals at the sum and difference of the original
frequencies. Other frequency components may also be produced in a practical frequency mixer.
Mixers are widely used to shift signals from one frequency range to another, a process
known as heterodyning, for convenience in transmission or further signal processing. For
example, a key component of a superheterodyne receiveris a mixer used to move received
signals to a common intermediate frequency. Frequency mixers are also used
to modulate a carrier signal in radio transmitters.
Procedure:-
1. Connect trainer to mains and switch on the power supply.
2. Measure the output voltages of regulated power supply circui i.e., +12 V.
3. Observe the output signal of RF generator 1 and 2 using CRO and note that Output
voltage of RF generator 1 is approximately 0.6V pp (frequency between 550KHz)
4. Set RF generator 1 output at 500 KHz with the help of IFT and connect it to the VY input
(which represents local oscillator) of the mixer circuit.
5. Observe the signal at output using CRO. Vary the amplitude of the RF generator 1 using
potentiometer until the signal at output is noticeable nonlinear (note that the signal
clipped). The clipping is necessary to introduce non linearity, which is how the sum and
difference frequencies and other hamonics are produced
6. Set RF generator 2 output at 520 KHz with the help of IFT and connect it to the Vx input
(which represents IF signal) of the mixer circuit and observe the signal at mixer out put.
7. Connect output of mix input (which represents IF signal) of the mixer circuit and observe
the signal at mixer out put
8. Connect output of mixer to filter input and observe output signal. Note that signal is
approximately 0.7 VPP of 20 KHZ frequency.
9. Change Vx and VY signal frequencies and observe output signal
NOTE:- Set frequency of VX signal such that VX is greater than VY and difference is 20 KHZ.

Result:
8. SQUELCH CIRCUIT
Experiment No: Date:

SQUELCH CIRCUIT
AIM: Study and the observation of the working of Squelch circuit

EQUIPMENT NEEDED:

1. Analog board, AB105

2. DC power supplies +/-5V from external source

3. Oscilloscope

4. Function Generator

5. 2 m patch cords.

Theory:

Squelch circuits are used to preclude lower level or noisy signals from entering a
communications processing circuit or system. When S/N ratio of circuit is poor, squelch circuit
is used to cut off the power of the speaker circuit. Squelch circuit are used as controlling signal
to detect the highest level of frequency and cutoff the signal if frequency is higher than the given
frequency. In Audio communication frequency above 3.4 KHz (some time 20 KHz) is consider as
noise. A familiar example is a hand-held transceiver radio, e.g. a walkie-talkie or CB radio. Without
squelch circuits, these systems would generate a rather annoying hissing sound when no signal is
received. With squelch control, input signals are passed to the speaker only when the input signal
exceeds a prescribed level. In some implementations, the squelch level is adjustable, for
example, by a person manipulating a potentiometer configured to provide a reference potential
for squelching. Figure 5 shows a squelch circuit, this squelch frequency above 20 KHz.
RESULT :
 9. RADIO RECEIVER MEASUREMENTS

(SENSITIVITY SELECTIVITY AND FIDELITY)

Model graphs

Fig a). Plot of Sensitivity vs frequency.

Fig b). Plot of Relative Response vs frequency(Fidelity)

Fig c). Plot of Selectivity

Experiment No: Date:

RADIO RECEIVER MEASUREMENTS

SENSITIVITY SELECTIVITY AND FIDELITY

AIM: To observe and plot the parameters like selectivity, sensitivity and fidelity of radio receiver.

Apparatus Used:- Scientech 2661A AM / FM Radio Receiver kit, Function Generation, Digital
oscilloscope and Probes.

Theory:

Sensitivity:
The sensitivity of radio receiver is that characteristic which determines the minimum strength of
signal input capable of causing a desired value of signal output. Therefore, expressing in terms of
voltage or power, sensitivity can be defined as the minimum voltage or power at the receiver
input for causing a standard output.
Selectivity:
The selectivity of a radio receiver is that characteristic which determines the extent to which it is
capable of differentiating between the desired signal and signal of other frequencies.
Fidelity:
This is defined as the degree with which a system accurately reproduces at its output the essential
characteristics of signals which is impressed upon its input.

Procedure:-

a) To observe Selectivity
1. Setting on AM / FM Radio Receiver
2. Apply AM signal, with 400Hz modulating signal and 30% modulation, taken from AM generator
into AM Receiver input socket.
3. Set the input carrier frequency so as to lie within the AM Band (525 KHz-1600KHz). Set the
input AM level to 100mV.
4. Tune the Receiver using tuning control. Also adjust gain potentiometer provided in R.F.
amplifier section of AM / FM Radio Receiver so as to get unclipped demodulated signal
at detector's output (output of audio amplifier).
5. Note the voltage level at receiver's final output stage i.e. audio amplifier's output on
CRO (voltage at resonance (Vr)).
Observations:

Selectivity
S.No Carrier Frequency Output Voltage Ratio= 20log(vi/vr) dB

Sensitivity
S.No Carrier Frequency Output(VPP)

Fidelity:
S.No Carrier frequency Modulating Output Voltage Relative
frequency response=20log(vi/vr)
 6. Now gradually offset the carrier frequency in suitable steps of 5 KHz or 10 KHz below
and above the frequency adjusted in step 2 without changing the tuning of receiver
while maintaining the input signal level.
7. Now record the signal level at output of audio amplifier for different input carrier
frequency, on CRO (i.e. voltage off resonance (Vi)).
8. Calculate the ratio, Ratio = 20 log (Vi / Vr) dB
9. Plot the curve between ratio and carrier frequency.

b) To observe sensitivity
1. Setting on AM / FM Radio Receiver:
2. Apply AM signal, with 400Hz modulating signal and 30% modulation, taken from AM
generator into AM Receiver input socket.
3. Set the input carrier frequency so as to lie within the AM Band (525 KHz-1600KHz).
Also tune the detector to that carrier frequency using tuning control.(You will hear
atone)
4. Set the input AM level to 100mV. Also adjust the gain potentiometer provided in R.F.
amplifier section of AM / FM Radio Receiver so as to get unclipped demodulated
signal at detectors output.
5. Record input carrier frequency & signal level at the final output stage i.e. output of audio
amplifier (observed on CRO).
6. Change the input carrier frequency & also tune the receiver to that frequency & repeat
step 4.
7. Calculate peak to peak voltage
8. Plot the graph between carrier frequency & output level.

c) To observe fedility
1. Setting on Scientech 2202:
a) Set the detector in diode mode.
b) AGC on.
c) Set the volume control fully clockwise.
2. Apply AM signal of 100mV with 400Hz modulating signal and 30% modulation, into Rx
input.
3. Select a suitable carrier frequency that lies within AM Band (525 KHz – 1600 KHz). Tune
the Scientech 2202 receiver to that frequency using tuning control. Also adjust gain
potentiometer provided in R.F. amplifier section so as to get unclipped demodulated signal
at detector's output.
4. Note the demodulated signal level (Vr) at the final output stage i.e. output of audio amplifier
(on CRO) for the applied AM signal with 400Hz modulating signal.
5. Now vary the modulating signal frequency over audio range (300 Hz-3 KHz) in suitable
steps say 100Hz. Note the corresponding output level (Vi) at the output of audio amplifier
(on CRO).
6. Calculate Relative response = 20 log (Vi / Vr) dB
7. Plot the graph between modulating frequency and relative response.

Result:
10. PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND DEMODULATION
Experiment No: Date:

PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

AIM: To study the process of pulse amplitude modulation and demodulation

APPARATUS:
1. Pulse modulator Scientech 2110 kit with Power Supply cord ,
2. Digital Storage Oscilloscope with connecting probe
3. Connecting cords

THEORY:
In PAM, the amplitude of regularly spaced rectangular pulses very with the instantaneous
sample values of a continuous message signal in a one-to-one transition. Thus a PAM wave is
defined by
α
S(t)   1  k m(nT ) g(t  nt )
N  α
a s s

Where m(nts) represents the nth sample of the message signal m(t), Ts is the sampling period, ka is a
constant called the amplitude sensitivity and g(t) denotes the pulse. The constant K a is chosen so as
to maintain a single polarity, that is, [1+k am(Tns)]>0 for all n. In practice it is customary to choose
1/Ts greater than the highest frequency component of m(t). The PAM wave S(t) is easily
demodulated by a low pass filter (LPF) with a cutoff frequency just large enough to accommodate
the highest frequency component of the message signal m(t).
MODEL WAVEFORMS
PROCEDURE:

Modulation Procedure :
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Connection Block Diagram
 Output of sine wave to modulation signal IN in PAM block keeping the
switch in 1 KHz position.
 8 KHz pulse output to pulse input.
 Output of low pass filter to input of AC Amplifier. Keep the gain pot in AC
Amplifier block in anti clock wise position.
2. Switch ‘On’ the Power Supply & Oscilloscope.
3. Observe the outputs at TP (3) together with Modulation signal input TP (3) and
Pulse input TP (1). This is a Natural sampling output.
4. Observe the Flat Top output at TP (5), together with Modulation signal input TP (2) and
Pulse input TP (1). This is Flat Top Sampling output.
5. Observe the output of sample & hold circuit at TP4, together with Modulation signal
input TP (2) and Pulse input TP (1). This is Sample & Hold output.
Demodulation Procedure :
1. Connect the Sample and Hold output to the input of low pass filter. Observe the output of
the Low pass filter TP (12) together with Modulation signal input TP (2).
2. Observe the output of the AC Amplifier TP (14) together with Modulation signal input
TP (2). Vary the Gain of AC Amplifier to get the unclipped output. Vary the amplitude of
input; the amplitude of output will vary.
3. Repeat the above procedure also for Natural Sampled output & Flat Top Sampled output.
Output Waveforms:

Pulse Carrier

Modulating Signal

Natural Sampled PAM

Sample and Hold Circuit Output

Flat Top Sampled PAM

Recovered Modulating Signal

Result :
 11. PULSE WIDTH MODULATION AND
DEMODULATION

Digital Communications Lab Dept. of ECE

MODEL WAVEFORMS

Vm

Modulating signal (1KHz)

10V

-10V
Vc Carrier signal (8KHz)

VS PWM signal

10V

t
80s
5V Demodulated Signal
1s

-5V

Digital Communications Lab Dept. of ECE

Experiment No: Date:

PULSE WIDTH MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

AIM: To study the process of pulse width modulation and demodulation

APPARATUS:
 Scientech 2110 with Power Supply cord,
 CRO with connecting probe,
 Connecting cords

THEORY:
In a pulse modulation system we may use the increased bandwidth consumed by
pulses to obtain an improvement in noise performance by representing the sample values
of the message signal by some property of the pulse other than by amplitude. In pulse
width modulation, the samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of the
individual pulses. The modulating wave may vary the time of occurrence of the leading
edge, trailing edge or both edges of the pulse.

Digital Communications Lab Dept. of ECE

Digital Communications Lab Dept. of ECE
PROCEDURE:
 Modulation Procedure :
1. Connect the circuit as shown in next figure and also described below for clarity.
· 1 KHz sine wave output of Function Generator block to modulation input of
PWM block.
· 8 KHz square wave output to pulse input of PWM block.
2. Switch ‘On’ the Power Supply & Oscilloscope.
3. Observe the PWM outputs at TP (10) together with Modulation signal input TP(9).
4. Vary the amplitude of sine wave and see its effect on width of pulse output.
5. Also, change the frequency of the pulse by connecting the pulse input to
different pulse frequencies viz. 8 KHz, 16 KHz, 32 KHz and see the variations
in the PWM output.
 Demodulation Procedure :

1. Connect the circuit as shown in next figure and also described below for clarity.
 1 KHz sine wave output of Function Generator block to modulation input of
PWM block.
 8 KHz square wave output to pulse input.
 Output of PWM to input of low pass filter.
 Output of low pass filter to input of AC Amplifier.
2. Switch ‘On’ the Power Supply & Oscilloscope.
3. Observe the waveform at the output of Low pas filter TP12 together with
modulation signal input (9).
4. Then observe the demodulated output at the output of AC Amplifier TP14
together with modulation signal input TP (9). Vary the Gain of AC Amplifier to get
the unclipped output. Vary the amplitude of input; the amplitude of output
will vary.
5. Now, connect the pulse input in the pulse width modulation block to the
different frequencies available on board viz. 8, 16, 32 KHz and observe
their demodulated waveforms.
6. Try varying the amplitude of sine wave signal; you will observe that the output
signal varies similarly.

Result :

Digital Communications Lab Dept. of ECE

Digital Communications Lab Dept. of ECE
11. PULSE WIDTH MODULATION AND
DEMODULATION
MODEL WAVEFORMS

Vm

Modulating signal (1KHz)

10V

-10V
Vc Carrier signal (8KHz)

VS PWM signal

10V

t
80s
5V Demodulated Signal
1s

-5V
Experiment No: Date:

PULSE WIDTH MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

AIM: To study the process of pulse width modulation and demodulation

APPARATUS:
 Scientech 2110 with Power Supply cord,
 CRO with connecting probe,
 Connecting cords

THEORY:
In a pulse modulation system we may use the increased bandwidth consumed by
pulses to obtain an improvement in noise performance by representing the sample values
of the message signal by some property of the pulse other than by amplitude. In pulse
width modulation, the samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of the
individual pulses. The modulating wave may vary the time of occurrence of the leading
edge, trailing edge or both edges of the pulse.
PROCEDURE:
 Modulation Procedure :
1. Connect the circuit as shown in next figure and also described below for clarity.
· 1 KHz sine wave output of Function Generator block to modulation input of
PWM block.
· 8 KHz square wave output to pulse input of PWM block.
2. Switch ‘On’ the Power Supply & Oscilloscope.
3. Observe the PWM outputs at TP (10) together with Modulation signal input TP(9).
4. Vary the amplitude of sine wave and see its effect on width of pulse output.
5. Also, change the frequency of the pulse by connecting the pulse input to
different pulse frequencies viz. 8 KHz, 16 KHz, 32 KHz and see the variations
in the PWM output.
 Demodulation Procedure :

1. Connect the circuit as shown in next figure and also described below for clarity.
 1 KHz sine wave output of Function Generator block to modulation input of
PWM block.
 8 KHz square wave output to pulse input.
 Output of PWM to input of low pass filter.
 Output of low pass filter to input of AC Amplifier.
2. Switch ‘On’ the Power Supply & Oscilloscope.
3. Observe the waveform at the output of Low pas filter TP12 together with
modulation signal input (9).
4. Then observe the demodulated output at the output of AC Amplifier TP14
together with modulation signal input TP (9). Vary the Gain of AC Amplifier to get
the unclipped output. Vary the amplitude of input; the amplitude of output
will vary.
5. Now, connect the pulse input in the pulse width modulation block to the
different frequencies available on board viz. 8, 16, 32 KHz and observe
their demodulated waveforms.
6. Try varying the amplitude of sine wave signal; you will observe that the output
signal varies similarly.

Result :
12. Automatic Gain Control Circuit (AGC)
Characteristics
Experiment No: Date:

Automatic Gain Control Circuit (AGC) Characteristics

Aim:
To observe the function of Automatic Gain Control Circuit (AGC).

Apparatus required: Scientec 2661A AM / FM Radio Receiver kit, Function Generation, Digital
oscilloscope and Probes.

Theory:
Automatic Gain Control (AGC) circuits are employed in many systems where the amplitude of an
incoming signal can vary over a wide dynamic range. The role of the AGC circuit is to provide
relatively constant output amplitude so that circuits following the AGC circuit require less
dynamic range.
The AGC circuit is used to prevent very strong signals from overloading the receiver. It can also
reduce the effect of fluctuations in the received signal strength. The 'AGC circuit makes use of the
mean DC voltage level present at the output of the diode detector. If the signal increases, the mean
DC voltage level also increases, IF the mean DC voltage level exceeds a predetermined threshold
value, a voltage is applied to the RF and IF amplifiers in such a way as to decrease their gain to
prevent overload. As soon as the incoming signal strength decreases, such that the mean DC
voltage level is reduced below the threshold, the RF and IF amplifiers return to their normal
operation.

AGC Off:

AGC ON:
Observations:

S.No Carrier Frequency Output Voltage Ratio = 20 log (Vi /

Vr) dB

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Model Graph :

Fig. AGC Charecteristics.

Procedure:

1. Generate an amplitude modulated signal using scientec kit.

2. Adjust the volume pot in the output stage of the receiver until a sound is just audible, then
tune into the audio signal generated by the Standard AM Source (fine tuning for the
strongest possible signal may be required.)
3. On the Standard AM Source, set the AM< amplitude to minimum.
4. Monitor the output from the AGC circuit. (At the moment the voltage present is zero
volts.)
5. Slowly and carefully, increase the amplitude of the transmitted signal by increasing the
gain pot in the generator output amplifier as you observe the increasing sinewave at the
receiver output at Output amplifier and the AGC signal.
6. The receiver output will slowly increase without any change of AGC level. This is the
delay mentioned in the audio amplifier. Further increases in generator level will cause the
AGC voltage decrease.
Notice how the increased input signal from the generator is largely offset by the AGC
circuit to maintain a reasonably constant level of signal at Output amplifier.
7. Switch off the Power Supply. We can now observe the operation of the AGC circuit under
'real' conditions.
8. Tune the receiver until a broadcast station is heard. If no station is heard over the whole
tuning range, RF amplifier gain can be increased slightly before retuning. It is likely that
the volume from the speaker will be quite low and the AGC output signal will be showing
no response.
9. Now slowly increase the RF amplifier gain observing the effects on the loudspeaker
volume and the signals on the Oscilloscope.
10. Disconnect the AGC circuit input / output connections and listen to the loudspeaker
output. The signal will sound very distorted due to the receiver amplifiers being
overloaded.
11. Connect the AGC circuit input / output connections again and notice how effective it is in
preventing overloading.

Result: