17.2 Restrictions On Examination-In-Chief
17.2 Restrictions On Examination-In-Chief
2 Restrictions on examinationinchief
Examinationinchief is probably the most difficult skill to learn of all the techniques of trial advocacy. The reason is
not hard to find. The evidenceinchief a party may adduce is subject to a number of restrictions. The main
restrictions relate to the content of the evidence. The evidence has to be relevant in its content, material in its
substance and admissible in its form.
The main restriction on the way the evidence is produced is the rule that counsel has to conduct the examination
inchief without asking leading questions. Counsel has to allow the witness to tell the story, to provide the
important details, to give the difficult explanations, all without counsel suggesting the answers. Witnesses are only
human. They forget important details, get scared or overwhelmed by the atmosphere of the court, become
uncommunicative, become talkative, even change their evidence and make silly mistakes. Counsel has to be able to
cope with all of this.
17.2.1 Relevance
The evidence has to be relevant to an issue before the court. There are two aspects to this. The first is that there
has to be some issue to be decided or some question to be answered by the court. The second is that the evidence
must be relevant in the sense of being helpful to the court in deciding that issue or answering that question.
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You therefore have to analyse the pleadings (or their equivalent in a criminal case) to identify the material facts
in issue. (See chapter 14.) You also have to analyse the facts of the case to determine which propositions of fact
("evidential facts") can be advanced to prove those material facts. If the evidence can be shown to be helpful to the
court to decide a particular issue, it is relevant. If by reason of logic, (a combination of experience and common
sense), the evidence supports a particular inference or conclusion, it is relevant. For example, we know from
experience and expert evidence that every person on earth has a unique set of fingerprints. We also know that we
leave an imprint of our fingerprints on things we touch. Therefore, if the accused's fingerprints are found on the
deceased's dressing table, common sense tells us that the accused must have touched that dressing table at some
stage. That piece of evidence, combined with other evidence, may then support the conclusion that the accused had
killed the deceased.
Because relevance is based on logic, you should be able to explain why a particular fact or item of evidence is
relevant. If you have done a proper fact analysis using the proofmaking model when you prepared for the trial, you
ought to be in a position to give such an explanation. You should be ready, at every stage of the trial, (and also on
appeal, if necessary), to explain why the evidence you are seeking to adduce or have adduced through your
witnesses, is relevant. The question you have to be able to answer at any stage of the trial is this: "How does this
piece of evidence help the court to answer the question before it?"
17.2.2 Materiality
For evidence to be material, it has to be relevant and important. Evidence is important if it has a significant role to
play to support counsel's theory of the case. Some evidence, although relevant, has so little value that you would
not bother to adduce it. Other items, on the other hand, would be so significant that you would regard them as
vitally important for your theory of the case to prevail over that of the opposition. Material evidence is not
necessarily the same as essential evidence, although there are instances when an item of evidence could be so
crucial as to make the difference between winning and losing.
The rules of evidence do not require evidence to be material; it merely has to be relevant and must not be
excluded by virtue of some other rule. Counsel will decide what evidence to adduce in support of the claim or
defence and in making that decision, decides what items of evidence to discard. The decision is based on one's
tactics. The question is often: "How important is this piece of evidence to my case?" The test for materiality depends
on your theory of the case. If the evidence is important enough to support one of the best points supporting your
client's case, or to answer the opposition's case, then it is material.
17.2.3 Admissibility
The general rule is that relevant evidence is admissible unless there is a specific rule or basis for its exclusion. It
appears that the best evidence rule is at the root of the exclusionary rules relating to hearsay evidence, opinion
evidence, character evidence and similarfact evidence. However, there are exceptions to all the exclusionary rules.
Evidence may also be excluded, in the discretion of the court, if its probative value is outweighed by the prejudice
its admission might cause. The rules of evidence play a large part in the process of examinationinchief. It is simply
not possible to lead evidenceinchief without a decent grasp of the rules of evidence. Counsel has to avoid
inadmissible [Page 305] evidence. The time to make the necessary assessment is during the preparation for trial,
but you may have to reassess the admissibility of the evidence as events during the trial may affect its
admissibility.
The following categories of evidence may not be admissible, depending on the facts:
o Secondary evidence, that is, evidence which offends against the best evidence rule, for example, a written
document is the best evidence of its contents; a copy is not.
o Hearsay evidence, that is, evidence which depends for its cogency on the credibility of a person who is not a
witness or a party in the proceeding.
o Character evidence, that is, evidence relating to the character of a party or witness, as opposed to evidence
of the events in issue.
o Opinion evidence, that is, evidence in the nature of an inference of fact drawn by the witness from other facts
or circumstances.
o Similar fact evidence, that is, evidence to the effect that a person's actions in the past tend to show that he or
she behaved in similar fashion on the occasion in issue.
o Highly prejudicial evidence of little probative value, that is, evidence which proves little but has the capacity to
cause prejudice out of proportion to its weight.
o Improperly obtained evidence, such as a confession obtained by torture.
(See chapter 20 for a more detailed discussion of evidence.)
17.2.4 Leading questions
There are two main reasons why leading questions questions that suggest their own answer are disallowed in
examinationinchief. The first is that the facts have to be provided by the witnesses, not the lawyers. The second is
that the value of the evidence depends to a large measure on the way the witness behaves while giving the
evidence. If counsel were allowed to suggest the facts to his or her own witnesses, the court would not be in a
good position to determine how much the witness really knows or how to gauge the credibility of the witness.
Leading questions are nevertheless permitted to
o establish a foundation for further evidence;
o refresh a witness's memory;
o question hostile witnesses;
o help children, mentally handicapped witnesses and other witnesses who may have difficulties with
understanding or communication;
o clarify the evidence already given; and
o save time and costs when the questions relate to matters not in issue between the parties.