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2. Language.

2.1 Definition and features of language: Language is, today, an inseparable part
of human society. Human civilization has been possible only through language. It
is through language only that humanity has come out of the stone age and has
developed science, art and technology in a big way. Language is a means of
communication, it is arbitrary, it is a system of systems. We know that Speech is
primary while writing is secondary.

Language is human so it differs from animal communication in several ways.

Language can have scores of characteristics but the following are the most
important ones: language is arbitrary, productive, creative, systematic, vocalic,
social, non-instinctive and conventional. These characteristics of language set
human language apart from animal communication. Some of these features may be
part of animal communication; yet they do not form part of it in total.

Language, the means through which humans communicate, is much more than
spoken or written words. Five distinct characteristics comprise its true definition.
Language is a system, is dynamic, has dialect, is sociolect and idiolect. Within a
language's system are varying linguistic levels. The phonological level is the most
basic. It relates differences in sounds to differences in meanings.
Next, the lexical level comprises morphemes, or whole words with attached
definitions. On the syntactical level, words are specifically arranged in sentences to
convey a thought. At this level, definitions of individual words cannot be
considered separately from the sentence, lest misinterpretation is bound. The
sociolinguistic level of the language system is shaped by social factors such as age,
gender and social class. It is best understood when considering the subtle, yet
distinct differences in the way men and women relay the same message.
Language is always changing; it is dynamic. Words that the "screen-technology"
demographic uses to communicate are quite different from those of the "baby
boomers". So much so that certain words and phrases are lost in the past. The
literature of Shakespeare exemplifies this.
The third characteristic, dialect, describes the regional differences of language.
Southern American English is very distinct from Northern American English, as is
English spoken in other countries such as Australia and London. These differences
are as much auditory as they are definitive.
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Sociolect is directly related to the speaker's social class. A king and queen may use
different phrases and intonation than a pauper, for instance, and the hip-hop
generation's language is easily distinguished from those of the "valley".
Lastly, idiolect is the most specific characteristic of language. It refers to the
speech habits of an individual. From this view, even twins who have lived together
all their lives will use language differently. It includes voice quality, pitch,
intonation, word choice and many other factors.
Language is the collection of all efforts human use to communicate. Whether
spoken, written, or insinuated by movement and gesture, the five characteristics of
language remain relevant and important to human communication.
Language is Arbitrary: Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no inherent
relation between the words of a language and their meanings or the ideas conveyed
by them. There is no reason why a female adult human being be called a woman in
English, aurat in Urdu, Zen in Persian and Femine in French. The choice of a word
selected to mean a particular thing or idea is purely arbitrary but once a word is
selected for a particular referent, it comes to stay as such. It may be noted that had
language not been arbitrary, there would have been only one language in the world.
Language is Social: Language is a set of conventional communicative signals used
by humans for communication in a community. Language in this sense is a
possession of a social group, comprising an indispensable set of rules which
permits its members to relate to each other, to interact with each other, to co-
operate with each other; it is a social institution. Language exists in society; it is a
means of nourishing and developing culture and establishing human relations.
Language is Symbolic: Language consists of various sound symbols and their
graphological counterparts that are employed to denote some objects, occurrences
or meaning. These symbols are arbitrarily chosen and conventionally accepted and
employed. Words in a language are not mere signs or figures, but symbols of
meaning. The intelligibility of a language depends on a correct interpretation of
these symbols.
Language is Systematic: Although language is symbolic, yet its symbols are
arranged in a particular system. All languages have their system of arrangements.
Every language is a system of systems. All languages have phonological and
grammatical systems, and within a system there are several sub-systems. For
example, within the grammatical system we have morphological and syntactic
systems, and within these two sub-systems we have systems such as those of
plural, of mood, of aspect, of tense, etc.
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Language is Vocal: Language is primarily made up of vocal sounds only produced

by a physiological articulatory mechanism in the human body. In the beginning, it
appeared as vocal sounds only. Writing came much later, as an intelligent attempt
to represent vocal sounds. Writing is only the graphic representation of the sounds
of the language. So the linguists say that speech is primary.
Language is Non-instinctive, Conventional: No language was created in a day
out of a mutually agreed upon formula by a group of humans. Language is the
outcome of evolution and convention. Each generation transmits this convention
on to the next. Like all human institutions languages also change and die, grow and
expand. Every language then is a convention in a community. It is non-instinctive
because it is acquired by human beings. No body gets a language in heritage; he
acquires it because he an innate ability.
Language is Productive and Creative: Language has creativity and productivity.
The structural elements of human language can be combined to produce new
utterances, which neither the speaker nor his hearers may ever have made or heard
before any, listener, yet which both sides understand without difficulty. Language
changes according to the needs of society.

Finally, language has other characteristics such as Duality referring to the two
systems of sound and meaning. Displacement which means the ability to talk
across time and space, Humanness which means that animals cannot acquire
it, Universality which refers to the equilibrium across humanity on linguistic
grounds, Competence and Performance which means that language is innate and
produced is society and furthermore, language is culturally transmitted. It is learnt
by an individual from his elders, and is transmitted from one generation to
another. Thus using J. Firth’s term, language is a ‘poly systametic’. It is also open
to be studied from multifaceted angles.

2.1 Structure of language: Language and the ability to communicate is an

essential building block of human relationships. It helps us share information,
ideas and feelings with one another, making language structure and development
critical to groups of people and on an individual basis. Language development
begins in infancy and continues throughout a person.

The basic structure of Language: Phonetic alphabets are wonderful linguistic

inventions. They made literacy far, far easier than the symbolic character systems
of writing such as the Chinese characters. For example, the Hungûl system of
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Korean is known as the morning alphabet because a speaker of Korean can in one
morning learn the letters and, because Korean words are written perfectly
phonetically, becomes literate. Imperfectly phonetic spelling, as for English,
require a much longer time to get acquainted with the idiosyncratic forms.

The success of the phonetic alphabets have led people, including linguists, to
presume that the basic building blocks of a language are the individual phonemes.
Recent evidence coming out of attempts to create computer-generated speech
indicates that this is not the case.

A team of linguists and engineers were engaged in a project to create a computer

system for scanning documents and converting the files of characters into speech.
The character recognition phase of the project was achieved and the team turned its
attention to converting the character groups into spoken words. The strategy that
seemed reasonable was to record humans reading text and cut out individual
character sounds for assembly into words. For example, the recording of a word,
say toad would be cut into [t], [o] and [d]. In theory then these could be
reassembled as [d][o][t] for the pronunciation of the word dote. But the
reassembled word was unintelligible. The reason was soon found. When a speaker
articulates the word toad the speech mechanism anticipates the pronunciation of
the [o] while articulating the [t] and anticipates the following [d] while articulating
the [o]. Thus the pronunciation of phonemes is context-dependent. Thus the
reassembly of the phonemes of toad in an attempt to pronounce dote fails.

Linguists went on to show that a listener can distinguish between the supposedly
same initial consonants of different syllables in a small fraction of the time
required to articulate that consonant.

What this means is that the fundamental building blocks of a language are the
syllables. It is to be noted that auxiliary modifications of the pronunciation of
multisyllable words are of the syllable rather than the phoneme. In the case of the
tonal language such as Chinese the tone is tied to the syllable rather than the
phoneme. Thus the basic chunks of a language are the syllables. Some languages
are written using a syllabary rather than an alphabet. Typically a syllabary will
have one hundred to two hundred distinct characters rather than the thirty of a
typical alphabet. This imposed a greater burden in learning to read and write a
language. The reasonable compromise would be to have an alphabet but teach the
pronunciation of syllables to children rather than starting with the individual
letters. The emphasis on individual letters is almost always misguided because
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parents teach their children first the name of the letters rather than their supposed
sound value; i.e., that h is aitch rather than huh.

Language Theory & Development

The Five Parts of Language Development
o The basic function of language structure is to help people communicate with one
another through speech, whether verbal, written or through sign language.
Although there are many different languages, they share the same basic attributes
of sounds, word and sentence formation and meaning and cadence of speech.

Development
o Language development occurs primarily in infants and toddlers under three years
of age. At this age, their brains are developing rapidly and are able to absorb the
structure of any language they are exposed to more quickly than at any other time
in their lives. As humans age, it becomes increasingly difficult to learn new
language structures. By six months old, infants are able to recognize the basic
structure of their native language. This development continues so that, by age 3, a
child has a large enough vocabulary to communicate his wants and needs clearly to
his caregivers.

Time Frame
o Child development specialists have noted milestones that children reach by certain
ages in the area of language development. While each child is an individual
developing at his own pace, most children master certain language skills in stages.
Reaching these milestones is important in the development of language structure,
since these skills build upon one another. These milestones are set in six-month
increments for the first 24 months of life and then in yearly increments from two to
five years of age.

Considerations
o Language development in children occurs best in homes that emphasize exposure
to new sights and sounds, including speech. This is can happen through music
immersion, reading books and talking to children about almost anything that
occurs, such as the objects they encounter and the tasks the caregivers perform
throughout the day. Mothers in particular play a large role in teaching the structure
of language to their children.
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Expert Insight
o Due to the importance of language development in children, many parents are
concerned about the pace at which their child is learning speech. They should
address their fears with their child’s doctor, who may refer their child to a language
development specialist, such as speech pathologist, who is an expert in the field of
language structure and development. The specialist will evaluate the child and then
make recommendations based on his findings.