PREPARATION AND ANALYSIS OF ALUMINIUM

REINFORCED WITH GRANITE AND FLY ASH – A

HYBRID METAL MATRIX COMPOSITE

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

PANKHAJ.D (312416114101)
PRAVEEN.S (312416114106)
In partial fulfillment for the requirement of award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

St. JOSEPH’S INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

CHENNAI- 600 119

ANNA UNIVERSITY:: CHENNAI 600 025

SEPTEMBER 2020
 ANNA UNIVERSITY : CHENNAI 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this project report “PREPARATION AND ANALYSIS OF
ALUMINIUM REINFORCED WITH GRANITE AND FLY ASH – A
HYBRID METAL MATRIX COMPOSITE” is the bonafide work of
PANKHAJ.D (312416114101) and PRAVEEN.S (312416114106) who carried
out the project under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
Dr.K.ARUN VASANTHA Mr. SAKTHIVEL.D, M.E.,
GEETHAN, M.E,Ph.D.,
Head of the department, Assistant Professor,
Department of Mechanical Department of Mechanical,
Engineering, Engineering,
St. Joseph’s Institute of Technology, St. Joseph’s Institute of Technology,
Chennai – 600119. Chennai – 600 119.

Submitted for the ANNA UNIVESITY examination held on

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The contentment and elation that accompany the successful completion

of any work would be incomplete without mentioning the people who
made it possible.We are extremely happy to express my gratitude in
thanking our beloved Chairman Dr. BabuManoharan M.A., M.B.A.,
Ph.D., who has been a pillar of strength to this college.

Words are inadequate in offering my sincere thanks and gratitude to our

respected Managing Director Mrs.B.Jessie Priya M.Com. and
Director Mr.B.Sashi Sekar M.S.C., beloved Principal
Dr.P.RavichandranM.Tech., Ph.D., for having encouraged me to do
my under graduation in Mechanical Engineering in this esteemed
college.

We also express my sincere thanks and most heartfelt sense of gratitude

to our Head of the Department Dr.K.Arun Vasantha Geethan M.E.,
Ph.D and Dr.V. Savithiri M.E.,Ph.D, for having extended their helping
hand at all times.

With profound respects, we express our deep sense of gratitude and

sincere thanks to our internal guide, Mr.D.Sakthivel , M.E.,for his
valuable guidance and suggestions throughout this project. We express
our thanks to all staff members for their assistance and guidance on
making this project a success.
 ABSTRACT

Nowadays composite materials have become more popular for its

wide range of applications and design flexibility. Since the fuel costs are
increasing day to day, most of the automobile industries are conducting various
experiments to develop composites having less densities and superior mechanical
and tribological properties which are equally cost effective. In view of the above,
most of the research has been focused on improving mechanical and tribological
properties of aluminium alloys by adding with ceramic reinforcements.

Granite is a common type of igneous rock consists mainly of quartz and

other minerals. It possesses high compressive strength, impervious and inflexible.
Granite powder is most inexpensive as it comes as waste in granite cutting
factories. Granite is well known for its self-lubricating properties, which is a semi
metal and an allotrope of carbon.

Research was done to improve the properties of aluminium using both

granite and Fly Ash as reinforcements separately. Till now, no work is done on
the combination of both granite and Fly ash in a single composite. The present
work mainly focuses on the “Preparation and Analysis of Aluminium
Reinforced with Granite and Fly ash – A Hybrid Metal Matrix Composite”.
CHAPTER TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE
NO NO
TITLE
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 COMPOSITE MATERIAL 1
1.2 NATURAL COMPOSITES 1
1.3 MAN MADE COMPOSITES 1
1.4 WHY USE COMPOSITES 2
1.5 HISTORY OF COMPOSITES 2
1.6 CONSTITUENTS OF COMPOSITE MATERIAL 3
1.7 MATRIX PHASE 3
1.7.1 CLASSIFICATION OF MATRIX 3
1.8 REINFORCEMENT (DISPERSED) PHASE 4
1.8.1 CLASSIFICATION REINFORCEMENT 4
1.9 TYPES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS 5
1.10 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITE BASED 5
ON MATRIX MATERIAL
1.10.1 METAL MATRIX COMPOSITE (MMC) 6
1.10.2 CERAMIC MATRIX COMPOSITE (CMC) 6
1.10.3 POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITE (PMC) 6
1.10.4 CARBON AND FLY ASH 6
1.11 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES BASED 6
ON REINFORCED MATERIAL
1.11.1 PARTICULATE COMPOSITE 7
1.11.2 FIBROURS COMPOSITE 7
1.11.3 STRUCTURAL COMPOSITE 8
1.12 COMPOSITE MATERIAL WITH METAL 8
MATRIX
 1.13.1 LIQUID STATE METHODS 9
1.13.2 SOLID STATE METHODS 9
1.13.3 SEMI SOLID STATE METHODS 9
1.14 VAPOUR DEPOSITION 10
1.15 IN SITU FABRICATION TECHNIQUE 10
1.16 STIR CASTING 10
1.17 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS 11
1.17.1 ADVANTAGES OF FINTE ELEMENT 12
ANALYSIS
2. LITERATURE REVIEW 13
3. PROBLEM FORMULATION 16
3.1 IDENTIFICATION OF NEED 16
3.2 SELECTION OF MATRIX 16
3.2.1 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF LM16 18
ALLOY
3.2.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF LM16 18
ALLOY
3.2.3 SELECTION OF REINFORCEMENT 19
3.2.4 GRANITE 19
3.2.5 SELECTION OF PROCESS 20
3.2.6 SELECTION OF OPTIMAL COMPOSITION 20
4. EXPERIMENTAL WORK 22
4.1 SAND CASTING 22
4.1.1 BASIC PROCESS 22
4.1.2 COMPONENTS 23
4.1.3 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS 26
4.2 PROCESSES 27
4.2.1 GREEN SAND 27
 4.2.2 THE “AIR SET” METHOD 28
5. SOFTWARES – AN OVERVIEW 30
5.1 CATIA 30
5.2 ANSYS EVALUATION 32
5.2.1 PROCEDURE 33
5.3 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 33
5.3.1 TYPES OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 33
5.3.2 ELEMENTS USED IN STRUCTURAL 34
ANALYSIS
5.4 MATERIAL MODEL INTERFACE 34
5.4.1 TYPES OF SOLUTION METHODS 35
5.5 STRUCTURAL STATIC ANALYSIS 35
5.5.1 PERFORMING A STATIC ANALYSIS 36
5.6 MODELING COMPOSITES 36
5.6.1 CHOOSING THE PROPER ELEMENT TYPE 36
5.7 ELEMENT TYPE USED IN THE PROJECT 38
5.7.1 SOLID 45 ELEMENT DESCRIPTION 38
5.7.2 TARGET 170 ELEMENT DESCRIPTION 39
6. DISCUSSION 41
6.1 DENSITY 41
7. MODELLING AND ANALYSIS IN STEPS 42
7.1 MESHING 42
7.2 APPLYING CONSTRAINTS 42
7.3 APPLYING FORCE 43
7.4 DEFORMATION 43
7.5 STRESS 44
7.6 STRAIN 44
8. TEST RESULTS 47
 8.1 CHARPY IMPACT TEST 47
8.2 BRINELL HARDNESS TEST 47
8.3 SALT SPRAY TEST 47
9. MICROSTRUCTURE ANALYSIS 51
10. CONCLUSION 52
11. SCOPE OF FUTURE WORK 53
12. BIBLIOGRAPHY 54
 LIST OF TABLES

S.NO TITLE PAGE

NO
1 3.1 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF LM16 18
ALLOY
2 3.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF LM16 ALLOY 18

3 3.3 AVERAGE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF 19

GRANITE

4 7.1 STRESS TABLE 45

5 7.2 STRAIN TABLE 45

6 7.3 DEFORMATION TABLE 46

7 8.1 CHARPY IMPACT TEST 47

8 8.2 BRINELL HARDNESS TEST 47

9 8.3 SALT SPRAY TEST 48

 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Composite Material

A composite is when two or more different materials are combined together
to create a superior and unique material.

A composite material is made by combining two or more materials – often

ones that have very different properties. The two materials work together to give
the composite unique properties. However, within the composite you can easily
tell the different materials apart as they do not dissolve or blend into each other.

1.2. Natural Composites

Many of us may not be noticed that several, naturally formed materials
around us are composites.

Wood is a composite made from cellulose and lignin. The advanced forms
of wood composites can be ply-woods. An excellent example of natural
composite is muscles of human body. The muscles are present in a layered system
consisting of fibers at different orientations and in different concentrations. These
result in a very strong, efficient, versatile and adaptable structure. The muscles
impart strength to bones and vice a versa. These two together form a structure
that is unique. The bone itself is a composite structure. The bone contains mineral
matrix material which binds the collagen fibres together.

The other examples include: wings of a bird, fins of a fish, trees and grass.
A leaf of a tree is also an excellent example of composite structure.

1.3. Man-Made Composites

These composites are made by artificial mixing of two or more materials
in definite proportions under controlled conditions. Mud mixed straw to produce

1
stronger mud mortar and bricks, Plywood, Chipboards, Decorative laminates,
Fibre Reinforced Plastic (FRP), Carbon Composites, Concrete and RCC,
Reinforced Glass etc. The concrete is a composite made from gravel, sand and
cement. Further, when it is used along with steel to form structural components
in construction, it forms one further form of composite.

1.4. Why use composites?

The biggest advantage of modern composite materials is that they are light
as well as strong. By choosing an appropriate combination of matrix and
reinforcement material, a new material can be made that exactly meets the
requirements of a particular application. Composites also provide design
flexibility because many of them can be moulded into complex shapes.

1.5. History of Composites

The first uses of composites date back to the 1500s B.C. when early
Egyptians and Mesopotamian settlers used a mixture of mud and straw to create
strong and durable buildings. Straw continued to provide reinforcement to ancient
composite products including pottery and boats.

Later, in 1200 BC, the Mongols invented the first composite bow. Using a
combination of wood, bone, and animal glue, bows were pressed and wrapped
with birch bark. These bows were extremely powerful. Composite Mongolian
bows provided Genghis Khan with military dominance, and because of the
composite technology, this weapon was the most powerful weapon on earth until
the invention of gunpowder.

As said, “Need is the mother of all inventions”, the modern composites, that is,
polymer composites came into existence during the Second World War. During
this period the fighter planes were the most advanced fighting means. The light

2
weight yet strong materials were in high demand. Further, for application like
housing of electronic radar equipment require non-metallic materials.

In 1935, Owens Corning introduced the first glass fiber, fiberglass.

Fiberglass, when combined with a plastic polymer creates an incredibly strong
structure that is also lightweight.

1.6. Constituents of a Composite Material

In a composite, typically, there are two constituents. One of the constituent
acts as a reinforcement and other acts as a matrix. Sometimes, the constituents
are also referred as phases.

1.7. Matrix Phase

The primary phase, the monolithic material into which the reinforcement
is embedded, and having a continuous character, is called matrix. Matrix is
usually more ductile and less hard phase.

1.7.1. Classification of Matrix

The matrix in a composite material can be grouped based on the type of material
as given below

Matrix

Metal Matrix Ceramic Matrix Polymer Matrix

Figure 1.1 Classification of Matrix

3
 1.8. Reinforcement (Dispersed) Phase
The second phase (or phases) is embedded in the matrix in a discontinuous
form. This secondary phase is called dispersed phase. Dispersed phase is usually
stronger than the matrix, therefore it is sometimes called reinforcing phase.

1.8.1. Classification of reinforcements

The reinforcements in a composite material come in various forms.

Reinforcements

Fibres Particulate Flakes Whiskers

Figure 1.2 Classification of Reinforcements

Fibre: Fibre is an individual filament of the material. A filament with length to

diameter ratio above 1000 is called as a fibre. The fibrous form of the
reinforcement is widely used. The fibres can be in the following two forms:

Continuous fibres: If the fibres used in a composite are very long and unbroken
or cut then it forms a continuous fibre composite. The fibrous composite is the
widely used form of composite.

Short/chopped fibres: The fibres are chopped into small pieces when used in
fabricating a composite. A composite with short fibres as reinforcements is called
as short fibre composite.

Particulate: The reinforcement is in the form of particles which are of the order
of a few microns in the diameter. The particles are generally added to increase
the modulus and decrease the ductility of the matrix materials. The composite
with reinforcement in particle form is called as particulate composite.
4
Flake: Flake is a small, flat, thin piece or layer (or a chip) that is broken from a
larger piece. Since these are two dimensional in geometry, they impart almost
equal strength in all directions of their planes. Thus, these are very effective
reinforcement components. The flakes can be packed more densely when they
are laid parallel, even denser than unidirectional fibres and spheres.

Whiskers: These are nearly perfect single crystal fibres. These are short,
discontinuous and polygonal in cross-section.

1.9. Types of Composite Materials

There are two classification systems of composite materials. One of them
is based on the matrix material and the second is based on the reinforcing material
structure:

1.10. Classification of Composites Based on Matrix Material

Since composite materials does not limit to any specific materials or
metals, matrix can be any of the materials like plastics, glass, metals etc. all these
materials were grouped based on the type of material. Figure 1.3 shows the
classification of composites based on the matrix materials.

Figure 1.3 Classification of Composites Based on Matrix Material

5
1.10.1. Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)

Metal Matrix Composites are composed of a metallic matrix (aluminium,

magnesium, iron, cobalt, copper) and a dispersed ceramic (oxides, carbides) or
metallic (lead, tungsten, molybdenum) phase.

1.10.2. Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC)

Ceramic Matrix Composites are composed of a ceramic matrix and

embedded fibers of other ceramic material (dispersed phase).

1.10.3. Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

Polymer Matrix Composites are composed of a matrix from thermo set

(Unsaturated Polyester, Epoxy) or thermoplastic (Polycarbonate,
Polyvinylchloride, Nylon, Polystyrene) and embedded glass, carbon, steel or
Kevlar fibers (dispersed phase).

1.10.4. Carbon and Fly ash

Carbon fibres in carbon matrix – carbon/carbon composites used under

extreme mechanical and thermal loads in space applications.

1.11. Classification of Composites Based on Reinforcing

Material
Reinforcing material in composites can be of different materials or the
combination of two or more materials (Hybrid Composites). One simple schema
for the classification of composites bases on reinforcing material is shown in
Figure 1.4.

6
 Figure 1.4 Classification of Composites Based on Reinforcements

1.11.1. Particulate Composites

Particulate Composites consist of a matrix reinforced by a dispersed phase

in form of particles.

i. Composites with random orientation of particles.

ii. Composites with preferred orientation of particles. Dispersed phase of

these materials consists of two-dimensional flat platelets (flakes), laid
parallel to each other.

1.11.2. Fibrous Composites

Short-fiber reinforced composites. Short-fiber reinforced composites consist of a

matrix reinforced by a dispersed phase in form of discontinuous fibers.

i. Composites with random orientation of fibers.

ii. Composites with preferred orientation of fibers.

7
Long-fiber reinforced composites. Long-fiber reinforced composites consist of a
matrix reinforced by a dispersed phase in form of continuous fibers.

i. Unidirectional orientation of fibers.

ii. Bidirectional orientation of fibers (woven).

1.11.3. Structural Composites

Structural composites are combinations of composites and homogeneous

materials. When a fiber reinforced composite consists of several layers with
different fiber orientations, it is called multilayer (angle-ply) composite.

1.12. Composite Materials with Metal Matrix

Particulate composites consist of particles immersed in matrices such as

alloys and ceramics. They are usually isotropic since the particles are added
randomly. Particulate composites have advantages such as improved strength,
increased operating temperature and oxidation resistance etc. Typical examples
include use of aluminium particles in rubber, silicon carbide particles in
aluminium, and gravel sand, cement to make concrete.

Flake composites consist of flat reinforcements of matrices. Typical flake

materials are glass, mica, aluminium, and silver.

Figure 1.5 Composite Materials with Metal Matrices

8
 1.13. Manufacturing and forming methods of MMC
MMC manufacturing can be broken into three types—solid, liquid, and
vapour.

1.13.1. Liquid state methods

Stir casting: Discontinuous reinforcement is stirred into molten metal, which is
allowed to solidify.

Electroplating and electroforming: A solution containing metal ions loaded with

reinforcing particles is co-deposited forming a composite material.

Squeeze casting: Molten metal is injected into a form with fibers pre-placed
inside it.

Spray deposition: Molten metal is sprayed onto a continuous fiber substrate.

Reactive processing: A chemical reaction occurs, with one of the reactants

forming the matrix and the other the reinforcement.

1.13.2. Solid state methods

Powder blending and consolidation (powder metallurgy): Powdered metal and
discontinuous reinforcement are mixed and then bonded through a process of
compaction, degassing, and thermo-mechanical treatment (possibly via hot iso
static pressing (HIP) or extrusion).

Foil diffusion bonding: Layers of metal foil are sandwiched with long fibers, and
then pressed through to form a matrix.

1.13.3. Semi solid-state methods

Semi-solid powder processing: Powder mixture is heated up to semi-solid state
and pressure is applied to form the composites.

9
 1.14. Vapour deposition
Physical vapour deposition: The fiber is passed through a thick cloud of
vaporized metal, coating it.

1.15. In situ fabrication technique

Controlled unidirectional solidification of a eutectic alloy can result in a
two-phase microstructure with one of the phases, present in lamellar or fiber
form, distributed in the matrix.

1.16. Stir Casting

Stir Casting is a liquid state method of composite materials fabrication, in
which a discontinuous reinforcement is mixed with a molten matrix metal by
means of mechanical stirring. The layout of conventional Stir Casting set up is
shown in Figure 1.6.

Figure 1.6 Stir Casting Process

10
 At first, the matrix metal is melted in the crucible and then metal treatment
(like degassing, fluxing, etc.) is carried out without stirring. Later, stirrer is
inserted into the crucible and allowed to rotate the molten metal. Vortex is formed
in the crucible due to the rotation of stirrer. Required quantity of reinforcement is
preheated in a separate chamber and is gradually added to the vortex for uniform
mixing of reinforcement in to the matrix.

After the addition of reinforcement stirrer is removed from the crucible and
the liquid composite material is then cast by conventional casting methods and
may also be processed by conventional Metal forming technologies.

1.17. Finite Element Analysis

In the finite element analysis, the actual continuum or body of matter like
solid, liquid or gas is represented as an assemblage of sub divisions called finite
elements. These elements are considered to be interconnected at specified joints,
which are called nodes or nodal points. The nodes usually lie on the element
boundaries where adjacent elements are considered to be connected. Since the
actual variation of the field variable inside the continuum is not known, we
assume that the variation of field variable inside a finite element. This can be
approximated by a simple function. These approximating functions are defined
in terms of the values at the nodes. By solving the field equations, which are
generally in the form of matrix equations, the nodal values of the field variable
will be known. Once these are known, the approximating function defines the
field variable throughout the assemblage of elements.

11
1.17.1. Advantages of Finite Element Analysis
Finite element analysis has the following advantages
 Reduces the amount of prototype testing.
 Can simulate designs those are not suitable for prototype testing.
 Accurate representation of complex geometry
 Inclusion of dissimilar material properties
 Easy representation of the total solution
 Capture of local effects.

12
 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

In the last two decades, research has shifted from monolithic materials to
composite materials to meet the global demand for light weight, high
performance, environmentally friendly, wear and corrosion resistant materials.
Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) are suitable for applications requiring
combined strength, thermal conductivity, damping properties and low coefficient
of thermal expansion with lower density. These properties of MMCs enhance
their usage in automotive and tribological applications. In the field of automobile,
MMCs are used for pistons, brake drum and cylinder block because of better
corrosion resistance and wear resistance.

There is a growing interest worldwide in manufacturing hybrid metal

matrix composites [HMMCs] which possesses combined properties of its
reinforcements and exhibit improved physical, mechanical and tribological
properties.

Di-Al-Sil (Die Cast Aluminium Silicon) Cylinder, its application can be

found on Yamaha R series bikes. A conventional cylinder has a steel sleeve, but
the Di-Al-Sil cylinder doesn’t need a steel sleeve because it is made of abrasion-
resistant aluminium alloy. The all-aluminium combustion chamber has a heat
dissipation rate that is three times better than steel, which means great cooling
performance. Di-Al-Sil Cylinder adds a silicon content of 20% to the aluminium
alloy to achieve the required hardness to resist abrasion. Honda Company used
AMMC for cylinder liners in some of their engines like F20C, F22C and H22A.

According to Rohit Kumar, Ravi Rajan, & R K Tyagi, 2013, the yield strength
and tensile strength of the composites decrease with increasing the volume
fraction of the Si-C particles, while the hardness of the composites increases with
increasing the volume fraction of the Si-C particles so that impact strength

13
increases with increase in volume fraction of reinforcement at a certain limit
(upto10 %) after starts decreasing.

G.G. Sozhamannan, S. BalasivanandhaPrabu and V. S. K.

Venkatagalapathy 2012 observed that production of Aluminium composite
reinforced with discontinuous ceramic particulates by Stir casting route will have
homogeneous mix and is cost effective process. The major problem in this
technology is to obtain sufficient wetting of particle by the liquid metal and to get
a homogeneous dispersion of the ceramic particles.

Neelima, Mahesh, & Selvaraj, 2011 has conducted experiments on Al-Si-C and
showed that the weight to strength ratio for Aluminium silicon carbide is about
three times that of mild steel during Tensile test. Aluminium silicon carbide alloy
composite material is two times less in weight than the aluminium of the same
dimensions. The maximum tensile strength has been obtained at 15% Si : C ratio.
This indicates that the Aluminium silicon carbide composite material is having
less weight and more strength.

Dunia Abdul Saheb 2011 This study reveals that increasing trend of hardness
with the increase in granite up to 4 wt% weight fraction. Beyond this the hardness
of composite decreases as granite particles interact with each other leading to
clustering of particles.

S. Naher, D. Brabazon and L. Looney 2003 has simulated stir casting process
using different blade designs and studied the effects of stirring speed, blade angles
and number of blades on the uniform dispersion of SiC particles into different
liquid medium and time required for uniform dispersion of particles. It was
observed that settling times of particles only depends on the viscosity of the liquid
metal and does not depend on the stirring speed and blade design.

14
M. Singh, et al. 2000 and M Singh, et al. 2001 has conducted tribological tests
on LM6 aluminium alloy reinforced with 10% Granite particles. Samples were
made by stir casting method in an oil-fired furnace. Sliding wear tests were
conducted on pin-on-disc machine at different applied loads. It was noticed that
hardness and tribological properties were improved by the addition of granite
particles to the matrix alloy and the seizure pressure of the composite is higher
than the matrix alloy.

A.R Riahi and A.T Alpas 2001 have focused on systemic tests of the role of
tribo-layers which are formed on contact surfaces of hybrid composites with
A356 aluminium base. Tests were done on Al/SiC/Gr hybrid composite with
A356 base, 10% SiC with particle size of 16 μm and 3% of granite with particle
size of 80 μm and 138 μm. Performed tribological tests determined dependence
between wear and sliding speed and load. The tests were performed on block on
ring tribometer for loads of 5–420 N and for sliding speeds of 0.2–3.0 m/s.

M.L. Ted Guo and C.Y.A. Tsao 2000 have studied tribological behaviour of Al-
SiC and granite hybrid composites with different granite composition and found
that friction coefficient decreases with the addition of granite up to 5% and no
considerable change noticed with further increase in granite and also observed
that hardness of the composite decreases with addition of granite.

B.MALLICK, P.C. MAITY and V.K. SINHA 1998 explained that addition of
magnesium to the liquid aluminium will reduce the surface tension of the melt
facilitating the depression of ceramic particles in to the melt and also increases
the wetting properties of metal-ceramic systems through reduction in solid-liquid
interfacial energy.

15
 3. PROBLEM FORMULATION

3.1. Identification of need

Usage of automobiles was increasing day to day. But at the same time,
search for alternate fuels increased as the conventional non-renewable sources of
petroleum getting depleted. Simultaneously, automotive industries promoting the
development of lighter and fuel-efficient vehicles considering the manufacturing
costs and the life of the vehicle.

Composite materials have more advantages over steel in automobile

manufacturing. Composites are being considered to make lighter, safer and more
fuel-efficient vehicles. Affordability is an important issue in vehicle
manufacturing, which includes factoring in the costs associated with a car’s
complete life-cycle—including manufacturing, operating and disposal costs.

In view of developing less dense, low cost, highly durable materials for the
automobile components, composites were the best choice for obtaining materials
with such type of properties. Even though aluminium has replaced most of the
ferrous based engine components like cylinder head, piston, cylinder block etc.,
its usage was restricted to very few applications due to very less wear resistance
of aluminium alloys. This can be improved by pairing aluminium alloy with the
materials having good tribological properties.

3.2. Selection of Matrix

Aluminium is a relatively soft, durable, lightweight, ductile and malleable
metal. Aluminium is remarkable for the metal's ability to resist corrosion due to
the phenomenon of passivation. Aluminium has a lower density of 2.7 g/cc
compared to 7.8 g/cc of steel. Aluminium alloys are lightweight with good

16
corrosion resistance, ductility and strength. The greater use of aluminium can
decrease vehicle weight, improve its performance and reduce fuel costs.

Pure aluminium possesses relatively poor casting features, for this reason
castings are prepared from aluminium alloys. The main alloying elements are
silicon, copper, magnesium, zinc, etc. Aluminium silicon alloys have good
casting and corrosion resistance properties. The fluidity increases with silicon
addition. The addition of copper to aluminium increases its strength and hardness.
The aluminium copper alloys are heat treatable and possess good machinability.
Nowadays, aluminium alloys are replacing the ferrous alloys in manufacturing of
automobile components.

Even though aluminium alloys have such remarkable properties, usage of

aluminium is limited to some components because, compared to ferrous alloys
aluminium alloys possess less hardness and wear resistance which can be
improved by mixing suitable reinforcement.

Among various aluminium alloys LM16 (Al –Si5CulMg0.5) is one of the

most popular aluminium alloy used for water-cooled cylinder heads, valve
bodies, water jackets, cylinder blocks, fire hose couplings, air compressor pistons,
fuel pump bodies, aircraft supercharger covers and similar applications where
leak-proof castings having the high strength produced by heat-treatment are
required.

17
 3.2.1. Chemical Composition of LM16 Alloy
According to BS 1490; 1988 the chemical composition of LM16 alloy by weight
is given below
Table 3.1
Copper 1.0 - 1.5
Magnesium 0.4 - 0.6
Silicon 4.5 - 5.5
Iron 0.6 max
Manganese 0.5 max
Nickel 0.25 max
Zinc 0.1 max
Lead 0.1 max
Tin 0.05 max
Titanium 0.2 max
Aluminium Remainder

3.2.2. Mechanical Properties of LM16 Alloy

According to BS 1490; 1988 the mechanical properties of LM16 alloy is
as below

Table 3.2

Tensile Stress (N/mm2) 270 - 280

Impact Resistance Izod (Nm) 1.4
Brinell Hardness 100 - 110
Modulus of Elasticity (x103 N/mm2) 71

18
 3.2.3. Selection of Reinforcements
Aluminium has very poor wear resistance compared to ferrous alloys. To
improve the hardness and wear properties of aluminium alloy, reinforcement
must possess relatively high hardness and wear resistance. Ceramics are the
materials which stood in the top and well ahead of ferrous alloys. If a sound
composite can be produced with ceramic reinforcement, then the composite may
possess superior qualities equivalent or even better than some ferrous alloys.

Research has already been started to improve the tribological properties of

aluminium alloy. Different experiments showed that the materials like SiC,
granite, Fly ash, garnet etc. improved the hardness and wear properties of
aluminium alloys.

This work is mainly concentrated to develop a hybrid composite

reinforced with both granite and Fly ash particulates.

3.2.4. Granite
Granite is a common type of intrusive, felsic, igneous rock. The word
"granite" comes from the Latin granum, a grain, in reference to the coarse-grained
structure of such a crystalline rock. This rock consists mainly of quartz, mica, and
feldspar. Granites can be pink to gray in color, depending on their chemistry and
mineralogy. Granite is usually found in the continental plates of the Earth's crust.

Its compressive strength usually lies above 200 MPa, and its melting
temperature is 1215 - 1260 °C.

Table 3.3

SiO2 (Silica) 72.04

Al2O3 (Alumina) 14.42
K2O 4.12

19
 Na2O 3.69
CaO 1.82
FeO 1.68
Fe2O3 1.22
MgO 0.71
TiO2 0.30
P2O5 0.12
MnO 0.05

Both silica and alumina are ceramic compounds having high wear resistance and
silica is also called as quartz, which has very less coefficient of thermal expansion
because of which polished granite plates are used as surface plates to establish
plane of reference in engineering practice.

3.2.5. Selection of Process

There are many advanced processes for producing metal matrix composites
with discontinuous particulate reinforcement. Among all the processes, stir
casting route by producing vortex in the crucible by means of mechanical stirring
is the most suitable and cost-effective method for producing larger components
with homogeneous mixture of metal-ceramic particulates.

Most of the automobile components were produced by means of liquid

metallurgy technique. This type of process is simple and cost-effective technique
of producing components. Stir casting is also one of the liquid metallurgy
techniques for producing metal matrix composite.

3.2.6. Selection of Optimal Composition

It is obvious that the properties of the final composite depend on the
optimal composition of the Granite and Fly ash. According to various studies
20
conducted on Al-Gr MMC’s, better properties were obtained up to 4% of Granite
in the Al matrix and the grain size of Granite particulates varies from 40 to 150
microns based on process parameters.

It was observed that very less work has been conducted on Al – Granite
MMC’s. It was observed that the conducted studies were only on 10% w/w
Granite in Al matrix. In this regard, Granite ranging from 5% to 10% w/w will be
sufficient for the present work.

Since a hybrid composite is going to be prepared, composition of

reinforcements for obtaining better composite may differ from the results
obtained from studies done with a single reinforcement. The resulting composite
may show combined results of granite and Fly ash. By studying Al-Granite
composites, it was observed that the granite can be limited to 4% w/w and the
granite can be varied from 5% to 10% w/w with a step of 5%.

21
 4. EXPERIMENTAL WORK

4.1. SAND CASTING

Sand casting, also known as sand molded casting, is a metal

casting process characterized by using sand as the mold material. The term "sand
casting" can also refer to an object produced via the sand-casting process. Sand
castings are produced in specialized factories called foundries. Over 70% of all
metal castings are produced via a sand-casting process.

Sand casting is relatively cheap and sufficiently refractory even for steel foundry
use. In addition to the sand, a suitable bonding agent (usually clay) is mixed or
occurs with the sand. The mixture is moistened, typically with water, but
sometimes with other substances, to develop strength and plasticity of the clay
and to make the aggregate suitable for molding. The sand is typically contained
in a system of frames or mold boxes known as a flask. The mold cavities and gate
system are created by compacting the sand around models, or patterns, or carved
directly into the sand.

4.1.1. Basic process

There are six steps in this process:

1. Place a pattern in sand to create a mold.

2. Incorporate the pattern and sand in a gating system.
3. Remove the pattern.
4. Fill the mold cavity with molten metal.
5. Allow the metal to cool.
6. Break away the sand mold and remove the casting.

22
 Fig 4.1

4.1.2. Components
Patterns

Fig 4.2

Cope & drag (top and bottom halves of a sand mold), with cores in place on the
drag

Pattern (casting)

From the design, provided by an engineer or designer, a skilled pattern

maker builds a pattern of the object to be produced, using wood, metal, or a

23
plastic such as expanded polystyrene. Sand can be ground, swept or strickled into
shape. The pattern must be slightly larger than the finished product, a difference
known as contraction allowance. Patterns also have core prints that create
registers within the molds into which are placed sand cores.

Paths for the entrance of metal into the mold cavity constitute the runner system
and include the sprue, various feeders which maintain a good metal 'feed', and in-
gates which attach the runner system to the casting cavity. Gas and steam
generated during casting exit through the permeable sand or via risers, which are
added either in the pattern itself, or as separate pieces.

Molding box and materials

A multi-part molding box (known as a casting flask, the top and bottom halves of
which are known respectively as the cope and drag) is prepared to receive the
pattern. Molding boxes are made in segments that may be latched to each other
and to end closures. For a simple object, flat on one side, the lower portion of the
box, closed at the bottom, will be filled with a molding sand. The surface of the
sand may then be stabilized with a sizing compound. The pattern is placed on the
sand and another molding box segment is added. Additional sand is rammed over
and around the pattern. Finally a cover is placed on the box and it is turned and
unlatched, so that the halves of the mold may be parted and the pattern with its
sprue and vent patterns removed. Additional sizing may be added and any defects
introduced by the removal of the pattern are corrected. The box is closed again.
This forms a "green" mold which must be dried to receive the hot metal. If the
mold is not sufficiently dried a steam explosion can occur that can throw molten
metal about.

Chills

To control the solidification structure of the metal, it is possible to place metal

plates, chills, in the mold. The associated rapid local cooling will form a finer-

24
grained structure and may form a somewhat harder metal at these locations. In
ferrous castings, the effect is similar to quenching metals in forge work. The inner
diameter of an engine cylinder is made hard by a chilling core. In other metals,
chills may be used to promote directional solidification of the casting. In
controlling the way a casting freezes, it is possible to prevent internal voids or
porosity inside castings.

Cores

To produce cavities within the casting, such as for liquid cooling in engine blocks
and cylinder heads—negative forms are used to produce cores. Usually sand-
molded, cores are inserted into the casting box after removal of the pattern.

Fig 4.3.

Two sets of castings (bronze and aluminium) from the above sand mold

With a completed mold at the appropriate moisture content, the

box containing the sand mold is then positioned for filling with molten metal—
typically iron, steel, bronze, brass,aluminium, magnesium alloys, or various pot
metal alloys, which often include lead, tin, and zinc. After filling with liquid metal
the box is set aside until the metal is sufficiently cool to be strong.

25
 Fig 4.4.

Left: Core-box, with resulting (wire reinforced) cores directly below.

Right: Pattern (used with the core) and the resulting casting below (the wires are
from the remains of the core)

After casting, the cores are broken up by rods or shot and removed from the
casting. The metal from the sprue and risers is cut from the rough casting.

4.1.3. Design requirements

The part to be made and its pattern must be designed to accommodate each stage
of the process, as it must be possible to remove the pattern without disturbing the
molding sand and to have proper locations to receive and position the cores. A
slight taper, known as draft, must be used on surfaces perpendicular to the parting
line, in order to be able to remove the pattern from the mold. This requirement
also applies to cores, as they must be removed from the core box in which they
are formed. The sprue and risers must be arranged to allow a proper flow of metal
and gasses within the mold in order to avoid an incomplete casting. Should a
piece of core or mold become dislodged it may be embedded in the final casting,
forming a sand pit, which may render the casting unusable. Gas pockets can cause
internal voids. These may be immediately visible or may only be revealed after

26
extensive machining has been performed. For critical applications, or where the
cost of wasted effort is a factor, non-destructive testing methods may be applied
before further work is performed.

4.2. Processes
In general, we can distinguish between two methods of sand casting; the first one
using green sand and the second being the air set method.

4.2.1. Green sand

These expendable molds are made of wet sands that are used to make the mold’
shape. The name comes from the fact that wet sands are used in the molding
process. Green sand is not green in colour, but "green" in the sense that it is used
in a wet state (akin to green wood). Unlike the name suggests, "green sand" is not
a type of sand on its own, but is rather a mixture of:

 silica sand (SiO2), or chromite sand (FeCr2O), or zircon sand (ZrSiO4), 75 to

85%, or olivine, or staurolite, or graphite.
 bentonite (clay), 5 to 11%
 water, 2 to 4%
 inert sludge 3 to 5%
 anthracite (0 to 1%)

There are many recipes for the proportion of clay, but they all strike different
balances between moldability, surface finish, and ability of the hot molten metal
to degas. The coal, typically referred to in foundries as sea-coal, which is present
at a ratio of less than 5%, partially combusts in the presence of the molten metal
leading to off gassing of organic vapors. Green Sand for non-ferrous metals do
not use coal additives since the CO created is not effective to prevent oxidation.
Green Sand for aluminum typically uses olivine sand (a mixture of the
minerals forsterite and fayalite which are made by crushing dunite rock). The

27
choice of sand has a lot to do with the temperature that the metal is poured. At
the temperatures that copper and iron are poured, the clay gets inactivated by the
heat in that the montmorillonite is converted to illite, which is a non-expanding
clay. Most foundries do not have the very expensive equipment to remove the
burned out clay and substitute new clay, so instead, those that pour iron typically
work with silica sand that is inexpensive compared to the other sands. As the clay
is burned out, newly mixed sand is added and some of the old sand is discarded
or recycled into other uses. Silica is the least desirable of the sands since
metamorphic grains of silica sand have a tendency to explode to form sub-micron
sized particles when thermally shocked during pouring of the molds. These
particles enter the air of the work area and can lead to silicosis in the workers.
Iron foundries spend a considerable effort on aggressive dust collection to capture
this fine silica. The sand also has the dimensional instability associated with the
conversion of quartz from alpha quartz to beta quartz at 1250 degrees F. Often
additives such as wood flour are added to create a space for the grains to expand
without deforming the mold. Olivine, Chromites, etc. are used because they do
not have a phase conversion that causes rapid expansion of the grains, as well as
offering greater density, which cools the metal faster and produces finer grain
structures in the metal. Since they are not metamorphic minerals, they do not have
the polycrystals found in silica, and subsequently do not form hazardous sub-
micron sized particles.

4.2.2. The "air set" method

The air set method uses dry sand bonded with materials other than clay, using a
fast curing adhesive. The latter may also be referred to as no bake mold casting.
When these are used, they are collectively called "air set" sand castings to
distinguish them from "green sand" castings. Two types of molding sand are
natural bonded (bank sand) and synthetic (lake sand); the latter is generally
preferred due to its more consistent composition.

28
With both methods, the sand mixture is packed around a pattern, forming a mold
cavity. If necessary, a temporary plug is placed in the sand and touching the
pattern in order to later form a channel into which the casting fluid can be poured.
Air-set molds are often formed with the help of a casting flask having a top and
bottom part, termed the cope and drag. The sand mixture is tamped down as it is
added around the pattern, and the final mold assembly is sometimes vibrated to
compact the sand and fill any unwanted voids in the mold. Then the pattern is
removed along with the channel plug, leaving the mold cavity. The casting liquid
(typically molten metal) is then poured into the mold cavity. After the metal has
solidified and cooled, the casting is separated from the sand mold. There is
typically no mold release agent, and the mold is generally destroyed in the
removal process.

The accuracy of the casting is limited by the type of sand and the molding process.
Sand castings made from coarse green sand impart a rough texture to the surface,
and this makes them easy to identify. Castings made from fine green sand can
shine as cast but are limited by the depth to width ratio of pockets in the pattern.
Air-set molds can produce castings with smoother surfaces than coarse green sand
but this method is primarily chosen when deep narrow pockets in the pattern are
necessary, due to the expense of the plastic used in the process. Air-set castings
can typically be easily identified by the burnt color on the surface. The castings
are typically shot blasted to remove that burnt color. Surfaces can also be later
ground and polished, for example when making a large bell. After molding, the
casting is covered with a residue of oxides, silicates and other compounds. This
residue can be removed by various means, such as grinding, or shot blasting.

During casting, some of the components of the sand mixture are lost in the
thermal casting process. Green sand can be reused after adjusting its composition
to replenish the lost moisture and additives. The pattern itself can be reused
indefinitely to produce new sand molds.

29
 5. SOFTWARES - AN OVERVIEW

5.1. CATIA:

CATIA is one of the world’s leading CAD/CAM/CAE package. Being a

solid modeling tool, it not only unites 3D parametric features with 2D tools, but
also addresses every design through manufacturing process.

CATIA- Computer Aided Dimensional Interactive Application.

CATIA, developed by Dassault systems, France, is a completely re-

engineered, next generation family of CAD/CAM/CAE software solution.

CATIA serves the basic design task by providing different workbenches,

some of the workbenches available in this package are

 Part design workbench

 Assembly design workbench
 Drafting workbench
 Wireframe and surface design workbench
 Generative shape design workbench
 DMU kinematics
 Manufacturing
 Mold design

PART DESIGN WORKBENCH

The part workbench is a parametric and feature-based environment, in

which we can create solid models. In the part design workbench, we are provided
with tool those convert sketches into other features are called the sketch-based
features.

30
ASSEMBLY DESIGN WORKBENCH

The assembly design workbench is used to assemble the part by using

assembly constraints. There are two type of assembly design,

 Bottom –up
 Top- down
In bottom –up assembly, the parts are created in part workbench and assembled
in assembly workbench.

In the top-down workbench assembly, the parts are created in assembly

workbench itself.

WIREFRAME AND SURFACE DESIGN WORKBENCH

The wire frame and surface design workbench is also parametric and
feature based environment. The tools available in this workbench are similar to
those in the part workbench, with the only difference that the tool in this
environment are used to create basic and advance surfaces

DRAFTING WORKBENCH

The drafting workbench is used for the documentation of the parts or the
assemblies created in the form of drafting.

There are two types of drafting techniques:

 Generative drafting
 Interactive drafting
The generative drafting technique is used to automatically generate the drawing
views of parts and assemblies.

In interactive drafting, we need to create the drawing by interactive with the

sketcher to generate the views.
31
DMU KINEMATICS

This workbench deals with the relative motion of the parts. DMU
kinematics simulator is an independent CAD product dedicated to simulating
assembly motions. It addresses the design review environment of digital mock-
ups (DMU) and can handle a wide range of products from customer goods to very
large automotive or aerospace projects as well as plants, ships and heavy
machinery.

Fig 5.1

5.2. ANSYS EVALUATION

ANSYS is a complete FEA simulation software package developed by

ANSYS Inc – USA. It is used by engineers worldwide in virtually all fields of
engineering.

 StructuralA

32
  Thermal
 Fluid (CFD, Acoustics, and other fluid analyses)
 Low-and High-Frequency Electromagnetic.

5.2.1. PROCEDURE:

Every analysis involves three main steps:

 Pre-processor
 Solver
 post processor

5.3. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Structural analysis is probably the most common application of the

finite element method. The term structural (or structure) implies not only civil
engineering structures such as bridges and buildings, but also naval,
aeronautical, and mechanical structures such as ship hulls, aircraft bodies, and
machine housings, as well as mechanical components such as pistons, machine
parts, and tools.

5.3.1. TYPES OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

The seven types of structural analyses available in the ANSYS family of

products are explained below. The primary unknowns (nodal degrees of
freedom) calculated in a structural analysis are displacements. Other quantities,
such as strains, stresses, and reaction forces, are then derived from
the nodal displacements.
33
 In addition to the above analysis types, several special-purpose features are
available:

 Fracture mechanics
 Composites
 Fatigue
 p-Method
 Beam Analyses
5.3.2. ELEMENTS USED IN STRUCTURAL ANALYSES

Most ANSYS element types are structural elements, ranging from

simple spars and beams to more complex layered shells and large strain solids.
Most types of structural analyses can use any of these elements.

Fig 5.2

5.4 . MATERIAL MODEL INTERFACE

If we are using the GUI, we must specify the material we will be simulating
using an intuitive material model interface. This interface uses a hierarchical tree

34
structure of material categories, which is intended to assist in us choosing the
appropriate model for our analysis.

5.4.1. TYPES OF SOLUTION METHODS

Two solution methods are available for solving structural problems in

the ANSYS family of products: the h-method and the p-method. The h-method
can be used for any type of analysis, but the p-method can be used only for
linear structural static analyses. The p-method provides an excellent way to
solve a problem to a desired level of accuracy while using a coarse mesh.

5.5. STRUCTURAL STATIC ANALYSIS

A static analysis calculates the effects of steady loading conditions on a

structure, while ignoring inertia and damping effects, such as those caused by
time-varying loads.

Static analysis is used to determine the displacements, stresses, strains,

and forces in structures or components caused by loads that do not induce
significant inertia and damping effects. Steady loading and response conditions
are assumed; that is, the loads and the structure's response are assumed to vary
slowly with respect to time. The kinds of loading that can be applied in a static
analysis include:

 Externally applied forces and pressures

 Steady-state inertial forces (such as gravity or rotational velocity)
 Imposed (nonzero) displacements
 Temperatures (for thermal strain)
 Fluences (for nuclear swelling)

35
5.5.1. PERFORMING A STATIC ANALYSIS

The procedure for a static analysis consists of these tasks:

 Build the Model

 Set Solution Controls
 Set Additional Solution Options
 Apply the Loads
 Solve the Analysis
 Review the Results

5.6. MODELING COMPOSITES

Composites are somewhat more difficult to model than an isotropic

material such as iron or steel. We need to take special care in defining the
properties and orientations of the various layers since each layer may have
different orthotropic material properties. In this section, we will concentrate on
the following aspects of building a composite model:

 Choosing the proper element type

 Defining the layered configuration
 Specifying failure criteria
 Following modeling and post-processing guidelines

5.6.1. CHOOSING THE PROPER ELEMENT TYPE

The following element types are available to model layered composite

materials: SHELL99, SHELL91, SHELL181, SOLID46, and SOLID191.
Which element we choose depends on the application, the type of results that

36
need to be calculated, and so on. Check the individual element descriptions to
determine if a specific element can be used in our ANSYS product. All layered
elements allow failure criterion calculations.

 SHELL99 - Linear Layered Structural Shell Element

SHELL99 is an 8-node, 3-D shell element with six degrees of freedom at
each node. It is designed to model thin to moderately thick plate and shell
structures with a side-to-thickness ratio of roughly 10 or greater. For structures
with smaller ratios, we may consider using SOLID46. The SHELL99 element
allows a total of 250 uniform-thickness layers.

 SHELL91 - Nonlinear Layered Structural Shell Element

SHELL91 supports plasticity, large-strain behaviour and a special
sandwich option, whereas SHELL99 does not. SHELL91 is also more robust
for large deflection behaviour.

 SHELL181 - Finite Strain Shell

SHELL181 is a 4-node 3-D shell element with 6 degrees of freedom at
each node. The element has full nonlinear capabilities including large strain and
allows 255 layers. The layer information is input using the section commands
rather than real constants. Failure criteria are available using the FC commands.

 SOLID46 - 3-D Layered Structural Solid Element

SOLID46 is a layered version of the 8-node, 3-D solid element, SOLID45,
with three degrees of freedom per node (UX, UY, UZ). It is designed to model
thick layered shells or layered solids and allows up to 250 uniform-thickness
layers per element. Alternately, the element allows 125 layers with thicknesses
that may vary bilinearly over the area of the layer. SOLID46 adjusts the material

37
 properties in the transverse direction permitting constant stresses in the
transverse direction.

 SOLID191 - Layered Structural Solid Element

SOLID191 is a layered version of the 20-node 3-D solid element
SOLID95, with three degrees of freedom per node (UX, UY, UZ). It is designed
to model thick layered shells or layered solids and allows up to 100 layers per
element. In spite of its name, the element does not support nonlinear materials
or large deflections.

5.7 . ELEMENT TYPE USED IN THE PROJECT

5.7.1. SOLID45 Element Description

SOLID45 is used for the 3-D modelling of solid structures. The element is
defined by eight nodes having three degrees of freedom at each node: translations
in the nodal x, y, and z directions.

The element has plasticity, creep, swelling, stress stiffening, large deflection, and
large strain capabilities.

38
 Fig 5.2.

5.7.2. TARGE170 Element Description

TARGE170 is used to represent various 3-D "target" surfaces for the

associated contact elements (CONTA173, CONTA174, CONTA175,
CONTA176 & CONTA177). The contact elements themselves overlay the solid,
shell, or line elements describing the boundary of a deformable body and are
potentially in contact with the target surface, defined by TARGE170. This target
surface is discretized by a set of target segment elements (TARGE170) and is
paired with its associated contact surface via a shared real constant set. We can
impose any translational or rotational displacement, temperature, voltage, and
magnetic potential on the target segment element. we can also impose forces and
moments on target elements.

39
For rigid target surfaces, these elements can easily model complex target shapes.
For flexible targets, these elements will overlay the solid, shell, or line elements
describing the boundary of the deformable target body.

Fig 5.3

40
 6. DISCUSSIONS

After heat treatment of all samples, each sample was separately tested for
the density, hardness and tensile strength and the average values were analysed
by comparing with the zero sample. The results in various tests were discussed
below.

For convenience of presentation and plotting, from here onwards pure

AL(lm16) alloy samples were referred as Group 0, AL ALLOY with 5% Granite
and 5% fly-ash samples were referred as Group 1 and AL ALLOY with 10%
Granite and 5% fly ash samples were referred as Group 2.

6.1. Density
Density of each sample was measured based on Archimedes principle
in a calibrated glass jar. In Figure 6.1, it can be noticed that the density of
Group1 is less compared to the other groups because the density of granite
powder is less compared to aluminium and granite. Further, the density of
Group 2 is increased because of the increase of granite composition in the
composite but not more than the density of Group 0, which may be due to the
volume occupation by the 5% granite particles in the composite.

Density Comparison
2.705

2.700
Density (g/cc)

2.695

2.690

2.685

2.680

2.675
Group 0 Group 1 Group 2

Figure 6.1 Comparison of Density

41
 7. MODELLING AND ANALYSIS IN STEPS

7.1. MESHING

Meshing is done so that the force/couple/pressure that is applied, will be

distributed equally on every element (only nodes). More the number of
elements, more will be the accuracy of the resulting solutions.

Fig 7.1

7.2. APPLYING CONSTRAINTS

Constraints include UX, UY & UZ. These are various constraints that need to
be applied in order to specify direction of load or pressure or force. The
constraints once set, can be changed before the solution phase.

Fig 7.2.

42
7.3. Applying force

Force is applied by specifying the plane through which the force is applied
while all other directions are constrained, mainly making the opposite parallel
plane as fixed.

Fig 7.3.

7.4. DEFORMATION

Deformation of the body is the effect of stress and strain built up within the
material.

Fig 7.4

43
7.5. STRESS

Stress is the reaction force of the body/object, to the applied force. Stress
shown in the region below is limited to only a small region where maximum
stress is built up in that area/ region, localised, as shown in fig 7.5.

Fig 7.5

7.6. STRAIN

Strain is the ratio of change in dimension to original dimension. Strain is the

effect of stress built up to counteract the increasing force or any constant force
applied for a long period of time.

44
 Stress Table (Aluminium, Fly-ash, Granite) Pa

Composition 85,5,10 85,10,5 90,5,5

Force (kN) Min Max Min Max Min Max

10 0.098 0.14033 0.098713 0.14033 0.072573 0.10554

20 0.197 0.28067 0.19743 0.28067 0.14515 0.21108

30 0.29614 0.421 0.298 0.4437 0.21772 0.31662

Table 7.1

Strain Table (Aluminium, Fly-ash, Granite) mm/m

Composition 85,5,10 85,10,5 90,5,5

Force (kN) Min Max Min Max Min Max

10 3.05e-4 4.28e-4 3.08e-4 4.33e-4 1.69e-4 2.37e-4

20 6.10e-4 8.57e-4 6.16e-4 8.65e-4 3.37e-4 4.74e-4

30 9.15e-4 1.28e-3 9.24e-4 1.30e-3 5.06e-4 7.11e-4

Table 7.2

45
 Deformation Table (Aluminium, Fly-ash, Granite) mm

Composition 85,5,10 85,10,5 90,5,5

Force (kN) Min Max Min Max Min Max

10 0 0.0001015 0 0.00010214 0 0.000055928

20 0 0.00020229 0 0.00020428 0 0.0001118610

30 0 0.00030334 0 0.00030642 0 0.00016778

Table 7.3

From the above values of stress, strain and deformation, the composition of
ALUMINIUM: FLYASH: GRANITE that is most suitable is 90: 5: 5

46
 8. TEST RESULTS

8.1. Charpy impact test

Charpy impact test is done in order to find the toughness of a material (or) it’s
ability to withstand high amount of shocks(sudden impact). This property is
very crucial as this property determines whether the material will withstand
high impact and fluctuating cyclic loads.

Table 8.1

8.2. Brinell hardness test

Brinell hardness test is done to find the Brinell hardness number of the material
which depicts the ability of the material to withstand plastic deformation or
abrasion.

Table 8.2

8.3. Salt spray test

Salt spray test is done so that the threshold of

exposure of the alloy to salt water/ corrosion test on the alloy.

47
 Table 8.3

Test Specimens

Fig 8.1

48
Brinell Hardness test specimen

Fig 8.2

Charpy impact test specimen

Fig 8.3

49
Brinell Hardness Test Machine

Fig 8.4

Brinell Hardness Test Machine(optical)

Fig 8.5

50
 9. MICROSTRUCTURE ANALYSIS

Magnification of the test specimen was done under an electron microscope

Magnification (x100)

Fig 9.1

Magnification (x500)

51
 10. Conclusion

From the experimental and analysis of present work the following

conclusions are drawn.

1. Addition of granite will increase the mechanical properties of the

composite, such as hardness, density,etc.

2. By comparing with amount of granite in the composite AL-6061 with 5%

granite and 5% Fly ash is most suitable for regular casting process.

3. Hardness of the composite is increased.

4. It was noticed that the density of the composite is slightly reduced due to
less addition of granite.

52
 11. Scope of Future Work

1. Wear analysis can be done on the same composition to find the wear
properties and lubrication effect of granite in the composite.

2. Since granite has very low thermal expansion and an insulator, thermal
properties of the composite can be studied for using at higher temperatures.

3. Microstructure analysis can be performed to study the interfacial strengths

and uniform distribution of particulates.

4. More composites with higher granite and granite percentage can be

prepared by employing some modifiers and changing process parameters
which might result in better properties.

5. Other self-lubricants like boron nitride can be used in place of granite

which will further increase wear resistance and hardness.

53
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