ESS - November Exam Notes
ESS - November Exam Notes
Significant Ideas:
o the atmosphere is a dynamic system (with inputs and outputs), which has undergone
changes through geological time.
o the atmosphere is predominantly a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen, with smaller amounts
of carbon dioxide, argon, water vapour and other trace gases.
o human activities impact the atmospheric composition through altering inputs and outputs
of the system – changes in the concentrations of atmospheric gases such as ozone, carbon
dioxide, and water vapour have significant effects on ecosystems.
o most clouds form in the troposphere and play an important role in the albedo effect for the
planet.
o the greenhouse effect of the atmosphere is a natural and necessary phenomenon
maintaining suitable temperatures for living systems.
The structure and composition of the atmosphere varies with height. The atmosphere is a mixture of
solids, liquids, and gases that are held to the Earth by its gravitational force. The atmosphere is quite
similar in composition up to a height of about 80 km. It consists mainly of nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21
%), and argon (0.9%). There are also a variety of other trace gases, such as carbon dioxide and
ozone. There is also water vapour and solids (aerosols), such as dust and soot.
There is no outer limit for the atmosphere, but most weather occurs in the lowest 16–17 km. This
part of the atmosphere is known as the troposphere. Temperatures decrease with height in the
troposphere.
trace gases – gases that are found in small quantities but are very important (e.g. CO2)
aerosols – tiny solid materials held up in the atmosphere
weather – the state of the atmosphere over a short-time scale such as a few days; it includes
temperature, rainfall, cloud cover, wind speed and direction
The troposphere is the lowest part of the atmosphere. The next upper part of the atmosphere is the
stratosphere. It is separated from the troposphere by the tropopause. Above the stratosphere is the
mesosphere. The mesosphere is separated from the stratosphere by the stratopause. The highest
layer of the atmosphere is the thermosphere. It is separated from the mesosphere by the
mesopause.
Certain gases are concentrated at height. Ozone occurs in the stratosphere. It is mostly found at
around 10–50 km above the Earth. It is important for the filtering of harmful ultraviolet radiation.
Significant Ideas:
o stratospheric ozone is a key component of the atmospheric system because it protects living
systems from the negative effects of ultraviolet radiation from the Sun.
o human activities have disturbed the dynamic equilibrium of stratospheric ozone formation.
o pollution management strategies are being employed to conserve stratospheric ozone.
o some ultraviolet radiation from the Sun is absorbed by stratospheric ozone causing the
ozone molecule to break apart – under normal conditions, the ozone molecule will reform;
this ozone destruction and reformation is an example of a dynamic equilibrium.
o ozone-depleting substances (CFCs) are used in aerosols, gas-blown plastics, pesticides and
refrigerants – halogen atoms (chlorine) from these pollutants increase destruction of ozone
in a repetitive cycle allowing more ultraviolet to reach the Earth.
o ultraviolet radiation reaching the surface of the Earth damages human living tissues,
increases the incidence of cataracts, mutation during cell division, skin cancer and other
subsequent effects on health.
o the effects of increased UV radiation on productivity include damage to photosynthetic
organisms, especially phytoplankton which form the basis of aquatic food webs.
o the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has had a key role in providing
information and creating and evaluating international agreements for the protection of
stratospheric ozone.
o an illegal market for ozone-depleting substances continued and requires monitoring.
o the Montreal Protocol (1987) is an international agreement on the reduction of use of
ozone-depleting substances signed under the direction of UNEP – national governments
complying with the agreement have made national laws and regulations to decrease
consumption and production of halogenated organic gases such as CFCs.
Pollution management may be achieved by reducing the manufacture and release of ozone-
depleting substances. Methods for this reduction include:
1. recycling refrigerants
2. developing alternatives to halogenated pesticides
3. developing non-propellant alternatives
The ozone layer shields the Earth from harmful radiation that would otherwise destroy most life on
the planet. Ultraviolet radiation is absorbed by ozone. Ozone also absorbs some out-going, long-
wave radiation, so it is a greenhouse gas too.
Ozone is created by oxygen rising up from the top of the troposphere and reacting with sunlight.
Ultraviolet radiation (short-wave radiation) breaks down oxygen molecules (O2) into two separate
oxygen atoms. The oxygen atoms (O) combine to form ozone (O3). Thus, natural processes create
ozone. Human activities can destroy ozone. Human production of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) is
linked to a decrease in ozone.
Ozone and
Halogenated Organic Gases
The chemicals that cause stratospheric ozone depletion include halogenated organic gases.
Halogenated organic gases (halogens) include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). These are found in many
products, including aerosol sprays and refrigerators. They can also be found in air conditioners,
foamed plastics, pesticides, fire extinguishers, and solvents.
Halogenated organic gases are very stable under normal conditions but can release halogen atoms
when exposed to ultraviolet radiation in the stratosphere. Halogen atoms react with monatomic
oxygen and slow the rate of ozone reformation.
halogenated organic gases – identified as reducing the ozone layer in the stratosphere, now
known to be powerful greenhouse gases (e.g. CFCs)
halogen – any of a group of 5 non-metallic elements with a similar chemical bonding
pattern; fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine.
monatomic oxygen – a single oxygen atom.
Pollutants such as CFCs increase the destruction of ozone, changing the equilibrium of the ozone
production system. They cause ‘holes’ in the ozone layer. The ozone hole is a thinning of the
concentration of ozone in the stratosphere.
The ‘ozone hole’ lets more UV radiation pass through the Earth’s atmosphere.
Seasonal Changes
There is a clear seasonal pattern to the concentration of ozone. Each spring there is a decrease in the
amount of ozone over Antarctica. It recovers when summer comes. This is because, in winter, air
over Antarctica becomes cut off from the rest of the atmosphere. The intense cold allows the
formation of clouds of ice particles. Chemical reactions in these ice particles release single chlorine
molecules. Chlorine may come from CFCs. Each spring, when the ice particles melt, the chlorine
atoms break ozone down into oxygen gas and other particles. By summer the ice clouds have
disappeared and monatomic chlorine is converted to other compounds; thus, there is less
destruction of ozone.
The effects of UV radiation include genetic mutation, with subsequent effects on health, and
damage to photosynthetic organisms.
Effects on Photosynthesis
Effects on Humans
Methods for Reducing the Manufacture and Release of Ozone Depleting Substances
There are a number of ways of reducing the manufacture and release of ozone-depleting
substances (ODSs). These include:
recycling refrigerants
alternatives to gas-blown plastics and propellants
alternatives to methyl bromide
The use of CFCs in refrigeration was one of the most important uses for CFCs. Now a combination of
HFCs and hydrocarbon refrigerants has largely replaced CFCs in fridges. Fridges with ODS
refrigeration can be replaced with ‘greenfreeze’ technology that uses propane and/or butane. Old
CFC coolants in fridges and air conditioning units can be recycled.
Method 2: Alternatives to Gas-blown Plastics and Propellants
Huge quantities of CFCs were used as propellants in aerosol sprays. Alternatives to aerosol sprays
can be used. A good example is using soap instead of shaving foam. Pump-action sprays and trigger
sprays can be used instead of aerosols.
Methyl bromide gas is an ODS that has been used to control pests. Its production and import in the
USA and Europe were phased out in 2005. There are some exceptions. It can be used to eliminate
quarantine pests and it can be used in farming where there are no alternatives.
There are alternative chemicals to methyl bromide. Some of these react in ultraviolet radiation to
have an impact on germs. Other non-chemical alternatives include biofumigation and crop rotation.
These are examples of organic farming. Cultivation of plants in water (hydroponics) can also reduce
the risk of pests.
The 1987 Montreal Protocol on “Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer” is the most significant
and successful international agreement relating to an environmental issue. By 2012, the world had
phased out 98% of emissions of ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) contained in nearly 100
hazardous chemicals worldwide.
Nearly 200 governments have signed up and implemented the agreed changes according to the
Montreal Protocol; as a result, it is believed that ozone could recover by 2050. It has been revised
seven times since it was first introduced in 1987. Subsequent revisions have reduced the phasing-out
timescale because of success – phase-out in Europe was achieved by 2000. Total global phase-out is
expected by 2030. The Protocol provided an incentive for countries to find alternatives. It also raised
public awareness of the use of CFCs. Technology has been transferred to low-income countries to
allow them to replace ozone-depleting substances.
Some substances that replaced CFCs are powerful greenhouse gases, such as HFCs
(hydrofluorocarbons). The long life of the chemicals in the atmosphere means that damage will
continue for some time – some argue until 2100. It is harder for LEDCs to make changes. The
second-hand appliance market means old fridges are still in circulation. The Protocol depends on
national governments and international organizations being willing to co-operate.
Some countries have adopted other measures. There has been investment in alternative energy
sources to reduce NOx and ozone depletion from fossil fuels. Some countries found this an easy
policy to implement, as few changes were needed and substitutes were available. Low-income
countries cannot always meet the cost of alternative energy technology. In Australia there was a
national education campaign. People were advised to use sunblock, avoid being outside during the
hottest part of the day, and to wear T-shirts and sunglasses.
Tropospheric Ozone
The main cause of ground-level ozone is the volume of road transport concentrated in cities. Two
important pollutants are released when fossil fuels are burnt. These are hydrocarbons (from unburnt
fuel) and nitrogen monoxide (also called nitric oxide or NO). Nitrogen monoxide reacts with oxygen
to form nitrogen dioxide (NO2). This is a brown gas that contributes to urban haze. It can also absorb
sunlight and break up to release oxygen atoms that combine with oxygen in the air to form ozone.
Ozone is a toxic gas and an oxidizing agent. It irritates eyes and can cause breathing difficulties in
humans. It may also increase susceptibility to infection. Ground-level ozone reduces plant
photosynthesis and can reduce crop yields significantly. It damages crops and forests. Ozone
pollution has been suggested as a possible cause of the die-back of German forests (previously it
was believed these had died as a result of acid rain). Ozone is highly reactive and can attack fabrics
and rubber materials.
Significant Ideas:
o the combustion of fossil fuels produces primary pollutants which may generate secondary
pollutants and lead to photochemical smog, whose levels can vary by topography,
population density and climate.
o photochemical smog has significant impacts on societies and living systems.
o photochemical smog can be reduced by decreasing human reliance on fossil fuels.
o primary pollutants from the combustion of fossil fuels include carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide, soot, unburned hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen and oxides of sulfur.
o in the presence of sunlight, secondary pollutants are formed when primary pollutants
undergo a variety of reactions with other chemicals already present in the atmosphere.
o tropospheric ozone is an example of a secondary pollutant, formed when oxygen molecules
react with oxygen atoms that are released from nitrogen dioxide in the presence of sunlight.
o tropospheric ozone is highly reactive and damages crops / forests / plants, irritates eyes,
creates respiratory illnesses and damages fabric and rubber materials.
o smog is a complex mixture of primary and secondary pollutants, of which tropospheric
ozone is the main pollutant.
o the frequency and severity of smog in an area depends on local topography, climate,
population density and fossil fuel use.
o thermal inversions occur due to lack of air movement when a layer of dense cool air is
trapped beneath a layer of less dense warm air.
o deforestation and burning may also contribute to smog.
o economic losses caused by urban air pollution can be significant.
Pollution management strategies include:
1. altering human activity to consume less – example activities include the purchase of energy
efficient technologies, the use of public transport, and walking or cycling.
2. regulating and reducing pollutants at the point of emission via government regulation.
3. using catalytic converters to clean exhaust of primary pollutants from car exhaust.
4. regulating fuel quality by governments.
5. adopting clean-up measures – such as reforestation, re-greening, and conservation of areas
to sequester carbon dioxide.
photochemical smog refers to smog produced through the effect of sunlight on the products
of internal combustion engines.
Photochemical smog is a mixture of about 100 primary and secondary pollutants formed under
the influence of sunlight.
tropospheric ozone
particulates produced from gaseous primary pollutants
peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN)
Photochemical Smog
Fossil fuels are burnt and nitrogen oxides are released in vehicle emissions – nitrogen oxides interact
with other pollutants in the presence of sunlight to produce tropospheric ozone. Ozone formation
can take a number of hours, so the polluted air may have drifted into suburban and surrounding
areas. Smog is more likely under high-pressure (calm) conditions. Rain cleans the air and winds
disperse the smog – these are associated with low-pressure conditions.
Local Conditions
The frequency and severity of photochemical smog depend on local factors. These factors include
topography and climate, as well as population density and use of fossil fuels. Temperature
inversions may trap smog in valleys.
Temperature Inversions
Temperature inversions happen regularly in Los Angeles and Mexico City. The air is unable to
disperse since cold dense air sinks in from surrounding hills. Cold air is denser than warm air and so
remains near the surface. Warmer air is found above the cold air. As a result of this temperature
inversion, concentrations of air pollutants can build up to harmful levels.
temperature inversion is an atmospheric situation in which cold air is found at low altitudes
and warm air is found higher up, inverting the normal pattern of decrease in temperature as
altitude increases.
Urban Microclimates
Urban microclimates also affect the production of ground-level ozone. Urban areas generally have
less vegetation than surrounding rural areas. Urban areas also have a greater concentration of
buildings and industries that generate heat.
ozone is a toxic gas and an oxidizing agent – oxygen causes oxidization, ozone has that
extra O so is worse.
damage to plants – tropospheric ozone is absorbed by plant leaves; in the leaves, ozone
degrades chlorophyll so photosynthesis and productivity are reduced.
damage to humans – at low concentrations, photochemical smog can reduce the actions of
the lungs, so causing breathing difficulties, and may increase susceptibility to infection; it
also causes eye, nose and throat irritation.
damage to materials and products – ozone attacks natural rubber, cellulose and some
plastics; it reduces the lifetime of car tyres.
Formation of Particulates
Burning almost any organic material or fossil fuel releases small particles of carbon and other
substances, referred to as particulates. Poorly maintained diesel engines, in particular, release large
amounts of particulates (small solid particles) in exhaust fumes.
Dangers of Particulates:
1. our respiratory filters cannot filter them out – particulates enter our bodies and stay there
causing asthma, lung cancer, respiratory problems and even premature death.
2. several particulates are carcinogenic (cancer-causing).
3. danger to crops – crops become covered with particulates, which reduces their productivity
because less sunlight reaches the leaf.
1. some measures may lead to a reduction in the use of fossil fuels, such as reducing demand
for electricity and switching to renewable energy.
2. increased use of public transport and ‘park and rides’ reduce individual car use, hence
reduces emissions of fossil fuels.
3. the promotion of clean technology/hybrid cars also reduces the use of fossil fuels.
4. preventing cars from entering parts of a city can result in improved air quality (in Mexico
City, cars with an odd-numbered number plate are allowed into the city centre on certain
days, whereas cars with an even-numbered number plate are allowed in on other days).
7. other strategies include the development of catalytic converters in cars to reduce emissions
of nitrogen oxide.
Urban Design
Reducing the consumption of fossil fuels through urban design (e.g. south-facing windows and triple-
glazed windows) can lead to an improvement in air quality. Reducing fossil fuel combustion by
switching to renewable energy methods also improves air quality. The relocation of industries,
factories and power stations away from high population levels leads to an improvement in air quality
for people living in cities.
south-facing windows – windows on the southern facing side of the property that better
absorb the sun’s heat energy and more easily warm the space in winter months.
triple-glazed windows – does not allow much heat to escape; reduces levels of noise.
The chimneys used in industries and power stations should be tall chimneys to help disperse
pollutants. It is possible to filter and trap pollutants at the point of emission. Urban design can be
made more sustainable. Open space and water courses help reduce the temperature and allow
evaporative cooling.
Most urban pollution comes from cars. Old cars tend to be more polluting than new cars. Vehicles
using diesel fuel produce emissions of particulate matter. The use of catalytic convertors reduces
fuel efficiency and increases CO2 emissions. Public transport can be expensive and may be
inconvenient. Sustainable urban design is expensive.