Name: ____________________________ Grade _______________ Section: ____________ Date:

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Nuclear Physics
Definition & Overview:
Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies atomic nuclei and their constituents and interactions.
Other forms of nuclear matter are also studied. Nuclear physics should not be confused with atomic
physics, which studies the atom, including its electrons.
Research in nuclear physics is an integral part of the search for knowledge and understanding of the
world in which we live. All matter is composed of a hierarchy of building blocks. Living creatures, as
well as our inanimate surroundings, are made of molecules, which are in turn made of atoms, whose
mass resides almost entirely in the nuclei. The nuclei are composed of protons and neutrons, which
ultimately consist of quarks and gluons. In the recent past, as our progress in understanding has reached
down to ever smaller scales, each hierarchical level has developed its own subdiscipline, with its own
distinct experimental and theoretical endeavors and new insights. Each subdiscipline has produced its
own range of applications, benefiting the development of society and contributing to the scientific and
technological base on which our industrial and economic strength rests.
The science of nuclear physics concerns itself with the properties of “nuclear” matter. Such matter
constitutes the massive centers of the atoms that account for 99.9 percent of the world we see about us.
Nuclear matter is within the proton and neutron building blocks of these nuclei, and appears in bulk
form in neutron stars and in the matter that arose in the Big Bang. Nuclear physicists study the structure
and properties of such matter in its various forms, from the soup of quarks and gluons present at the
birth of our universe to the nuclear reactions in our Sun that make life possible on Earth.
Activity 1:
Exploring Nuclear – A History of Pioneers in Nuclear Physics

I. Task 1

There have been many famous scientists and discoverers in nuclear history. Do a research to find
out those who paved the way in the field of Nuclear Physics. You may limit it to 10 significant
scientists. Be sure to indicate your sources/references for proper acknowledgement. (Handwritten/
computerized)

Your gathered information will be useful in accomplishing the next task.

II. Task 2

Match the physicist given below with their contributions in the nuclear world.

Scientists Contributions
a. discovered the chemical elements radium and polonium. The
Curies’ study of radioactive elements contributed to the
1. Henri Becquerel
understanding of atoms on which modern nuclear physics is
based. 
2. Marie and Pierre Curie b. Father of nuclear physics: named and characterized alpha,
beta and gamma particle
3. Ernest Rutherford c. discovered radioactivity, the spontaneous emission of
radiation by a material.
4. Wilhelm Conrad d. Provided the theory explaining Rutherford’s model of atom
Röntgen
5. Niels Bohr  e. discovered X-rays, a momentous event that instantly
 revolutionized the fields of physics and medicine. 

III. Task III

Using the information you gathered previously, make a comics strips/ memes of the contributions
of the following scientists.

1. Henri Becquerel

2. Marie and Pierre Curie

3. Ernest Rutherford

4. Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen

5. Niels Bohr 

Lesson 1: Radiation
Radiation is energy given off by matter in the form of rays or high-speed particles. All matter is
composed of atoms. Atoms are made up of various parts; the nucleus contains minute particles
called protons and neutrons, and the atom's outer shell contains other particles called electrons. The
nucleus carries a positive electrical charge, while the electrons carry a negative electrical charge. These
forces within the atom work toward a strong, stable balance by getting rid of excess atomic energy
(radioactivity). In that process, unstable nuclei may emit a quantity of energy, and this spontaneous
emission is what we call radiation.

Physical Forms of Radiation

As previously indicated, matter gives off energy (radiation) in two basic physical forms. One form of
radiation is pure energy with no weight. This form of radiation — known as electromagnetic
radiation — is like vibrating or pulsating rays or "waves" of electrical and magnetic energy. Familiar
types of electromagnetic radiation include sunlight (cosmic radiation), x-rays, radar, and radio waves.

The other form of radiation — known as particle radiation — is tiny fast-moving particles that have both
energy and mass (weight). This less-familiar form of radiation includes alpha particles, beta particles,
and neutrons.

Radioactive Decay

As previously indicated, large unstable atoms become more stable by emitting radiation to get rid of
excess atomic energy (radioactivity). This radiation can be emitted in the form of positively
charged alpha particles, negatively charged beta particles, gamma rays, or x-rays.

Through this process — called radioactive decay — radioisotopes lose their radioactivity over time. This
gradual loss of radioactivity is measured in half-lives. Essentially, a half-life of a radioactive material is
the time it takes one-half of the atoms of a radioisotope to decay by emitting radiation. This time can
range from fractions of a second (for radon-220) to millions of years (for thorium-232). When
radioisotopes are used in medicine or industry, it is vital to know how rapidly they lose their
radioactivity, in order to know the precise amount of radioisotope that is available for the medical
procedure or industrial use.

Types of Radiation
Radiation can be either ionizing or non-ionizing, depending on how it affects matter.

A. Ionizing Radiation- it is a type of radiation that is able to disrupt atoms and molecules on which
they pass through, giving rise to ions and free radicals.

A radiation is said to be ionizing when it has enough energy to eject one or more electrons from the
atoms or molecules in the irradiated medium. This is the case of a and b radiations, as well as of
electromagnetic radiations such as gamma radiations, X-rays and some ultra-violet rays. Visible or
infrared light are not, nor are microwaves or radio waves.
 Ionizing radiation (such as x-rays and cosmic rays) is more energetic than non-ionizing radiation.
Consequently, when ionizing radiation passes through material, it deposits enough energy to break
molecular bonds and displace (or remove) electrons from atoms. This electron displacement creates two
electrically charged particles (ions), which may cause changes in living cells of plants, animals, and
people.

Ionizing radiation has a number of beneficial uses. For example, we use ionizing radiation in smoke
detectors and to treat cancer or sterilize medical equipment. Nonetheless, ionizing radiation is
potentially harmful if not used correctly. Consequently, the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
(NRC) strictly regulates commerical and institutional uses of nuclear materials, including the following
five major types of ionizing radiation:

1. Alpha Particles  (α)

2. Beta Particles (β)
3. Gamma Rays (γ) and X-Rays
4. Neutrons (n)

1. Alpha Particles- are charged particles, which are emitted from naturally occurring materials (such
as uranium, thorium, and radium) and man-made elements (such as plutonium and americium).
These alpha emitters are primarily used (in very small amounts) in items such as smoke detectors.

In general, alpha particles have a very limited ability to penetrate other materials. In other words,
these particles of ionizing radiation can be blocked by a sheet of paper, skin, or even a few inches of
air. Nonetheless, materials that emit alpha particles are potentially dangerous if they are inhaled or
swallowed, but external exposure generally does not pose a danger.

An alpha particle consists of two protons and two neutrons

• Very large on an atomic scale
• Positively charged

Penetration in materials
• Outside the body, an alpha emitter is not a hazard unless it is on the skin
• Inside the body, an alpha emitter is a bigger hazard if it deposits its energy in sensitive
tissue

Common alpha-particle emitters

• Radon-222 gas in the environment
• Uranium-234 and -238) in the environment
• Polonium-210 in tobacco

Common alpha-particle emitter uses

 • Smoke detectors
• Cigarettes/cigars
• Static eliminators

2. Beta Particles- which are similiar to electrons, are emitted from naturally occurring materials (such
as strontium-90). Such beta emitters are used in medical applications, such as treating eye disease. In
general, beta particles are lighter than alpha particles, and they generally have a greater ability to
penetrate other materials. As a result, these particles can travel a few feet in the air, and can
penetrate skin. Nonetheless, a thin sheet of metal or plastic or a block of wood can stop beta
particles.

A beta particle is a charged electron

• Has the size and weight of an electron
• Can be positively or negatively charged

Penetration in materials
• At low energies, a beta particle is not very penetrating – stopped by the outer layer of
skin or a piece of paper
• At higher energies, a beta particle may penetrate to the live layer of skin and may need
0.5” of plexiglass to be stopped
• Inside the body, a beta particle is not as hazardous as an alpha particle because it is not as
big
• Because it is not as big, it travels farther, interacting with more tissue (but each small
piece of tissue gets less energy deposited)

Common beta-particle emitters

• Tritium (hydrogen-3) in the environment
• Carbon (14) in the environment
• Phosphorus (32) used in research and medicine

Common beta-particle emitter uses

• Carbon dating
• Basic research
• Cancer treatment

3. Gamma Rays and X-Rays- consist of high-energy waves that can travel great distances at the speed
of light and generally have a great ability to penetrate other materials. For that reason, gamma rays
(such as from cobalt-60) are often used in medical applications to treat cancer and sterilize medical
instruments. Similarly, x-rays are typically used to provide static images of body parts (such as teeth
and bones), and are also used in industry to find defects in welds.

Despite their ability to penetrate other materials, in general, neither gamma rays nor x-rays have the
ability to make anything radioactive. Several feet of concrete or a few inches of dense material (such
as lead) are able to block these types of radiation.

A photon is an x or gamma ray

• Has no weight
• Has no charge

Penetration in materials
• At low energies, a photon can be stopped by a very thin (almost flexible) layer of lead or
several centimeters of tissue
• At higher energies, inches of lead might be necessary to stop a photon and they can pass
right through a human

Common photon emitters

• Cesium (137)
• Technetium (99m) used in medicine
• Iodine (131) used in medicine
 Common photon emitter uses
• Determining the density of soil
• Diagnosing disease
• Cancer treatment
4. Neutrons- are high-speed nuclear particles that have an exceptional ability to penetrate other
materials. Of the five types of ionizing radiation discussed here, neutrons are the only one that can
make objects radioactive. This process, called neutron activation, produces many of the radioactive
sources that are used in medical, academic, and industrial applications (including oil exploration).

Because of their exceptional ability to penetrate other materials, neutrons can travel great distances
in air and require very thick hydrogen-containing materials (such as concrete or water) to block
them. Fortunately, however, neutron radiation primarily occurs inside a nuclear reactor, where many
feet of water provide effective shielding.

The PROPERTIES of ALPHA, BETA, GAMMA and neutron RADIATIONS

Type of radiation Nature of the Other Penetrating power (and Ionising power
emitted & radiation nuclear speed), and what will
symbol Symbols block it

a helium Low penetration, slowest Very high ionising

nucleus of 2 speed (but still ~10% power, the biggest
protons and 2 speed of light!), biggest mass and charge
Alpha particle neutrons, mass = mass and charge, of the three
radiation 4, charge = +2, is stopped by a few cm of radiation's, the
expelled at high air or thin sheet of paper, biggest 'punch' in
speed from the so obviously will be ripping off
nucleus stopped by a few cm electrons from
layer of concrete, sheets molecules, other
of aluminium or lead. ions are formed
high kinetic Moderate Moderate ionising
energy electrons, penetration (~90% speed power, with
mass = 1/1850, of light),  'middle' values a smaller mass
charge = -1, of charge and mass, most and charge than
–
e  beta minus expelled when a stopped by a few mm of the alpha particle,
particle radiation neutron changes beta minus, metals like aluminium, but still quite
to a proton in the beta – will travel quite a few good at knocking
nucleus metre in air, will be off electrons from
stopped by a few cm molecules -
layer of concrete, sheets moderate
of lead. ionisation
very high Very highly The lowest
frequency penetrating (100% speed ionising power of
electromagnetic of light !), smallest mass the three, gamma
radiation, mass = and charge and greatest radiation carries
0, charge = 0, speed, most stopped by a no electric charge
Gamma gamma emission thick layer of steel or a and has virtually
radiation often accompanies very thick layer of no mass, so not
alpha and beta concrete, but even a few much of a 'punch'
decay cm of dense lead doesn't when colliding
stop all of it! Gamma with an atom to
rays can pass through remove an
many m of air. It takes electron, weak
many m of concrete plus ionisation
steel to absorb it all.
 high KE positive The positron is Theoretically as
electron called the antiparticle of the above, BUT when
a positron, mass = electron. it is identical to electron meets
e+ beta plus 1/1850, charge = an electron but opposite positron,
particle emission +1, expelled when beta plus, in charge. It is rapidly e+ + e–   ==>
a proton changes beta + destroyed when it meets
to a neutron in the any electron (see on 2 
nucleus. right) producing two equation
high energy gamma ray for annihilation !
photons, so it doesn't get
very far! The co-
destruction of particle
and anti-particle is
called annihilation! The
effect is used in PET
scanning in medicine.
neutron, mass = 1, Highly penetrating (more Can't ionise
charge = 0, than alpha & beta & directly, but they
n fundamental sometimes gamma). are absorbed by
particle of the However, neutrons are the nuclei of
nucleus most readily absorbed by atoms they pass
neutron light nuclei so hydrogen- through. This can
radiation rich materials like water, make the atom
poly(ethene) plastic and unstable -
concrete are used for radioactive, hence
neutron radiation other nuclear
shielding. The nuclei radiations may
formed often emit then be produced,
gamma radiation so an producing an
extra thick protective 'indirect
layer of lead is needed ionisation' effect.
around a neutron rich So neutron
environment. radiation is as
dangerous as any
of the others.

B. Non-ionizing Radiation-they are electromagnetic waves incapable of producing ions while passing
through matter, due to their lower energy.

Non-ionizing (or non-ionising) radiation refers to any type of electromagnetic radiation that does not

carry enough energy per quantum (photon energy) to ionize atoms or molecules—that is, to
completely remove an electron from an atom or molecule.[1] Instead of producing charged ions when
passing through matter, non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation has sufficient energy only for
excitation, the movement of an electron to a higher energy state. In contrast, ionizing radiation has a
higher frequency and shorter wavelength than non-ionizing radiation, and can be a serious health
hazard; exposure to it can cause burns, radiation sickness, cancer, and genetic damage. Using
ionizing radiation requires elaborate radiological protection measures, which in general are not
required with non-ionizing radiation.

Examples on Non-ionizing Radiation Sources

 Visible light
 Microwaves
 Radios
 Video Display Terminals
 Power lines
 Radiofrequency Diathermy (Physical Therapy)
 Lasers