THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION

OF

CONSCIENCE
AND

THE DOMINANT DEFECT

 MIGUEL ÁNGEL FUENTES

THE PARTICULAR
EXAMINATION
OF
CONSCIENCE
and
THE DOMINANT
DEFECT

Chillum—2016
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 Table of Contents

1. The particular examination of conscience ...................... 11

1) Importance .............................................................................................. 11
2) What it consists of .................................................................................. 14
3) The way to practice it ............................................................................ 15
4) Matter: What to examine? ..................................................................... 20
5) Preliminary work .................................................................................... 23
6) The work itself ........................................................................................ 32
7) Effects ...................................................................................................... 33

2. The dominant defect .......................................................35

1) Ignorance of the topic in good people ............................................... 35
2) Its nature .................................................................................................. 37
3) The need to fight it ................................................................................ 40
4) Means to know it .................................................................................... 40
5) Method of combatting it ....................................................................... 43
6) The dominant defect and the capital vices ........................................ 44
7) Conclusion ............................................................................................... 48

3. The temperaments, or the innate dispositions ................ 51

1) Temperament and character ................................................................. 51
2) Types of temperament .......................................................................... 56
3) How do these descriptions help us? ................................................... 76

7
T
his work has three parts. In the first, we present the
nature and method by which to carry out the particular
examination of conscience, which is truly the motor of
the spiritual life; in the second, we discuss the dominant defect,
which, in many cases, will be the matter proper to the particular
examination of conscience. Finally, in the third section, we give
some general ideas about the temperaments, the knowledge of
which makes it easier to adequately seize hold of one’s dominant
passion.

9
1.

The particular examination of

conscience

The classics of Christian spirituality, beginning from the desert

monks in the first centuries of our era, but especially starting from
Ignatius of Loyola in the 16th century, have considered daily work
on one well-established point in our spiritual or emotional life to
be the most outstanding way to educate the will, meaning, to ac-
quire virtues, to uproot vices, and to correct defects.

1) Importance
I think that this is the most useful way a person can combat not
only common defects, but also deeply rooted vices and even
problems of addiction (provided that, in this case, it is done in
conjunction with the necessary or appropriate therapies).

It seems to me that this method, which is at once simple but

demanding, is most fitting for the one who wants to progress in

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 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE AND THE DOMINANT DEFECT

the spiritual life, and it is absolutely indispensable for anyone who

wants to resolve emotional conflicts. Each spiritual director—just
like each therapist—is free to choose his own methods, and per-
haps many of them do not like this one (“to each his own,” as the
saying goes). Respecting the freedom of each one to choose for
himself, I propose this instrument which has already given abun-
dant spiritual and psychological results throughout the centuries.1
Saint Ignatius himself, its great organizer and promoter, carefully
practiced it, as Fr. Laínez reported to Fr. Polanco: Ignatius took
“so much care of his conscience that each day he compared week
with week, month with month, day with day, seeking daily to ad-
vance.”2 Fr. Narciso Irala cites “Dr. Schleich, a Protestant, profes-
sor of the Faculty of Medicine at Berlin, [who] asserts even more.
‘I say with all assurance and conviction that with these norms and
exercises in our hands we could even today transform our asy-
lums, prisons, and mental institutions, and prevent the commit-
ment of two thirds of the people who are today within their
walls.”3

1 Pope Pius XII wrote to priests: “Let him also not omit his daily examina-

tion of conscience which is undoubtedly the most efficacious means we have for
taking account of the conduct of our spiritual life during the day, for removing
the obstacles which hinder or retard one’s progress in virtue, and finally, for
determining on the most suitable means to assure to our sacred ministry greater
fruitfulness and to implore from the Heavenly Father indulgence upon so many
of our deeds wretchedly done” (Pius XII, Menti Nostrae, 52).
2 Cf. López Tejada, D., Los Ejercicios Espirituales de San Ignacio de Loyola,

Comentario y textos afines, Madrid (2002), 191. Translation from W. W. Mess-

ner, Ignatius of Loyola: The Psychology of a Saint (New Haven: Yale University Press,
1992), 305.
3 Irala, Achieving Peace of Heart (New York: Joseph F. Wagner, Inc., 1954),

154.

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 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE

This method is at once the measure of one’s will and produc-

tive of the will, “this is truly a control and stimulus to the will”4;
that is, it focuses a person’s attention and energies on one precise
point, which increases the will’s capacity to perform acts that will
culminate in the achievement of the desired goals.

It is a shame that so few people resort to this method, which is

truly a walking stick for the journey in the formation of the will,
for the effective uprooting of defects, and for growth in virtue.
It’s a still greater shame that this is the sad reality that we observe
in so many lay Catholics, men and women in religious life, and
priests who, all the while knowing and being fully aware of its im-
portance and necessity, nonetheless disregard it, perform it with
amazing indifference, and even abandon it entirely – then they are
surprised when they continue dragging their vices and defects
with them or, even more simply, that their spiritual life is at a
standstill!5

This is to be attributed in part to the general abandonment of

the spiritual life (both on the part of the faithful as well as the pas-
tors), also in part to the prejudice against any serious spiritual pro-
ject (and this examination is undoubtedly an essential element of a

4 Irala, Achieving Peace of Heart, 154.

5 Royo Marín writes: “There is no doubt that the faithful practice of exami-
nation of conscience will have profound effects on one’s spiritual life. But in
this, as in so many things, its efficacy depends to a great extent on perseverance.
To omit the examination frequently or to make it in a purely mechanical fashion
is to render it absolutely sterile. The soul that earnestly desires to become holy
must be convinced that many of the other means of sanctification are frustrated
if one does not make the daily examination of conscience” (Royo Marín, Anto-
nio, The Theology of Christian Perfection (Eugene, Oregon: Wipf & Stock, 1962),
570).

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 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE AND THE DOMINANT DEFECT

serious spiritual project), and, in part, to the ignorance of the ex-

amination’s nature and end. When this last one, the end, is un-
known, as Casanovas points out, the examination “becomes a
complicated and fastidious device, like a sort of spiritual pen-
ance.”6

2) What it consists of
The examination is at once both a “state” and an “operation of
the spirit.” It is a state of the spirit in the sense that it is “a general
disposition of man that makes him always and intensely interested
in knowing, discerning, and perfecting the reactions produced in
his soul when they arise.”7 Here we have the first benefit for a
person with deeply rooted defects or emotional disorders: the
person’s attitude becomes an interest in changing, improving, and con-
sciously living their life and its interior movements (which doesn’t happen
when a person is drowning in the well of unhinged emotions).
The examination is also an operation that “requires set times and
precise rules for carrying it out. The operation without the spirit
ends up becoming an annoying and sterile routine; the spirit with-
out the operation has no practical efficacy.”8

Casanovas continues by pointing out that “there are two clas-

ses of people who err in the understanding of Saint Ignatius’s ex-
amination: those who only seek to multiply the practical details,

6 Casanovas, Ignacio, Ejercicios Espirituales de san Ignacio de Loyola (Balmes:

Barcelona, 1945), 363. Casanovas is one of the most celebrated commentators

on Saint Ignatius of Loyola.
7 Casanovas, Ignacio, Ejercicios, 364.
8 Ibid.

14
 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE

demanding their fulfillment in an almost superstitious way, and

those who scorn it, taking it for a system of accountability, im-
proper for spiritual affairs and one that weakens hearts. Both po-
sitions are equally superficial and unjust.”9

In short: the examination “seeks to keep the spirit awake and

active at all hours of the day, so that man might achieve the end
he has proposed for himself, in the way that is most serious and
effective. This is what is primary and principal, because it is, we
could say, the spiritual life of the soul. Whatever comes after this
is secondary, no matter how important it might be, and it should
be seen and treated as secondary by whoever wants to give things
their proper value, without sinning either by excess or defect.”10

3) The way to practice it

The best way to practice this examination is the way that Saint
Ignatius of Loyola explains it in his Spiritual Exercises.11 The saint
distributes the work into three fundamental moments:

1st: In the morning, after getting up, among the very first
things that must be done, the goal of the work must be precisely
determined, meaning, the resolution or personal spiritual project that is
at hand (that which must be corrected, uprooted, or acquired, be
it this or that defect, this or that virtue, this or that habit or cus-
tom). It is an awareness of the work at hand. Moreover, every
Christian knows that the success of the work depends on God’s

9 Ibid., 364-365.
10 Ibid., 365.
11 Ignatius of Loyola, Spiritual Exercises, nn. 24-31.

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 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE AND THE DOMINANT DEFECT

help, and must therefore also ask for that help in this first mo-
ment so that he can perform his work well. For those for whom
this step is very difficult, it can be very beneficial for them to
write a small prayer that makes mention of what they want to
achieve and why. For example, for a person who wants to work
on humility, the prayer could be something like this:
“My Lord Jesus Christ, I ask for Your light and grace
in order that this day I might direct my efforts to obtain
and grow in the virtue of humility. Today I want to be
humble especially by practicing humility in words, both in
those that I say of myself, as well in those that I use to
speak of my neighbor. I want to live in humility in imita-
tion of Your Most Gentle and Humble Heart. I ask for
this grace through the intercession of your holy and hum-
ble Mother.”
Note that in this possible prayer, I have not only pointed out
the virtue that is to be sought, but also the concrete act in which
we want to incarnate or realize it today. Further on we will see the
importance and the way to determine the possible concrete acts
that we practice one by one.

2nd: At the middle of the day (before or after lunch, more or

less, or whatever is easier in each case) two things should be done:
a) Recall how many times I have failed in the particu-
lar resolution (or if positive acts that were proposed were
carried out). For this, it might be convenient to review
what was done during the morning, hour by hour, or
place by place, and to record it in a little book or notebook.
Some complain about the “materiality” of this work, and
prefer not to lower themselves to such a detail, limiting
themselves to keeping their work in their memory. How-
ever, they forget that the end of this task is to overcome

16
 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE

laxity and laziness. For this reason, I advise that the exami-
nation be made as it is indicated here, at least by those
who suffer from emotional illnesses or have very deeply
rooted defects. On the other hand, it is appropriate not
only to observe and write down how many times one has fall-
en, but also the reasons why these falls occurred, in order
to correct them and to build up prudence for the future.
b) In addition to this step, one should renew the reso-
lution for the rest of the day.
Saint Ignatius proposes the following method of writing down
the falls (which each person can adjust as best suits them):

Day 1 m............................................................................

a..............................................................................

Day 2 m............................................................................

a..............................................................................

Day 3 m............................................................................

a..............................................................................

Day 4 m............................................................................

a..............................................................................

Day 5 m............................................................................

a..............................................................................

Day 6 m............................................................................

a..............................................................................

Day 7 m............................................................................

a..............................................................................

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 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE AND THE DOMINANT DEFECT

There are two lines for each day: on the first line, the falls (or,
on the contrary, the fulfillment of acts that were proposed) of the
morning should be noted, whereas those of the afternoon on the
second.

3rd Lastly, as the day reaches its end, one should make the ex-
amination again, considering the falls that have occurred since
mid-day until that moment. Record this on the corresponding
line.

Saint Ignatius himself teaches that it is appropriate, when one

realizes that he or she has failed in the resolution, to make some
external sign, the meaning of which only the one with the resolu-
tion knows (for example, to gently beat the chest), in such a way
as to manifest one’s sorrow at having fallen. The same could be
said of when one performs an action that had been proposed.
Casanovas indicates that this being aware of the act itself by means
of which one falls into their defect (that we had proposed to
avoid) or practices a virtue (that we had proposed to practice) has
great importance: “after said foresight [that is, of foreseeing the
acts that we will do or avoid], there is nothing more important
than being aware of one’s own actions; likewise, there is nothing
more fatal than being unaware of one’s falls or falling into routine
in one’s actions. . . . This being attentive to the falls must be en-
tirely conscious, and that careful awareness must be manifested even
with an external actions, leading one to, for example, place one’s
hand on their chest. This external gesture indicates repentance, if
one has fallen into their defect, and it is, furthermore, a renewal of

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 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE

the resolution not to fall. It is simply not possible for someone to

get used to falling if they are aware of every time that they do,
repent after each slip-up, and take strength from each fall in order
to renew their spirit. If this renewal is made as is appropriate, per-
haps the very slip itself will serve as a stimulus and incentive to
take a step forward, as tends to happen in physical slips.”12 This is
not far from the so-called healthy rituals of those who fight against
serious and deeply rooted problems.13

I am aware that some spiritual directors (often clumsy ones)

consider this type of work as a mechanization of the spiritual life;
nevertheless, even good psychologists consider it at least an effec-
tive method. It is beyond doubt that this examination, when poor-
ly carried out, can convert spiritual or psychological work into a
useless automation; this is why we warned about the need to cre-
ate a spirit, since the letter without the spirit kills (cf. 2 Co 3:6).

Furthermore, in the nightly examination, the person must ex-

amine if his or her conduct has improved when compared to that
of the morning; and each day (or at least once a week) a compari-
son should be made between that day and other days, seeing if the
behavior has improved or worsened, and then seeking the reasons
why (if it has improved, in order to continue working in that di-

12 Casanovas, ibid., 368-369.

13 Such is the case, for example, of those who suffer from an addiction and
fight to leave it. Addictions create certain “rituals” that the addicted person must
follow scrupulously when they begin their addictive cycle. This is why specialists
indicate the importance of forming “healthy” rituals, that is, routines or reflexes,
that are not sickly but rather proper to healthy people (cf. Miguel Fuentes, La
trampa rota (San Rafael, Argentina: Ediciones del Verbo Encarnado, 2008), 279-
281.

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 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE AND THE DOMINANT DEFECT

rection; if it has worsened, in order to correct those things that

have made the person slide back in their work), and every so of-
ten compare one week with the previous ones, in order to see if
the goals are nearer to or further from being accomplished.

With a solid work by means of this method, in a few months

even defects that have been deeply rooted for a long time can be
corrected. However, this requires perseverance and tenacity, as
well as sufficient humility in order to start anew when the person
becomes aware that they have fallen again.

The effects of this examination are so important for behavior

that I firmly believe that this type of work must be incorporated
even into the treatment of those people with addictions and emo-
tional disorders.

4) Matter: What to examine?

In regards to the matter of the examination, it should always be
something very precise and determined, as well as sufficiently
known by the one who is doing the examination.

First and foremost, it must be some determined good. The main

mistakes in work regarding the will (and also in other areas) comes
from proposing very general plans (for example, “to want to be
humble,” or “to want to be generous”). Even if humility and gen-
erosity are concrete virtues, they are still just general resolutions.
Dealing with things in a generic way can never lead to advance-
ment in the spiritual life. For this reason, the particular resolution
must always be something concrete, and the more particular, the

20
 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE

better. If, for example, a person desires to grow in humility, the

resolutions must be focused: which concrete acts of humility (in
looks, words, or deeds?), or with respect to whom (superiors,
subordinates, spouse, friends, parents), or in which moments of
the day, etc. After a time of work, once a certain habit with re-
spect to this act has been formed, the person can move on to new
acts of humility. What is true in other fields is true here as well:
the fundamentals (meaning, the little things) must be mastered in
order to later master the big things.

Second: how does one choose the matter on which they should
work? I reproduce a text from the above-cited Casanovas: “Gen-
erally ascetical authors emphasize the need to choose with certain-
ty the particular defect or virtue regarding which the particular
examination should be carried out. In order to be certain about
this point, they established the theory of the dominant passion,
affirmed that first the principal vice should be attacked,14 then
secondary ones, and then, lastly, the virtues should be sought.

All of this is very well established when seen as a theory based

on the value of the vices and virtues, but if attention is paid to the end
towards which the spirit of Saint Ignatius’s particular examination

14 Although we will deal with this topic in the second part of this work, let’s

look ahead, in order to understand well what we have been saying: by dominant
passion or defect, Casanovas means the propensity or proclivity to a determined
sinful act produced by the frequent repetition of the act itself. All of us are born
with a natural disposition to certain acts that are good and others that are bad, a
disposition which is part of our temperament. If the will does not oppose these
con-natural predispositions to evil from the very beginning, these quickly acquire
a great vigor and become true defects. The “dominant defect” in a person is that
proclivity whose impulse is most frequent and strongest, even though it might
not always be externally observed. It is usually the source of the other defects
and sins that each person falls into most often.

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 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE AND THE DOMINANT DEFECT

is ordered, perhaps it is fitting to follow a different criteria. Given that the

end of the particular examination is to keep the desire for holiness
alive and active, what pertains to the person’s class and circum-
stances that surround them is to be given preference since it is
more effective in stirring up that desire, even though this might
break the molds of the objective order with which we give value
to the vices and virtues. The variety of circumstances in which
souls find themselves, even with respect to the same degree of
perfection and imperfection, is so great that it is very difficult to
decree a priori which is the most beneficial method. Let us never
lose sight of the fact that holiness is a life and not a theory, no
matter how well-thought out that theory might be, and that the
particular examination is not an end to which a soul’s life must be
conformed, but rather a means to maintain and perfect that
life.”15 Thus, what a person should examine themselves about
must be determined according to the needs of that concrete per-
son “here and now.” For this reason, for example, a person dom-
inated by a vice like lust or alcohol, despite the fact that their
dominant passion or vice is lust or alcohol, should perhaps exam-
ine themselves, at least at some points in their lives, regarding
their confidence in and abandonment to God (given that, without
these attitudes, recovery is impossible), or regarding humility
(when there is some inferiority complex at the root), or regarding
other, different acts when the examination is being used primarily
to strengthen or intensify the will.

15 Casanovas, ibid., 370-371.

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 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE

5) Preliminary work
Again, I maintain that a virtue cannot be acquired, nor a vice
fought, if the territory upon which one will work is not well
known. A good military officer studies his own army, his enemy,
and the land upon which the battle will take place in great detail: if
he doesn’t, his defeat is all but assured. In our case, something
similar happens; if a person wants to acquire a virtue, he or she
must become, in a certain sense, an “expert” in it. When someone
tells me, for example, “I think that I need to work on meekness,
because my biggest problem is anger,” I usually reply, “That
seems like a good idea; now give me fifteen different acts that you
could put into practice in order to achieve this goal.” The majority
of people are simply left confused; at most, one or two actions
come to mind. This means that they know little or nothing about
that virtue; however, if that’s the case, then serious work isn’t pos-
sible, because the people won’t realize when opportunities to
practice that virtue arise if they don’t know, and know well, what
that virtue is and the different situations in which it acts. The
same can be said of vices. Anyone who wants to work hard must
(according to their possibilities and abilities) study the topic.

Thus, for a serious work, I recommend, before anything else,

reading what the classics of spirituality of moral theology have to
say about the virtue that is sought or the vice that needs to be
uprooted (for example, some of the works of Antonio Royo Ma-
rín, Tanquerey, Garrigou-Lagrange, Merkelbach, Prümmer, etc.).

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 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE AND THE DOMINANT DEFECT

Once this is done, the person will be able to make a list, as ex-
haustive as possible, of all the acts that they see as connected both
directly and indirectly with the virtue or vice that is their subject mat-
ter, and this as it is found in the daily life of the person who is doing the
work. A list of fifteen to twenty acts is the ideal. Here I offer, as a
sort of example, some lists to serve as guides regarding chastity
(and its opposed vice, lust), sloth (and its opposed virtue, dili-
gence), and humility (and its opposed vice, pride). The way that
these lists are structured can inspire other possible outlines:

Example 1
Material for work regarding chastity and lust

a) The main cause of sins of lust are the occasions of sin that pre-
sent themselves to the sight. Therefore:

 I will never watch television alone.

 I will set a time limit for going to bed, and after that
hour I will never allow myself to keep watching televi-
sion or to go on the Internet.

 I will never go on the Internet in any place where I can’t

be seen by others; I will use filters against pornography
and (if I am a religious) also programs that make it clear
to my superiors the sites that I enter.

 I will never use online chats, or I will do so only in the

sight of other people or family members.

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 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE

 I will take care of what I see in magazines, the newspa-

per, etc.

 I will flee from dangerous places or settings.

 I will break off this or that friendship which is purely su-

perficial and frivolous.

b) Another main cause of falls into lust is sensuality (or weakness

of the senses); thus, in order to overcome this problem:

 I will seek to be mortified in what I eat.

 I will perform corporeal penances, in the measure that it’s

possible for me, in order to maintain control over my
body.

 I will mortify my senses, depriving myself occasionally of

things that are good (for example, from looking at some-
thing that’s ok to see, from smelling a pleasant perfume,
from feeling the soft touch of something; and this, not
because these things are bad, but rather to learn to renounce
something licit, which will make me stronger when I must
say “no” to illicit temptations).

 I will maintain my bodily hygiene, not seeking my own

comfort but rather to form my will: mortifying my senses
(for example, with a splash of cold water when shower-
ing), giving a brief time to washing, being ordered in my
things, etc.

c) Another source of falls into lust is idleness, therefore:

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 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE AND THE DOMINANT DEFECT

 I will seek to always be occupied, even when I have no

obligations (thus, I will try to have good books to read, to
practice some hobby, to work on something practical,
etc.).

 I will try to do some physical exercise at least twice a

week (to work, do sports, go to the gym, etc.).

d) Many fall into sins of lust as a punishment for the pride, there-
fore:

 I should keep a careful eye on this point, trying to be ever

more humble; I will take advantage of the opportunities
to humble myself with work and tasks that are “lowly” in
the sight of others (and mine as well).

 I will ask God for the grace to humbly accept the humili-
ations that others inflict upon me.

e) I cannot aspire to the virtue of chastity without God’s help;

hence:

 I will frequently receive communion (daily if possible)

and go to confession weekly.

 I will never set aside devotion to Our Lady, especially the

daily Rosary.

f) Scripture says that the one who considers the nature of sin and
their dying moments will not sin; hence:

 I will consider the malice of the sin of lust, the degrada-

tion that it imposes on my body.

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 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE

 Each day (above all before going to bed) I will recall that
one day I must die, and that I do not know the day or
time, and then I will be judged for all my deeds, and, ac-
cording to the way I have acted (good or bad) I will be
saved or I will be condemned.

g) Chastity is a virtue that is acquired with positive acts, even in-

direct ones; ergo:

 I will be modest in the way I dress.

 I will be honest in my way of speaking and in my gestures

(nothing of vulgarity or vanity to call attention).

 I will be prudent and balanced in my emotional dealings

with others.

 I will be pure in my looks (I will look at each person as I

want others to look at my brothers and sisters and moth-
er and father).

 I will ask for the grace of modesty and in everything I do

I will act with modesty.

Example 2
Material for work regarding sloth and diligence

a) Acedia is sorrow for spiritual things; for this reason: I will ask
to be happy for spiritual things (Mass, prayer, trials, illnesses,
failures). In order to do this, I will include my daily failures in
my daily thanksgiving.

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 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE AND THE DOMINANT DEFECT

b) Sloth inclines us to perform our spiritual acts with negligence,

to shorten them, or even to omit them entirely, and all these
for trivial reasons. Hence, I propose:

 To not shorten any of the acts in which I am attacked by

sloth (every act of piety and prayer).

 To not omit any act for any reason whatsoever that does
not come from obedience, the urgency of charity, or pas-
toral duties.

 On the contrary, I will seek to do these things with the

utmost perfection.

c) Sloth makes me rush to finish what I don’t like to do. Hence:

 I will not rush in those offices that are the most repug-
nant to me.

 I will give prayer the time it deserves (thanksgiving after

Mass, examination of conscience, preparation for Mass).

 I will never do any of the things that I find more pleasant

when these activities would take the place or the time of
other activities that I must do because of my state.

d) Sloth also makes us choose offices according to the delight

that they produce: hence, I will choose my activities according
to urgency, the help they will be to my neighbor, or to the re-
quest of my superiors.

e) The daughter of sloth is despair (repugnance or flight from

what is difficult). Thus: I must fill my soul with the hope of

28
 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE

being able to accomplish the works that God asks of me, even
when they seem to me to be very annoying, difficult, or im-
possible to fulfill.

f) Sloth gives rise to pusillanimity for undertaking what seems

difficult. Hence: I will confront, with great energy and gener-
osity, the detailed works of my daily sanctification.

g) Sloth gives rise to resentment and bitterness towards those

who give us commands or who ask us for things that are diffi-
cult for us or that we don’t like. Therefore:

 I will be obedient and have a good attitude towards the

one who orders me (the superior) or who asks me to un-
dertake a task that displeases me; this implies not com-
plaining about what was asked, and not making it known
that I was asked something difficult or unjust (a way of
getting back at the superior by making him or her feel like
a tyrant).

 With an exquisite charity and patience I will deal with

those who ask me for things that are difficult or change
my plans (those who, for this reason, I treat badly, so that
they don’t come back to ask me for something else or so
that their requests will be brief).

h) Sloth gives rise to “digressions,” curiosity, verbosity, bodily

restlessness . . . that is, things that are “palliative,” amusements
by which we make up for the efforts of duty. In this, I will do
everything possible not to distract myself or to seek to “run

29
 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE AND THE DOMINANT DEFECT

away” into amusements. I will leave recreation for when it’s

time for recreation. During the time of work or prayer, on the
other hand, I will put all my effort into doing my duty well.

i) In order to combat the desolation that accompanies some spir-

itual acts, I should meditate on the value and importance that
these acts have for my life.

j) I will increase whatever gives rise to charity (which is opposed

to sloth):

 Devotion to the Eucharist.

 Devotion to the Blessed Virgin Mary.

 Reading and meditating on Sacred Scripture.

k) The temptation to sloth can be a divine purification. Hence, I

will ask God for patience . . . a lot of patience!

Example 3
Material for work regarding humility and pride

a) Humility flows from a correct understanding of myself, of my

sins, and of God’s action in my soul, and this is a grace that I
must ask for. Therefore, I must:

 Ask for the grace to grow in humility

 Pray the litanies of humility (by Cardinal Merry del Val)

30
 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE

b) I must also put into place the means to know myself; for this, I
must:

 Recall my sins

 Recall that all of the good that I have in me God gave me

gratuitously.

c) Pride makes obedience difficult, above all obedience to those

who are my equals or under me; hence, I should:

 Docilely obey those who are my equals and my inferiors.

 Ask others to tell me what I should do (i.e., to seek obe-

dience).

d) Pride makes me feel that mockeries and humiliations are un-

just; in this order, then, I must:

 Bear mockeries and humiliations in silence

 “Go with the flow” when others make fun of me (to

learn to laugh at myself)

e) Pride leads me to think that I am superior to others, to judge

others, and to refuse help from others; for this reason, I will
make the effort to:

 Ask others for help (advice, opinion, or explanation)

 Seek the company of those who make me feel “over-

shadowed”

 Not to amuse myself by thinking of the defects of others

 To speak well of others

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 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE AND THE DOMINANT DEFECT

f) Pride leads me to seek the vainglory that people give; there-

fore, I will attempt to:

 Not speak of myself, especially if it is in praise of myself

 To not pay attention when others speak well of me

 To not give my opinion if it’s not asked for or if it’s not

necessary

g) Pride makes it difficult for me to accept my mistakes; there-

fore, I propose to:

 Accept corrections in silence

 Personally ask pardon of those whom I offend

h) Christ is the supreme model of humility; therefore, I must

contemplate Christ’s humiliation in the Passion.

i) Pride makes me enjoy thinking of myself, in how others

should think well of me; therefore I will not allow myself to
think about myself.

j) In order to grow in humility, one must know what it is and

how to come to possess it; therefore, I will read and meditate
on this virtue.

6) The work itself

The above lists are only suggestions; each person can add or
remove elements or make an analogous plan for other virtues or
for other defects, as was indicated above. As can be seen, in order
to come up with a list for the other virtues or vices, it’s enough to

32
 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE

make a list of the main elements of that virtue (nature, cause, ways
to acquire it, main acts, secondary acts, effects, occasions to prac-
tice it, the vices that are opposed to it, and so on), and later de-
termining the various concrete acts in order to feed that particular
aspect or to uproot it. The aforementioned examples are eloquent
enough in themselves.

With these ideas in mind, the person who is to work on this at-
titude must examine themselves on only one of those points during
whatever amount of time is needed until that element is uprooted;
after that, he or she can move on to another. A person must not
work on several points at a time, because this would be contrary
to the goal of the particular examination (whose objective is to
concentrate the will’s energy and the intellect’s attention on only
one focus). It’s understood as well that when the person begins to
examine a new aspect of act, the exercise of those acts that have already
been acquired must be kept alive. The person should gain new ground
with each examination. In this way, in a short time, one person
can completely change, from apathetic to energetic and from vi-
cious to virtuous.

7) Effects
The work carried out in this way not only conquers or makes
grow (or overcomes a defect) that virtue upon which attention
had been centered, but rather, at the same time, it has an im-
portant effect: it strengthens the will itself, which, with each firm
and energetic act, becomes more invigorated and consolidated.

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 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE AND THE DOMINANT DEFECT

Moreover, above and beyond this benefit in the will, it also

produces another, more important effect (which, according to
some authors, is its main fruit): it keeps the interest in one’s per-
sonal sanctification and perfection awake and alive.

Above all, we must remember a great truth: with great fre-

quency (to avoid saying, “almost always”), without a serious par-
ticular examination, all good desires and efforts, are condemned,
sooner or later, to utter failure, and the Christian ends up incar-
cerated in lukewarmness and mediocrity. For this reason, not giv-
ing the examination the importance that it deserves could be tak-
en as a sign of foolishness.

34
2.

The dominant defect

When speaking of the object upon which to make the particu-

lar examination, we have said, following Casanovas, that it’s not
always necessary to make the examination on one’s dominant de-
fect. To be more precise, we should say that, even if some circum-
stances might demand that, in certain cases, more urgent work be
done on some other point of our personality, a large part of our
efforts will consist in the effort to uproot our dominant defect
and, sooner or later, we will need to seriously concern ourselves
with it.

1) Ignorance of the topic in good people

In spite of all that the classic authors of spirituality have writ-
ten about the topic, there is notable ignorance about this issue.
Or, more precisely, we must realize that a sizeable number of
good Christians, Christians who understand what is meant by the
term “dominant defect,” are nonetheless unaware of their own

35
 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE AND THE DOMINANT DEFECT

dominant defect. This is shown by Fr. Amadeo Cencini’s work

with consecrated men and women, citing L. M. Rulla’s study,
which affirmed the following: “Upon entering into the theologate
or into the novitiate, 86% of clerics were unaware of what their
own central conflict (which was previously called the dominant
defect) was, and after four years of formation, 83% were still unaware of
what their weak side was (that is, in religious, at the beginning of their
novitiate, 87% did not know their main inconsistency, and 82%
after four years).”16 And here he is speaking about people who, in
theory, have consecrated their entire lives to the search for spir-
itual perfection!

Let us note that modern language has regrettably stopped us-

ing that very precise expression “dominant defect,” in part be-
cause of the invasion of psychology into what is properly spiritual
territory. In the citation that we have just reproduced, we read the
terms “central conflict,” “weak side,” “main inconsistency,” terms
which undoubtedly describe the reality that we are speaking of,
but that lack the strength of that qualifier that had been given by
tradition: dominant. The classic terminology has, nonetheless, not
lost any of its strength or modernity. In addition to the expression
“dominant defect,” other authors have used and continue to use
equivalent expressions, such as “dominant disposition,” “domi-
nant passion,” “dominant vice,” and others.

16 Cf. Cencini, Por amor…, 111; the study that he is referring to is: L. M.

Rulla-F. Imola-J. Ridick, Antropología de la vocación cristiana II. Confirmaciones existen-

ciales (Madrid: Sociedad de Educación Atenas, 1994), 182ss.

36
 THE DOMINANT DEFECT

2) Its nature
What is the dominant defect? In a certain sense, it could be
called, using Fulton Sheen’s expression, “what is worst in us.”17 It
is that from which all or at least the majority of the faults that a
person commits are born, above all sins of affection: that in which
in each one of us gives rise to the most violent and strongest de-
sires, that which brings us to exaggerated happiness or to pro-
found sadness. It is that which grace reproaches the most, and
that which has a particular connection with the natural way of
thinking, feeling, and acting in each person. It is that which makes
up the twisted foundation of our character and has an intimate
link with our individual way of being. There are temperaments
that are naturally inclined to complacency, to indolence, laziness,
gluttony, sensuality; others are more inclined to pride, and so on.18

Garrigou-Lagrange defines it as “our domestic enemy, dwell-

ing in our interior; for, if it develops, it may succeed in completely
ruining the work of grace or the interior life. . . . The predomi-
nant fault is so much the more dangerous as it often compromises
our principal good point, which is a happy inclination of our na-
ture that ought to develop and to be increased by grace. . . . In
every man there is a mixture of good and bad inclinations; there is
a predominant fault and also a natural quality. . . . Particular care
must be taken that the predominant fault does not snuff out our

17 Sheen, Fulton, Lift up Your Heart (Garden City, NY: Image Books, 1955),

117 (See chapter 7: “The Emergence of Character”).

18 Cf. Garrigou-Lagrange, The Three Ages of the Interior Life (Rockford, Illinois:

TAN, 1947), 314.

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 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE AND THE DOMINANT DEFECT

principal natural quality or our special attraction of grace. Other-

wise our soul would resemble a field of wheat invaded by tares or
cockle, of which the Gospel speaks. . . . At times it is like a de-
vouring worm in a beautiful fruit. . . . In the citadel of our interior
life, which is defended by the different virtues, the predominant
fault is the weak spot, undefended by the theological and moral
virtues. The enemy of souls seeks exactly this easily vulnerable
point in each one, and he finds it without difficulty.”19

The dominant defect is more bound to the temperamental founda-

tion of each person than the other vices that they have acquired
throughout their lives, including those that have become addic-
tions. For this reason, care must be taken not to confuse the dom-
inant defect with other habits that could, circumstantially, be more
serious than the defect itself and that, in some cases, demand that
they be dealt with greater urgency than the defect itself. A person
could have vices that are objectively more serious than the domi-
nant defect that gave rise to them.

If I am not mistaken, the dominant defect coincides with the

way in which each person takes on the fomes peccati, the moral ten-
dency or disposition to slip up in the moral realm, the inheritance
of original sin, which is linked to the person’s distinct tempera-
mental configuration.20 From here it follows the importance of

19 Garrigou-Lagrange, The Three Ages of the Interior Life (Rockford, Illinois:

TAN, 1947), 315-6.

20 The Catechism of the Catholic Church, in n. 1264, reads: “Yet certain temporal

consequences of sin remain in the baptized, such as suffering, illness, death, and
such frailties inherent in life as weaknesses of character, and so on, as well as an
inclination to sin that Tradition calls concupiscence, or metaphorically, ‘the tinder

38
 THE DOMINANT DEFECT

knowing the theory of the temperaments, with their various posi-

tive and negative qualities. Even if none of the temperamental
typologies—regarding which we will speak in the last section—is
to be found in a pure state, and hence the forms in which they are
actually found are really quite numerous, some general lines and
some likewise general defects can be traced out: the explosive an-
ger and bad character of the choleric, the superficiality and insta-
bility of the sanguine, sadness and the tendency towards bitterness
in the passionate, laziness and indifference in the amorphous, and
so on.

The dominant defect is so important that even in cases where

charity demands that work first be done on another vice that is
perhaps negatively affecting one’s neighbor or one’s duties of
state, we must not forget that every vice in some way bears the mark
of the dominant defect. The sins against charity committed by one
with a choleric temperament and by one who is bitter or superfi-
cial are not the same; nor is the lust of the impulsive the same as
the one who is an egoist. Pride has marks of despotism in a chol-
eric, and of bitterness in a melancholic. . . . If this is not taken
into account, the examinations of conscience will always be ab-
stract and impersonal and, as a result, ineffective.

for sin’ (fomes peccati); since concupiscence ‘is left for us to wrestle with, it cannot
harm those who do not consent but manfully resist it by the grace of Jesus
Christ.’ Indeed, ‘an athlete is not crowned unless he competes according to the
rules.’”

39
 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE AND THE DOMINANT DEFECT

3) The need to fight it

Saint Alphonsus says that “we must endeavor, above all, to
find out our predominant passion. He who conquers this, con-
quers all his passions; he who allows himself to be overcome by it,
is lost. . . . Some persons . . . abstain from certain defects of mi-
nor importance and, at the same time, allow themselves to be
ruled by their predominant passion; but, if they do not destroy
this passion, they will never gain the victory of salvation.”21
Speaking of the “frightening effects of the dominant passion,” he
adds: “It makes salvation morally impossible, it blinds its victim,
and plunges him into all excesses. Unless we kill . . . the predomi-
nant passion, we will never be able to obtain salvation. The pas-
sion which brings man under its sway, first blinds him, and pre-
vents him from seeing the danger.”22

4) Means to know it
The number of good people who, after many years of spiritual
life, continue their journey without knowing what their dominant
defect is, is amazing.

In order to discover which passion it is that dominates us, two

previous dispositions are needed.

The first: to ask God for the necessary means, namely: super-
natural light in order to adequately know our interior world, and

21 Saint Alphonsus Liguori, Sermón 41 in Obras ascéticas, vol. II (Madrid: Bibli-

oteca de Autores Cristianos, 1954), 810.

22 Ibid., 811.

40
 THE DOMINANT DEFECT

the sincere desire to work seriously on our personal reform. This

latter has a capital importance, because it often happens that we
are disposed to know ourselves, but not so much to change. In
the face of such dispositions, it’s no surprise that God would not
grant the light either, since He doesn’t illuminate the path of the
one who has no serious intention of walking on it.

The second: we must seek the courage to call things “by [their]
right and ugly name when [they are] discovered; otherwise we
shall excuse our lack of fortitude as an ‘inferiority complex’ and
our inordinate love of the flesh as a ‘release of libido.’ Judas
missed salvation because he never called his avarice by its right
name—he disguised it as love of the poor.”23 This observation is
not without its importance, since there are few who are so re-
solved to accept that they have a foundation that is profoundly
egotistical, or sensual, or greedy, or bitter. This fear of confront-
ing the naked truth is one of the most important obstacles in the
discovery of our dominant passion.

We can indicate the following among the resources that we

can use to make our dominant defect appear before our eyes.

First and foremost, as Archbishop Fulton Sheen indicates, we

can be helped by the observation of what defect angers us most
when we are accused of it: the traitor becomes very angry when
he is accused of being disloyal to his country for the first time. It
can also be helpful to consider what failing or defect we most of-
ten or most vehemently condemn in our neighbor because, in

23 Sheen, Fulton, Lift up Your Heart, 118.

41
 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE AND THE DOMINANT DEFECT

those strange twists of our psychology, this is usually the same

defect that affects us: thus Judas accused our Lord of not loving
the poor enough. Perhaps this explains why that failing, seen in
others, seems to accuse us as well.

Another means that permits us to discover our defect is the

way in which others act with respect to us. This has something to
do with the law in physics that says that every action produces an
equal and opposite reaction; this is also valid in the psychological
plane. Sometimes others distrust us, because we previously dis-
trusted them. If we mistreat our neighbor, it’s likely that our
neighbor will mistreat us. However, this can’t be taken as a gen-
eral principle, because sometimes it happens that we are mistreat-
ed without having done the same thing, as happens, for example,
to a persecuted saint. However, quite often we can trust that the
attitudes of others towards us are like a mirror of our interior dis-
positions.

Another means consists of asking ourselves where our ordi-

nary concerns go, what is the target of our thoughts and desires;
what is the running origin of our sins: what is generally the cause
of our sadness and of our happiness. It’s also worthwhile to ask
our spiritual director what he thinks of all this.

Likewise, it should be noted that this defect also tends to be

connected with the most frequent temptations that the enemy
raises up in our soul, because our enemy, as Saint Ignatius teaches,
attacks us at our weakest point.

42
 THE DOMINANT DEFECT

Finally, the dominant defect can also be found by bearing in

mind that, in moments of true fervor, the inspirations of the Holy
Spirit come to ask us for sacrifices in the things that produce us
the greatest moral difficulty.

5) Method of combatting it
It does us no good whatsoever to know our dominant defect if
we don’t work to uproot it, and this is not possible unless we fight
against it constantly. Superficial work, work done for a short
amount of time, or work that misses the center of the problem, all
leave either the problem itself or at least its roots intact. In this
way, just like the phoenix, it is reborn again and again from its
ashes, which are not as trivial as they seem.

The means that the classics of spirituality suggest for this work
are well known.

The first is prayer: without prayer, we can’t do anything at all

in the spiritual life, and even less correct or transform the hidden
foundation of our personality.

The heart of the work is rooted in fidelity to the particular ex-

amination of conscience, which is the subject of the first part of
this book. It is truly very difficult, even borderline impossible, to
attempt to eradicate that passion without being faithful to this
spiritual instrument.

It must be added, although some place it as part of the particu-

lar examination, the learning to impose a penance upon ourselves

43
 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE AND THE DOMINANT DEFECT

every time that we fail in the resolution that we have established

to fight against the dominant defect. We will advance very little if
our falls, even repeated ones, are left unpunished. In this, disci-
pline has a very important pedagogical and corrective role.

Archbishop Sheen places great emphasis on another element:

to make the dominant defect an opportunity to grow in virtue.
This happens quite often in the physical plane, when some parts
have been damaged; once they are repaired, they are even stronger
than before. For example, scar tissue, once it recovers, becomes
the strongest part of the skin. In a similar way, a defect that is
overcome can become the greatest strength of a person. In the
lives of the saints, we see that many of them have distinguished
themselves, and we recall them precisely for it, because of certain
virtues that they had to develop in order to confront their person-
al defects. Such is the well-known case of Saint Francis de Sales,
whom we praise for his meekness, which was the result of his
battle against his choleric temperament. In this sense, the exam-
ples abound: “Drunkards, alcoholics, dope fiends, materialists,
sceptics, sensualists, gluttons, thieves—all can make that area of
life in which they are defeated the area of their greatest victory.”24

6) The dominant defect and the capital

vices
Many spiritual authors have indicated that the dominant defect
coincides with one of the capital vices. In reality, it would be more

24 Sheen, Fulton, Lift up Your Heart, 124.

44
 THE DOMINANT DEFECT

accurate to say that every dominant defect can be traced back, as

to its ultimate source, to one of the capital sins, the term used to
describe that sins which are capable of causing other sins.

“Capital status,” therefore, designates a particular mode of

causality. It doesn’t refer to material causality, in the sense that
one sin is the occasion to commit another, as gluttony gives rise
to the occasion to fall into lust, and avarice gives way to argu-
ments and quarrels. Nor is it efficient causality, as happens when a
repeated sin forms a habit that leaves an inclination to go back to
commit the same sin (a vice), nor in the sense that it opens the
door to other sins by destroying what could have been a brake or
an impediment for sin (as, for example, a sin that destroys modes-
ty becomes a cause of many other sins that the person will commit
from then on as a result of having lost their shame).

In fact, the causality here referred to is final causality: the capi-

tal vice is the directive and conducting (ductivus) principle.25 That
is, it gives rise to a certain number of sins (principle), and directs
them (directive) towards its own interests. It is the root and be-
ginning of other sins that are useful for achieving its own end. A
“capital sin” is that sin whose end (sexual pleasure in the case of
lust, vengeance in that of wrath, exaltation of one’s self in pride) is
maximally desired by a person, and for this reason it pushes the
person to carry out many other sins that permit that person to
achieve that end. For example, avarice, whose end is the unlimited
accumulation of riches, moves the psychology of the avaricious

25 Cf. Saint Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, I-II, q. 84, a. 4.

45
 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE AND THE DOMINANT DEFECT

person to commit fraud, deceit, thefts, to hardness of heart and to

a lack of mercy . . . all acts that, without them, the person could
not achieve their end of collecting money.

Moreover, the capital vice “plasters” a proper style in the sins

that it gives rise to as means to achieve its end: “that in which a
man rests as in his last end, is master of his affections, since he
takes his entire rule of life from it,” says Saint Thomas.26 The
rules regarding the way in which the other sins that are given birth
by it are lived and brought about are taken from the capital vice.
The lustful man who steals in order to obtain money with the goal
of satisfying his concupiscence, and for the same reason lies and
performs other deeds, gives a lustful style or tinge to all of these
actions, since it is lust that dominates him. For this reason, Aristo-
tle said that the one who steals in order to commit adultery is
more an adulterer than a thief. Thus, the capital vices outline the
various psychological parameters of sinners.

Sacred Scripture gives neither a number nor a list of these sins;

however, in the first seven centuries of the Church, the spiritual
authors developed three different classifications. Cassian men-
tioned the principle vices in this order: gluttony, concupiscence,
fornication, avarice, wrath, sadness, acedia or weariness of heart,
vainglory, and pride; he splits vainglory and pride, distinguishes
between sadness and acedia, and omits envy.27

Summa Theologica, I-II, q. 1, a. 5, sed contra.

26

Cf. Cassian, De coenobiorium institutis, l. V, c.1; PL 49,202 ss.; Collationes V,X;

27

PL49, 621 ss.

46
 THE DOMINANT DEFECT

Saint John Climacus lists seven principle vices, identifying

vainglory and pride; in the others, his list coincides with that of
Cassian, and he likewise omits envy.28

The strongest tradition, on the other hand, is that of Saint

Gregory the Great,29 who established three interlocking levels: 1st,
above all is pride, which is the “beginning of all sin” (Sir 10: 15),
which is like a super-capital vice, since all the others take their
origin from it; 2nd then follow the seven capital vices, which are
begotten by pride: vainglory, envy, anger, sloth, covetousness,
gluttony, lust; 3rd, those sins that Saint Gregory calls the “daugh-
ters of the capital vices,” which are the sins that each of those
capital sins gives rise to in a special way:

PRIDE

Vainglory Envy Anger Sloth Covetous- Gluttony Lust

ness

Boasting Hatred Indignation Malice Fraud Unseemly joy Blindness of

Hypocrisy Tale-bearing Clamor Despair Treachery Dullness of mind
Obstinacy Detraction Blasphemy Fainthearted- Lies understanding Inconstancy
Discord Joy in evil Quarrels ness Loquaciousness Rashness
Contention Spite
Disobedience Libertinage

28 Cf. Saint John Climacus, Scala paradissi, grado 12; PG 88, 948 ss.
29 Cf. Saint Gregory, Moralia in Iob, VI, book 31, cap. 45, nnº 87-91.

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 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE AND THE DOMINANT DEFECT

Later authors (among them, Saint Isidore of Seville, Alcuin,

and Peter Lombard are particularly outstanding) reproduce these
different classifications. Saint Thomas prefers the Gregorian list
but modifies it slightly. According to him, the capital vices arise in
the different ways that the appetite or emotions refer to the good
(seeking it or fleeing from it):

a) The disordered seeking of the spiritual good of one’s own ex-

cellence is vainglory.

b) The disordered desire for physical well-being gives rise to glut-

tony; for sexual pleasure, to lust; and for material goods, avarice.

c) When instead of seeking a good, the person flees from it out

of fear of the effort that it entails, we have acedia (if it concerns
a spiritual good) or sloth (if it is just any sort of good).

d) If a neighbor’s good is rejected because it is seen as rivaling

one’s own honor or excellence, we fall into envy; and if, in addi-
tion to that rejection, desires of vengeance and violence are
added, there is anger.

7) Conclusion
In short: it is impossible for people who do not know them-
selves to reach perfection, if only because they will forge illusions
about their state (falling either into a presumptuous optimism or a
depressing discouragement). Clear and well thought out
knowledge of one’s self encourages a person to tend for perfec-
tion and helps such a one to work on solid ground. This

48
 THE DOMINANT DEFECT

knowledge must be complete, embracing not only our natural

qualities and defects, but also our supernatural gifts and defects
on the spiritual level.

49
3.

The temperaments, or the

innate dispositions

Earlier we indicated the importance of knowing our tempera-

ment since the dominant defect has a close relationship with the
negative aspects of our temperamental base, just as it is appropri-
ate to promote and foster those positive elements that we have
received as a gift. For this reason, I end this book by dedicating
some paragraphs to this topic.

1) Temperament and character

First of all, a clarification regarding terminology: not all au-
thors are in agreement regarding terminology when speaking of
characterological questions. Some speak of temperament and
character as two different things; others identify them. Some give
each of these terms different meanings, including those who label

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 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE AND THE DOMINANT DEFECT

as character what others call temperament.30 I will use the term temper-
ament in the more classical sense of the word, as the totality of the
profound tendencies that derive from the physiological constitu-
tion of the individual: “the totality of innate inclinations, proper
to each individual, that result from their psychological constitu-
tion and that are intimately linked to biochemical, endocrine, and
neurovegetative factors, which imprint some distinctive character-
istics on the primary operative conduct of a person.”31

The ancients, like Hippocrates and Galen, made temperament

depend on the four fundamental humors: blood, yellow bile, black
bile, and phlegm. From this understanding comes the division of
the temperaments into sanguine, choleric, melancholic, and
phlegmatic, respectively, according to the humor which predomi-
nates in each one. In Latin, the term termperamentum means pre-
cisely “the proportioned combination of the elements of a
whole.” More recently, it has been set in connection with the
functioning of the endocrine system.32 In a similar way, Lersh

30 For example, Le Senne, whose typology we will follow later on, calls char-

acter what I will here call temperament: “Character means the totality of the con-
genital dispositions that form the mental skeleton of a person” (Tratado de Carac-
terología [Buenos Aires; El Ateneo, 1953], 16).
31 Polaino Lorente, A., “Temperamento,” Gran Enciclopedia Rialp (Madrid: Ri-

alp, 1989), tome 22, 169. J. M. Poveda Ariño says: “temperament represents the
instinctive-affective layer of personality, something of itself more closely linked
to biology, more dependent on the body” (s.v., “Carácter” in Gran Enciclopedia
Rialp, [Madrid: Rialp, 1989], tome 5, 50).
32 “Temperament depends particularly on the pituitary secretions (of the hy-

pophysis), and those of the thyroids and the adrenal glands, inasmuch as said
secretions determine the preponderance of the impulse to fight or to pleasure”
(Bednarski, L’educazione della affettività [Milan: Massimo, 1986], 22-23).

52
 THE TEMPERAMENTS OR DISPOSITIONS

connects it with the “endothymic ground.”33 Others connect it

with other elements, such as the “physical complexion,” as Saint
Thomas says: “some are disposed from their own bodily temper-
ament to chastity or meekness or such like.”34 Saint Albert the
Great indicates that: “Some are naturally disposed to fortitude,
others to generosity, and others to chastity. . . . In like manner,
some are disposed naturally to vices, such as melancholics to envy
and cholerics to wrath.”35 In harmony with this, I use the term
temperament for “what has been given by nature.”36

In contrast, I use the word character for the totality of psycho-

logical dispositions that result from work done on the tempera-
ment by means of education and acts of will, and which come
about as a result of the totality of good or bad habits (virtues or
vices). “It encompasses the totality of psychological dispositions
and habitual behaviors of a person, all shaped by the intellect and

33 Lersh defines the “endothymic ground” as our emotional-affective reality:

“Here belong above all those events and states of the soul which we habitually
designate as affects, emotions, feelings, moods, and passions, as well as drives,
desires, and tendencies” (Lersh, Philipp, La estructura de la personalidad, [Barcelona:
Scientia, 1974], 478-79). Translation from James Hillman, Emotions: A Comprehen-
sive Phenomenology of Theories and Their Meanings (Oxon: Routledge, 2007), 91.
34 Saint Thomas Aquinas, Summa Teologicae, I-II, q. 51, a. 1.
35 Saint Albert the Great, Quaestiones super De animalibus, I, q. 21.
36 Following Caspi and Silva, Gladys Sweeny defines it as “the tendency of

the individual to respond in predictable ways to events in their surroundings,

ways that constitute emotional pieces, and of behavior, with which the adult
personality is constructed” (cf. Sweeny, G., La formación sana de la madurez afectiva.
Ecclesia, XXII, n. 2 [2008], 139-158).

53
 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE AND THE DOMINANT DEFECT

will.”37 This is the terminology most commonly used by educators

of virtue.38

Therefore, temperament is the result of the physiological pre-

dominance of an organic system. It is something innate in the
individual; it is the natural nature, that is, something that nature
imposes on us. For this reason, it never entirely disappears: each
one of us is “a temperament and a figure until death.” However,
an opportune education and the supernatural strength of grace,
especially if the dominant defect is identified and fought against
by means of the particular examination of conscience, and if, at
the same time, the good qualities that each person has are discov-
ered and made to bear fruit, that temperament, even if it can’t be
totally transformed, can at least have its loud complaints reduced
to a minimum, and even entirely eliminate its exterior manifesta-

37 Poveda Ariño, J. M., Carácter, 49.

38 For example, it can be read in Tihamer Toth’s beautiful book, The Young
Man of Character: “What do we mean when we say: this is a young man of charac-
ter? By character we mean the steadfastness of the human will directed towards
the good; a young man of character has noble principles and will not compro-
mise them even if sticking to them involves sacrifices. . . . This reveals the na-
ture of character development. First you have to acquire noble ideals and princi-
ples. . . . The second, and harder, task is always to follow these right principles,
that is, to develop your character. Character is not given as a gift; one has to earn
it with decades of thorough, painstaking work. Your character may be influenced
by your environment, inherited traits, good or bad qualities, but ultimately it is
your personal creation, the result of your self-education. Everybody receives two
kinds of education: one from parents and schools, and the other, the more im-
portant one, from ourselves. Do you know what formation is? It is influencing
the human will so that it will pursue the good in every situation with certainty
and gladness. Do you know what character is? It is a consistent way of acting
that follows firm principles, the steadiness of the will in the service of ideals
recognized as true, the persevering steadfastness of a soul in the service of a
noble conception of life,” (Kansas City, MO: Angelus Press, 2012), 7-8.

54
 THE TEMPERAMENTS OR DISPOSITIONS

tions, as well as strengthen to the greatest degree possible all of its pos-
itive qualities.

We said that it “never disappears” as the root of tendencies

(since a person will always have these or those tendencies accord-
ing to their own biophysical constitution), but it can be modified
by education (and, more properly, by self-education), as Saint Al-
bert the Great says later on in the text cited above: “Some are
naturally disposed to fortitude, others to generosity, and others to
chastity, and nonetheless by habit they can change and incline themselves in
the opposite direction. In like manner, there are those who are natural-
ly disposed to vices, such as melancholics to envy, cholerics to
wrath, and yet, nonetheless, by the intellect’s discernment they can accustom
themselves to act in the opposite way.” Hence, character has a part given by
nature (the temperamental basis), and another part acquired by
habits and acts (the acquired habits, which can be either virtues or
vices).

Here I will limit myself to discussing the temperaments, or the

profound natural dispositions, since, as we have mentioned, we
will find the dominant passion among the constitutive defects of
each person; it is against this passion that we must fight in order
to forge a harmonious and virtuous personality.

The most widely spread classification is the four-fold division

that harkens back to Hippocrates and Galen, who distinguished
four fundamental temperaments: sanguine, melancholic, choleric,
and phlegmatic. This is still valid and gives some direction, but it
is too broad.

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 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE AND THE DOMINANT DEFECT

Now, different divisions are used, based on different criteria. I

will here take advantage of another division that is well-known,
that of Heymans and Le Senne, who posit eight characterological
types, according to the possible combinations of three variables39:
1st emotionality (degree of openness to exterior and interior
stimuli); 2nd activity (greater or lesser propensity of the tempera-
ment to action); 3rd resonance (permanence of the stimulus in the
person, that is, if the impressions remain for only a short time, as
happens in those labeled “primary function,” or a long time, as
happens in those called “second function”).40 Of all of these, we
will give some general characteristics as well as their main positive
and negative qualities.

2) Types of temperament
1st The Passionate

This is an emotive temperament (that is, it is impressionable by

any sort of stimulus), active (with an interior tendency to action,

39 Other authors indicate some more: 1st one’s level of activity, typical

rhythm, vigor of activity; 2nd irritability or negative emotion, that is, how easy or
intensely a person is annoyed when faced with negative events; 3rd the “calmabil-
ity,” that is, how easily a person is calmed after having been annoyed; 4 th fear,
that is, concerns regarding very intense or unusual stimuli; and 5th sociability, or
receptivity to social stimuli.
40 The descriptions of these characters of Heymans and Le Senne can be

seen in greater detail in: Ibáñez Gil, J., Pastoral Juvenil Diferencial: Tipología y Pastoral
(Buenos Aires: Editorial Guadalupe, 1970); a brief summary can be found at:
Autoeducación: Análisis de los 8 Temperamentos, publicado en:
http://www.jmcordoba.org.ar/formacion/material-para-grupos-de-
vida/doc_download/205-8-temperamentos (Schoenstatt Movement); I have
taken a great deal from this synthetic presentation. One can also consult: Ben-
edit, Magdalena, Apuntes para la comprensión del character (La Plata: UCALP, 2003);
Benedit, Magdalena, Una mirada insustituible. Reconocer el carácter de los hijos (Buenos
Aires: no publisher, 2010).

56
 THE TEMPERAMENTS OR DISPOSITIONS

regardless of whether there are definite goals or not), and secondary

(that is, the received impressions are kept for a long time, and the
temperament is very linked to the past).

In general, it’s difficult for the passionate to be inactive; how-

ever, the passionate is not impulsive, but rather energetic, alt-
hough this is externalized little. This is why when it overflows, it is
violent and overwhelming.

Such a one knows how to recall the lessons of past experiences

and to take advantage of them for the future. The passionate’s
initiatives and energies are great, although often exteriorly calm
with few exceptions; these energies are consciously directed to
distant and constant ends. The passionate’s emotions and pas-
sions are strong, profoundly and deeply rooted, influencing con-
duct for long periods of time. In the face of injuries, their anger
flames up interiorly, although it does not immediately become
evident exteriorly. If the injuries are repeated, that anger ultimately
bursts forth in a tempest of long-lasting anger that easily degener-
ates into bitterness and the desire for revenge.

In the face of danger, the passionate first reflects and then

quickly makes a decision; if the decision is to attack, such a one
proceeds with unprecedented violence, until either conquering or
dying; if they judge it better to take a passive attitude, they remain
firm in that position.

Their own faults, and those of others, cause them great anger,
and they firmly propose to correct them. They are constant in
action and unchangeable in their judgments, even to the point of

57
 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE AND THE DOMINANT DEFECT

stubbornness. They have stable emotions, such that their friend-

ships are extremely faithful, even after the passage of time, but it
is also difficult for them to forgive and forget an offense. They
have a notable capacity for organization and leadership, not only
one that is kindly and attractive, but also effective, vigorous, and
ordered. Energetic, and without great danger of dissipation, they
know how to be firm, systematic, and directed to an end, such
that they advance towards the goal in well-planned stages.

Their mind is broad and rather deductive; their imagination is

fertile, and often they have an excellent memory. They are inter-
ested in social, moral, religious, and philosophical problems, and
are naturally honorable and worthy of trust. They know how to be
faithful to their word. With respect to the less gifted, they sponta-
neously adopt an attitude of protection and compassionate help.
In social interactions, they tend to be disordered and simple with-
out any great inclination for winding diplomacy, but not for rough
clashes either; exteriorly they are generally correct, but not very
warm.

Positive aspects: When they direct themselves towards a great

ideal, they are capable of consecration, abnegation, and extraordi-
nary activity. Their logical rigor in thought, capacity for invention,
and efficiency in execution allows them to undertake great things,
undertakings that under their direction or leadership can achieve
great results. They take their own affairs and those that are en-
trusted to them very seriously, and their word is to be trusted
when they give it or promise something. In giving orders, they

58
 THE TEMPERAMENTS OR DISPOSITIONS

know how to precisely unite those who are under them, although
sometimes they lack something of an attractive sympathy. Lastly,
the passionate is consistent with his natural uprightness; such a
one prevails on account of their justice and nobility. They do not
forget favors and are thankful. Their power of foresight and sense
of responsibility are notable. They are born leaders, with an affec-
tive and well-founded tendency towards great plans and objec-
tives. They generally have big goals in whatever field they dedicate
themselves to. Such a one is apt for almost all higher careers,
though perhaps not so much for art. If they direct their spiritual
life well, they have the gifts necessary for a fruitful apostolate, and
they aren’t content with mediocrity, but rather will aspire to true
holiness. Generous and altruistic, they require close contact with
God.

Negative aspects. Such a one has great passions that are not easily
erased. Obedience to a superior is difficult for them. They can be
sensitive, critical, and distrusting, to the point of being like a her-
mit. When they hate, they do it with their whole hearts, and it’s
difficult to make them reconcile with their enemies. They tend
spontaneously to bitterness and revenge, and also to stubborn-
ness.

Their passion often blinds their judgment, and thus their criti-
cisms are severe and often unjust. Their self-love is notable, since
they won’t accept being defeated or surpassed by anyone. It’s not
uncommon that such a one is impatient with respect to the de-
fects of others, and mistrusting towards some people. In action,

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 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE AND THE DOMINANT DEFECT

they often sin through their excess of energy, which leads them to
be tough and demanding with others.

Excessively independent and very proud, work and humilia-

tions are difficult for them to accept. In their tasks, they often
seek to work alone.

2nd The Choleric

The choleric is emotive (that is, it is impressionable by any sort

of stimulus), active (with an interior tendency to action, regardless
of whether there are definite goals or not), and primary (that is, the
reactions are immediate, but with a prompt return to their prior
state, meaning, they are easy to calm).

As general characteristics, we can point out, first of all, their

exuberant activity and their impulsive way of doing things. They
seek tasks where they can unleash their vital impetus. They are
combative and enthusiastic, those who start things and who take
initiative. Generally speaking, they are optimists and happy and,
although they rapidly go from one feeling to another, their great
energy continually provides them with enthusiasm and spirit to
undertake their activities. Many times that activity is feverish,
without great consistency in its direction or depth in their work.

Their feelings are many, strong, and expansive to the utmost

degree. They have an innate inclination to convey what they are
thinking and feeling, which is aided by their notable ease in using
words. All of their emotions have a touch of the extreme; they are

60
 THE TEMPERAMENTS OR DISPOSITIONS

capable of great tasks, since they cannot be contented with distant

views or halfway points.

In the face of injuries, they react violently in their words, and

they often pass to actions without awaiting additional provoca-
tions. They get worked up and filled with enthusiasm in moments
of danger, and throw themselves into an attack without stopping
to consider the consequences. When they fall or fail, they are
filled with indignation at themselves. When faced with the faults
of others, they reprehend and seek for those faults to be correct-
ed. They have an instinct to command and to be in charge, and
they are not content to be a subordinate. Their intelligence is live-
ly and penetrating, intuitive, and not infrequently of great poten-
tial. Their exterior appearance is usually in agreement with their
being: manly features, a look of determination, a firm step, and
energetic movements.

Positive aspects. Their natural strength, audacity, and bravery en-

able them to undertake great tasks. They are men and women of
high ideals, and are capable of undertaking important tasks in the
social life. They have a determined will and a vast vision. This has
been the particular temperament of many famous leaders.

Able to work in politics, teach, or govern, they have a great

talent for improvisation and the qualities of good orators. Often
they properly organize the activities of the social groups to which
they belong and, in those groups, they know how to seduce others
with their contagious optimism.

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 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE AND THE DOMINANT DEFECT

A fan of sports and very suited for them, in the spiritual life
they can, helped by divine grace, reach a high degree of sanctity.

Negative aspects. They live in the present moment, concerning

themselves exclusively with immediate results. There is a great
danger of dissipation and waste of their vital energy, beginning
many things without finishing them, committing themselves to
more tasks than they can finish, or having many jobs at the same
time without doing any of them well.

Being impulsive, they can easily make risky decisions, without

foreseeing the consequences.

Their psychological richness and the recognition of their own

superiority in action can easily lead them to pride or to vanity.
They trust in themselves, and always want to impose their will on
others. It is difficult for them to acknowledge their defects, and
they easily criticize others. They are indulgent with themselves and
demanding with those around them. They can even reach the
point of defending their defects are though they were good quali-
ties and even glorify themselves for those defects. They can be so
short-tempered that they refuse to admit even the smallest con-
tradiction without bursting into rage, a rage that can even reach
the point of becoming cruelty.

Another danger in their actions is that, since they want to

reach their ends so badly, in order to reach them, they resort to
using inappropriate means.

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 THE TEMPERAMENTS OR DISPOSITIONS

3rd The Sentimental

The sentimental is emotive (that is, it is impressionable by any

sort of stimulus), inactive (without an interior tendency to action),
and secondary (they hold on to received impressions for a long
time, and are very bound to their past).

As general characteristics, we can point out the depth and per-

severance of their feelings which, nonetheless, are manifested ex-
teriorly only very little. They are very sensible to all classes of
emotions or external impressions, but the personal reaction is
concentrated in the depths of the soul, and it is there that it is
stubbornly recorded, even to the point of being emphasized more
and more each time. For example, when they are offended, it’s
not uncommon that exteriorly they appear little affected but, even
after only one time, they will taste resentment, making the offense
even greater in their imagination. If the offenses are repeated,
there will come a point when they violently explode; this is ac-
companied by great difficulty in forgiving, on account of the
depth of the wound in their soul. On the other hand, in their
friendships they are faithful and constant. They don’t tend to have
many friends, and prefer to have a small group of close ones.
They remember and give thanks for any favor and attention that
someone gives them. They aren’t prone to laughter and relaxation,
but rather to seriousness, melancholy, and scruples.

Their strength is not in physical or intellectual activity, but ra-

ther in their affectivity. They are easily moved by the pains of oth-
ers and, upon seeing so much suffering in the world, they want to

63
 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE AND THE DOMINANT DEFECT

fix it. More than many others, they suffer from the defects of
those around them, and can even become vulnerable.

They are very prone to reflection and self-analysis. They are

indecisive, returning a thousand times to their feelings and actions
which, together with their profound moral sense, often impedes
them from going ahead and acting; they always fear not having
done things well and in the right way. In their actions, they tend
to be slow and to not begin works of their own initiative. In times
of danger, they appear lost, and prefer to adopt a passive, rather
than active, defense. In the face of their own defects, they are
easily discouraged and give up hope of ever correcting themselves.
When faced with the defects of others, interiorly they are stirred
to anger, but many times they aren’t able to give the proper reme-
dy. They aren’t very practical, but are, rather, dreamers, and can
have great literary gifts. Oftentimes sentimentals are sensitive to
meteorological changes.

They have a serious understanding of life, and in general they

love everything that is great and deep. Their ordinary attitude is
one of exterior sweetness and friendliness. Although they don’t
tend to offer it spontaneously, they will help when it is needed.
Very suited for works that demand dedication, silence, and chari-
ty, their perseverance is a distinguishing characteristic. Fulfillers of
their duties, they know their responsibilities and seek to attend to
them with care. They are usually simple in appearance and are not
fans of things that are flashy.

64
 THE TEMPERAMENTS OR DISPOSITIONS

Positive aspects. They are kind and honorable, incapable of being

cruel or rough with others, even though their external reserve
seems like apathy. Often they are pleased to care for the sick.
Their limited tendency to action is compensated by their ease of
prayer. In general, they find consolation and interior peace in their
intimate contact with God. Simple, humble, and trustworthy, they
are little inclined to sensuality. The sentimental is prone to help
others, in addition to being persevering, a hard work, and one
who fulfills their obligations. Many moral theologians, teachers,
psychologists, as well as men and women of letters and art critics,
have this sort of temperament.

Negative aspects. They can sin through their indecision. They

have a tendency to discouragement and to undervalue their own
talents, which can lead to pessimism, bitterness, or a timidity that
is annoying for them and for those around them. As a way to
compensate for that, they grow accustomed to interiorly and un-
charitably judging and classifying their neighbors. The danger of
pride and interior emotional arrogance is not rare, as a compensa-
tion for feeling inferior to those whose action and appearance
might be more outstanding. They find it very difficult to forgive
offenses and when they hate, they do so intensely. One injury
makes them feel underappreciated and hated, and thus they dis-
trust everyone and assume that everyone is out to get them. They
run the risk of embittering their character if they give in too often
to their tendency to solitude, which can make them proud.

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 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE AND THE DOMINANT DEFECT

4th The Nervous

The nervous is emotive (that is, it is impressionable by any sort

of stimulus), inactive (without an interior tendency to action), and
primary (that is, the reactions are immediate, but with a prompt
return to their prior state).

In general, their emotions vary greatly; their vitality is tumultu-

ous, with little order or coherency. They are principally interested
in their subjective life, rich and complex as it is: a man (or wom-
an) of interior problems, tensions, intense joys and sufferings,
which all follow one after another and make them think a great
deal about themselves. They can also hold on to those impres-
sions for a long time.

Their imagination is very lively, and their ingenuity great; they

have artistic qualities and musical talent. However, for that very
reason, they are readily influenced and curious, and love what
gives momentary pleasure, what is impressive. They deeply feel
insults or injuries, and they show it with outbursts of bad temper,
however momentary they might be. This excitability can make
them very undisciplined, rebellious, and rough in their treatment
of those who offend them (or who they believe have offended
them). They easily break down after falling, and make resolutions
to amend their ways, but promptly forget them. They also have a
tendency to overvalue themselves, mentally highlighting their
good qualities and paying little attention to their defects. They
have a need to call attention, to be admired, as well as to vent
their frequent outbursts or impulses.

66
 THE TEMPERAMENTS OR DISPOSITIONS

Their intellect is more intuitive than deductive, more concrete

than abstract. They are agile, their nerves are always tense, but
they don’t persevere for long in a continuous and difficult effort.
Very easy to influence, they tend to quickly come to think, feel,
and act like those whom they are in contact with, and this because
of their great capacity for psychological harmonizing. They easily
adapt to new circumstances. They know how to wield a certain
influence over others because they tend to be very kind in their
treatment of those who get along with them.

Positive aspects. They have a very sensitive heart; they are in-
clined to compassion and are extremely generous. They are very
attentive to the needs and preferences of others, with a spontane-
ous and loving helpfulness when dealing with those whom they
admire or with those whom they know love and appreciate them.
They possess a fine sense of tact, and can be very diplomatic
when they want. If they are sent as a subject to someone who they
appreciate, they are docile and obedient. Their delicate spirit gives
them a grace and special gift for dealing with others, and they are
apt for consoling someone who is downcast.

Negative aspects. The root of their defects is their sensibility. In

order to deal with them, you must first see “which way the wind is
blowing today.” If they let themselves be dominated by their feel-
ings, they become unbearable to their companions. They can be-
come so sensitive that they perhaps feel hurt if we look at them,
precisely because we look at them, but, if we don’t look at them,
they feel scorned. They are also inclined to vanity and sensuality.

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 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE AND THE DOMINANT DEFECT

They live off of impressions, of momentary forces. If they aban-

don themselves to them, they will never do anything great or seri-
ous. They are improvisers, and the enemy of anything that de-
mands effort and methodical discipline (mental or physical). This
inconsistency is their main defect. In addition, on account of their
dependence on the momentary impression, they easily change
their opinion and activity: they can become the slave of the pre-
sent moment.

5th The Phlegmatic

The phlegmatic is not emotive (that is, they are not easily impres-
sionable), active (with an interior tendency to action, regardless of
whether there are definite goals or not), and secondary (they hold
on to received impressions for a long time, and are very bound to
their past).

As general characteristics, we can say that phelgmatics have a

vigorously structured personality, one without breaks, with a rich
foundation of active energy. They don’t have interior feelings, but
rather constancy and tenacity in action.

They are men and women without great passions, difficult to

excite, who keep themselves constantly in emotional tranquility.
In their actions, they are rarely violent or overexcited. Supremely
patient, they speak little, and, when they do, they do in a moderat-
ed way and almost never raising their voice. They reduce to a min-
imum their expressions and manifestations of emotion, giving
many the impression of coldness. They are constantly busy, or-
dered in the smallest things, and methodical in everything they do.

68
 THE TEMPERAMENTS OR DISPOSITIONS

They don’t tend to enjoy the social life, although they are faithful
to their friendships.

With a clear and logical spirit, their prevailing interests are ra-
ther intellectual: speculative studies, mathematics, law, and litera-
ture. They are simple in their things and rarely conceited.

Their action is assiduous though slow and calm. Their works

are in accord with their ideas and principles. They show a great,
almost inflexible, moral uprightness. Reflexive and highly prudent,
no task is undertaken until the final possibilities for success have
been calculated and all the difficulties considered. Once decided,
phlegmatics dedicate themselves to the task with seriousness and
constancy.

Thrifty, honorable, and sincere, the phlegmatic does not be-

come perturbed in the face of insults, because perhaps they aren’t
aware of them, or they take them with happy humor. In moments
of difficulty, the phlegmatic is indecisive, but is not easily dis-
turbed; they keep their peace but do not resolve the situation
quickly. If they fall, they do not get too worked up.

Their intellect is more suited for delving profoundly into a

study rather than for rapid thinking. They are outstanding in their
common sense and their knowledge of people. A good organizer,
objective and realist, a phlegmatic has little imaginative strength
and is not very inclined to artistic creation.

Positive aspects. We must point out their tranquility in receiving

any and all events; difficulties do not bother them. They easily
maintain the balance between thought and deeds, between feeling

69
 THE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE AND THE DOMINANT DEFECT

and action. Without violent passions, they are sober and moderat-
ed, and don’t allow themselves to be carried away by their gut
reactions. A friend of reflection and of slow consideration of
things, they are mature and profound thinkers in their religious
convictions and their fundamental criteria of things. Patient in
putting up with others, their feelings are easily of benevolence and
friendliness. Little inclined to pomp and flashiness, they are natu-
ral and simple, without exaggerated ambitions. They rarely, if ever,
lie. What they don’t achieve by rapid action, they obtain through
their constancy. As the practical people they are, they know how
to take advantage of means and they seek what is useful more
than what is merely attractive. They like to have well-defined obli-
gations. Well-suited for whatever requires order and constancy,
they have the gifts needed to be a great team member. This, and
their deep sense of duty qualify them for leadership positions of
great responsibility and delicate administration. In their tasks, they
are usually efficient, sure, and assiduous.

Negative aspects. Their emotional tranquility can degenerate into

a sort of apathy, disregarding everything without showing interest
or enthusiasm for anything. Phlegmatics tend to notably harden
their hearts, rendering them unfeeling and cold towards others,
little by little leading them to shrewd egoism and pride in their
self-sufficiency.

They tend to be slaves to their organization, habits, and meth-

ods. It’s possible for them to exaggerate their prudence and fore-
sight to the extreme, to the point of not starting anything because

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they think too much about the possible difficulties and thus not
taking advantage of opportune moments. This makes the phleg-
matic lose courage on more than one occasion, and what is para-
doxical in this active character is that it can make them lazy by
shunning action in order to avoid possible failures or dangers, or
simply to defend their solitude and independence from the hustle
and bustle and from social interactions. In these cases, they tend
to take refuge in mental activity (preferably imaginative), systemat-
ically preferring what is comfortable and easy in their external
action, distancing themselves from anything that could seem diffi-
cult or arduous.

6th The Sanguine

The sanguine is not emotive (that is, they are not easily impres-
sionable), active (with an interior tendency to action, regardless of
whether there are definite goals or not), and primary (that is, the
reactions are immediate, but with a prompt return to their prior
state).

General characteristics. Sanguines cannot be inactive, although

they aren’t very consistent in following through with what they
begin. Generally speaking, they are always happy, smiling, and
very talkative with lively and animated speech. They are friends of
exaggeration, making noise, and making things lively. Sociable,
attentive, and courteous, they enjoy companionship and friend-
ships. They love freedom. Religion and politics don’t get them
excited and, in general, their passions are not very strong. They
usually have a disposition well suited for music and delight in

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sports. Their imagination is lively, but needs to be continually oc-

cupied. Sanguines prefer what is more pleasant, tasteful, and
flashy. They easily let themselves be led by appearances and, be-
cause of this, they are often superficial in their judgments. In or-
der for them to persevere in a work, they always need new stimuli;
they always want change and, for this reason, it’s difficult for
them to be completely generous in their gift of self. Expansive
and effusive, everything that they think, they comment on, dis-
cuss, and communicate to others. They aren’t easily irritated by
offenses, and, if they are, they easily pounce on the offender
without thinking, and it’s not easy for them to back down. When
they commit some fault, they easily console themselves and renew
their good resolutions.

Positive aspects. Sanguines are agreeable people in the social life.

They are good-natured and kind-hearted, full of happiness and
good humor, lively and communicative, and very service-minded
and courteous with everyone. They easily realize what others need
and happily give their assistance; they are also compassionate and
merciful with the weaknesses of others. They have noticeable
common sense and an intuitive intellect. They don’t let them-
selves work anxiously, nor do they drown in their problems. They
have a special knack for reprimanding the faults of others with
tact but also with sincerity. A friend of always speaking the truth,
very rarely do they take part in deceptions. They don’t harbor
grudges and easily forgive others. They are very docile to the di-
rections of the superiors, with a simple spirit.

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Negative aspects. Their main problem is the lack of reflection and

letting themselves be swept along by their tastes and their first
impressions, and not by reason. They are superficial and don’t
have much discernment. Both discipline and mortification cost
them a great deal. Their desires and imagination easily overflow;
they allow themselves to be caught up by anything that, at first
glance, seems attractive and nice, since their personality is neither
very solid nor serious.

7th The Apathetic

The apathetic is not emotive (they are not easily impressionable),

inactive (without an interior tendency to action, and thus is passive
rather than active), and secondary (they hold on to received impres-
sions for a long time, and are very bound to their past).

Among the general characteristics of apathetics, what stands

out are their lack of vitality and their isolation. They avoid mixing
with others in conversation or activities. They don’t feel annoyed
by their companions; rather, their companions just don’t mean
much to them. However, regarding this, it must be kept in mind
that there are many intermediate degrees. They are also docile, at
least in appearance, because what is really be observed is what
little emotional tension they have. They prefer a calm life, away
from the social hustle and bustle. They aren’t particularly inclined
for practical tasks, and tend to theoretical ones instead. They are
docile and conformist, which means they adjust well to the rules
of the place where they live.

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Positive aspects. One positive aspect is their constancy, firm

roots, and tenacity. They are able to be disciplined and consistent.
They don’t usually have problems with others. Their preferred
field is the abstract, and they would prefer mathematics to the
experimental sciences and practical work.

For negative aspects we must highlight the lack of psychological

dynamism which almost always results from an imbalance in the
neurovegetative system and, consequently, probably an endocrine
insufficiency. They don’t usually concern themselves about them-
selves or others in order to live calmly. As a result of their reserve
and their meditative air, they feign a certain interior richness.
There is danger, however, that this appearance is just that, simply
a mask, and that in reality they lack interest and enthusiasm in
their lives. They can also focus themselves on themselves, to the
point of forming a closed egocentrism in which they are moved
only by their own well-being, to care only for themselves and their
happiness. They tend to avoid committing themselves to altruistic
activities that demand effort and sacrifice.

8th The Amorphous

The amorphous is not emotive (they are not easily impressiona-

ble), inactive (without an interior tendency to action, and thus is
passive rather than active), and primary (that is, the reactions are
immediate, but with a prompt return to their prior state).

Although this temperament is not very common, we can point

out some general characteristics: they are highly influenced by
their setting, they are optimists and are friendly in their interac-

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tions, and are readily influenced. They are sociable, but with a
tendency to avoid the personal effort that communal works re-
quire. They are lazy, but in some this laziness is disguised as activi-
ty, doing things that they like to do while fleeing from those that
they should do, or they content themselves by doing what is
strictly necessary. They tire easily, and have little understanding of
reality.

Positive aspects are their courage, which is seen mostly in the

ability to resist; they are unshakeable in the face of danger. They
tend to have a practical understanding, and are extremely social;
they need others in order to work, and they do it with joy. Often
they are very gifted for theater and music. They are rather clumsy
with things that require order, and are often negligent and some-
times even careless in cleaning.

Negative aspects: the most notable is their laziness. For this very
reason, they leave their work and efforts for the last minute, until
necessity obliges them to act. This naturally and quite often makes
them late and forces them to leave tasks undone. Many times this
has an organic cause (either a constitutional or accidental weak-
ness). They are easily influenced by the setting in which they live,
and this can put them in serious danger. Their inactivity is an ob-
stacle to helpfulness, making them ever more egocentric. They are
also in danger of simply allowing themselves to crawl instead of
flying.

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3) How do these descriptions help us?

None of these “types” is in fact found in its “chemically pure”
state; rather, in real life there are numerous mixes. Nonetheless,
with all this, it is unquestionable that certain temperamental fea-
tures dominate in each individual, which allows, with due reserve
and caution, for everyone to be set into one of the aforemen-
tioned categories.

These outlines can only give us an understanding that is partial

(since it is only the basic structure, without any mention of sur-
roundings, history, education, or freedom), summary (because it
offers only some references for some aspects, and not for others),
and schematic (because these models are rather theoretical and
rigid, and must later be adapted in each individual case).41 Howev-
er, they are sufficient to permit us to better understand some of
our characteristics, to see the intimate connection between some
characteristics with others, to help us to understand ourselves
better (and to understand others better!42), to identify the most
relevant points of our deepest dispositions, to notice the direction
of our reactions, and, in the depths, to more adequately outline

41Cf. Benedit, Magdalena, La comprensión del carácter, 42.

42 I fully share these assessments of Magdalena Benedit: “Each of us instinc-
tively has a model within us; we imagine others from our personal parameters or
ideals, and we even moralize, if we think this or that reaction seemed good or bad
to us. . . . The basic premise of characterology is that we are all different and
that, in order to understand each other, it’s helpful for us to think of ourselves as
united by the characteristics that we might have in common” (Benedit, Magdale-
na, La comprensión del carácter, 36). Castellani already said the same: “‘He’s a
strange guy,’ said the Ram. ‘What does that mean, to be strange?’ asked [the
lamb]. ‘To be strange means to not be like me,’ said the Ram.”

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our positive and negative aspects and find the roots of our defects
in order to work against them.

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