7

ROAD DRAINAGE, DESIGN ALTERNATIVES AND MAINTENANCE

Roads and Sidewalks

Road Drainage,
Design Alternatives
and Maintenance

This document is the seventh in a series of best

practices for the design, maintenance and
management of municipal roads and sidewalks.
For titles of other best practices in this and other
series, please refer to www.infraguide.ca.

National Guide to Sustainable

Municipal Infrastructure

fwc-cfwe of Canadian
Mttiiieip.iinif Canada
Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003 1
 Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance

Issue No. 1.0

Publication Date: November 2003

© 2003 Federation of Canadian Municipalities and National Research Council

The contents of this publication are presented in good faith and are intended as general
guidance on matters of interest only. The publisher, the authors and the organizations to
which the authors belong make no representations or warranties, either express or implied,
as to the completeness or accuracy of the contents. All information is presented on the
condition that the persons receiving it will make their own determinations as to the
suitability of using the information for their own purposes and on the understanding that the
information is not a substitute for specific technical or professional advice or services. In no
event will the publisher, the authors or the organizations to which the authors belong, be
responsible or liable for damages of any nature or kind whatsoever resulting from the use
of, or reliance on, the contents of this publication.

2 Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003

 Introduction
INTRODUCTION
InfraGuide -

InfraGuide - Innovations and Best Practices Innovations and

Best Practices

Why Canada Needs InfraGuide A Knowledge Network of Excellence

Canadian municipalities spend $12 to $15 billion InfraGuide's creation is made possible through
annually on infrastructure but it never seems to $12.5 million from Infrastructure Canada, in-kind
be enough. Existing infrastructure is ageing while contributions from various facets of the industry,
demand grows for more and better roads, and technical resources, the collaborative effort of
improved water and sewer systems responding municipal practitioners, researchers and other
both to higher standards of safety, health and experts, and a host of volunteers throughout the
environmental protection as well as population country. By gathering and synthesizing the best
growth. The solution is to Canadian experience and
change the way we plan, knowledge, InfraGuide
design and manage
infrastructure. Only by doing
so can municipalities meet
Infra Guide helps municipalities get the
maximum return on every
dollar they spend on
new demands within a infrastructure — while
fiscally responsible and environmentally sustainable being mindful of the social and environmental
framework, while preserving our quality of life. implications of their decisions.

This is what the National Guide to Sustainable Volunteer technical committees and working
Municipal Infrastructure: Innovations and Best groups — with the assistance of consultants and
Practices (InfraGuide) seeks to accomplish. other stakeholders — are responsible for the research
and publication of the best practices. This is a system
In 2001, the federal government, through its
of shared knowledge, shared responsibility and shared
Infrastructure Canada Program (IC) and the National
benefits. We urge you to become a part of the
Research Council (NRC), joined forces with the
InfraGuide Network of Excellence. Whether you are
Federation of Canadian Municipalities (FCM) to create
a municipal plant operator, a planner or a municipal
the National Guide to Sustainable Municipal
councillor, your input is critical to the quality of
Infrastructure (InfraGuide). InfraGuide is both a new,
our work.
national network of people and a growing collection of
published best practice documents for use by decision Please join us.
makers and technical personnel in the public and
Contact InfraGuide toll-free at 1-866-330-3350 or visit
private sectors. Based on Canadian experience and
our Web site at www.infraguide.ca for more
research, the reports set out the best practices to
information. We look forward to working with you.
support sustainable municipal infrastructure decisions
and actions in six key areas: 1) municipal roads and
sidewalks 2) potable water 3) storm and wastewater
4) decision making and investment planning
5) environmental protocols and 6) transit. The best
practices are available on-line and in hard copy.

Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003 3

 The InfraGuide Best Practices Focus
Municipal Roads and Sidewalks
Sound decision making and preventive maintenance are essential to
managing municipal pavement infrastructure cost effectively. Just as $1 of
timely rehabilitation will save $5 of reconstruction, $1 of timely prevention
will delay $5 of rehabilitation. Municipal roads and sidewalks best practices
address two priorities: front-end planning and decision making to identify
and manage pavement infrastructures as a component of the infrastructure
system; and a preventive approach to slow the deterioration of existing
roadways. The best practices set out will ensure for instance that the right
treatment is selected for the right road at the right time and will provide
guidance in implementing individual treatments successfully, e.g. crack­
sealing, rut mitigation. Example topics include timely preventative
maintenance of municipal roads; construction and rehabilitation of utility
boxes; and progressive improvement of asphalt and concrete pavement
repair practices.

Decision Making and Investment Environmental Protocols

Planning Environmental protocols focus on the interaction
Elected officials and senior municipal of natural systems and their effects on human
administrators need a framework for articulating quality of life in relation to municipal
the value of infrastructure planning and infrastructure delivery. Environmental elements
maintenance, while balancing social, and systems include land (including flora), water,
environmental and economic factors. Decision­ air (including noise and light) and soil. Example
making and investment planning best practices practices include how to factor in environmental
transform complex and technical material into considerations in establishing the desired level
non-technical principles and guidelines for of municipal infrastructure service; and
decision making, and facilitate the realization definition of local environmental conditions,
of adequate funding over the life cycle of the challenges and opportunities with respect to
infrastructure. Examples include protocols for municipal infrastructure.
determining costs and benefits associated with
desired levels of service; and strategic
benchmarks, indicators or reference points for
investment policy and planning decisions.

Potable Water Transit

Potable water best practices address various Urbanization places pressure on an eroding,
approaches to enhance a municipality's or water ageing infrastructure, and raises concerns about
utility's ability to manage drinking water declining air and water quality. Transit systems
delivery in a way that ensures public health and contribute to reducing traffic gridlock and
safety at best value and on a sustainable basis. improving road safety. Transit best practices
Issues such as water accountability, water use address the need to improve supply, influence
and loss, deterioration and inspection of demand and make operational improvements
distribution systems, renewal planning and with the least environmental impact, while
technologies for rehabilitation of potable water meeting social and business needs.
systems and water quality in the distribution
systems are examined.

Storm and Wastewater

Ageing buried infrastructure, diminishing financial resources, stricter
legislation for effluents, increasing public awareness of environmental
impacts due to wastewater and contaminated stormwater are challenges
that municipalities have to deal with. Storm and wastewater best
practices deal with buried linear infrastructure as well as end of pipe
treatment and management issues. Examples include ways to control and
reduce inflow and infiltration; how to secure relevant and consistent data
sets; howto inspect and assess condition and performance of collections
systems; treatment plant optimization; and management of biosolids.

4 Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003

TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of Contents

Acknowledgements .....................................7 Appendix A: Safety Treatment

and Safety Issues......................................... 37
Executive Summary........................................ 9
Appendix B: Storm Water
1. General....................................................11
Quantity Control........................................... 39
1.1 Introduction................................................11
Appendix C: Storm Water
1.2 Scope .........................................................11
Quality Control.............................................. 41
1.2.1 Issues Related to Drainage............. 11
Appendix D: Typical Curb
1.2.2 Planning, Design,
and Implementation Cycle ............. 12 Illustrations....................................................43

1.3 General Health and Safety........................ 13 References....................................................45

1.4 Glossary..................................................... 13
TABLES
2. Rationale and General Background ... 17 Table 2-1: Storm Water Management
Objectives and Design Considerations............ 19
2.1 General Concerns of
Right-of-Way Drainage ..............................17 Table 3-1: Drainage Considerations
Leading to Best Practices................................ 22
2.2 The PDI Approach ..................................... 18
Table 3-2: Drainage Criteria and their
2.3 Storm Water Runoff
Relativity to Road Design ................................ 23
Management and Controls........................ 18
Table 4-1: Guide Applications
3. Best Practices for Road Drainage........21 and Limitations ................................................ 35
3.1 Framework for Best Practices.................. 21

3.2 Drainage Elements and Best Practices .. .21 FIGURES

Figure 1-1: Concerns in the Planning,
3.2.1 Overall Drainage Plan .................... 21 Design & Implementation Steps ..................... 15
3.2.2 Selection of Drainage Criteria ........23 Figure 2-1: Drainage Features.........................17
3.2.3 Closed Drainage Systems............... 24

3.2.4 Open Drainage Systems .................27

3.2.5 Road Surface Drainage/

Right-of-Way Drainage .................. 29

3.2.6 Structural Design of Roadway....... 31

4. Applications and Limitations................ 33

4.1 Strategic Approaches for Effective
Implementation.......................................... 33

4.2 Key Applications and Limitations ............. 34

Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003 5

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Acknowledgements

The dedication of the individuals who volunteered In addition, the Roads and Sidewalks Technical
their time and expertise in the interest of the National Committee would like to thank the following
Guide to Sustainable Municipal Infrastructure is individuals for their participation in working groups
acknowledged and much appreciated. and peer review:

This best practice was developed by stakeholders Al Cepas, P.Eng

City of Edmonton, Alberta
from Canadian municipalities and road specialists
Michel Dion, P.Eng., M.Sc.
from across Canada, based on information from a
Axor Experts-Conseils, Montreal, Quebec
scan of municipal practices and an extensive
Tim Haynes, E.A.IV.
literature review. The following members of the
City of Regina, Saskatchewan
National Guide's Roads and Sidewalks Technical
Bob Lorimer, P. Eng.
Committee provided guidance and direction in the Lorimer and Associates, Yukon
development of this best practice. They were Cluny Matchim, C.E.T.
assisted by the Guide Directorate staff and by Town of Gander, Newfoundland and Labrador
Totten Sims Hubicki Associates (TSH). Susan Siopis, P. Eng
The Regional Municipality of Durham, Ontario
Mike Sheflin, P.Eng., Chair
Former CAO Regional Municipality
of Ottawa-Carleton, Ontario
Brian Anderson
Ontario Good Roads Association,
Chatham, Ontario
Vince Aurilio, P.Eng.
Ontario Hot Mix Producers Association,
Mississauga, Ontario
Don Brynildsen, P.Eng.
City of Vancouver, British Colombia
Al Cepas, P.Eng.
City of Edmonton, Alberta
Brian E. Crist, P.Eng.
City of Whitehorse, Yukon
Michel Dion, P.Eng., M.Sc.
Axor Experts-Conseils, Montreal, Quebec
Cluny Matchim, C.E.T.
Town of Gander, Newfoundland and Labrador
Abe Mouaket, P.Eng.
IM Associates, Toronto, Ontario
Tim J. Smith, P.Eng., M.Sc.Eng.
Cement Association of Canada,
Ottawa, Ontario
Sylvain Boudreau, P.Eng., M.Eng.
Technical Advisor, NRC

Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003 7

Acknowledgements This and other best practices could not have Technical Steering Committee:
been developed without the leadership and
Don Brynildsen
guidance of the Project Steering Committee and City of Vancouver, British Columbia
the Technical Steering Committee of the National AlCepas
Guide to Sustainable Municipal Infrastructure, City of Edmonton, Alberta
whose members are as follows: Andrew Cowan
City of Winnipeg, Manitoba
Project Steering Committee:
Tim Dennis
Mike Badham, Chair City of Toronto, Ontario
City Councillor, Regina, Saskatchewan
Kulvinder Dhillon
Stuart Briese Province of Nova Scotia,
Portage la Prairie, Manitoba Halifax, Nova Scotia
Bill Crowther Wayne Green
City of Toronto, Ontario City of Toronto, Ontario
Jim D'Orazio John Hodgson
Greater Toronto Sewer and Watermain City of Edmonton, Alberta
Contractors Association, Ontario
Bob Lorimer
Derm Flynn Lorimer & Associates,
Mayor, Appleton, Newfoundland and Labrador Whitehorse, Yukon
David General Betty Matthews-Malone
Cambridge Bay, Nunavut Haldimand County, Ontario
Ralph Haas Umendra Mital
University of Waterloo, Ontario City of Surrey, British Columbia
Barb Harris Anne-Marie Parent
Whitehorse, Yukon City Councillor, City of Montreal, Quebec
Robert Hilton Piero Salvo
Office of Infrastructure, WSA Trenchless Consultants Inc.,
Ottawa, Ontario Ottawa, Ontario
Joan Lougheed Mike Sheflin
City Councillor, Burlington, Ontario Former CAO, Regional Municipality
Stakeholder Liaison Representative of Ottawa-Carleton, Ontario
Saeed Mirza Konrad Siu
McGill University, Montreal, Quebec City of Edmonton, Alberta
Rene Morency Carl Yates
Regie des installations olympiques Halifax Regional Water Commission,
Montreal, Quebec Nova Scotia
Lee Nauss
City Councillor, Lunenburg, Nova Scotia
Ric Robertshaw
Region of Halton, Ontario
Dave Rudberg
City of Vancouver, British Columbia
Van Simonson
City of Saskatoon, Saskatchewan
Basile Stewart
Mayor, Summerside, Prince Edward Island
Serge Theriault
Department of Environment
and Local Government,
Fredericton, New Brunswick
Alec Waters
Alberta Transportation,
Edmonton, Alberta
Wally Wells
Dillon Consulting Ltd., Toronto, Ontario

8 Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Executive Summary

This best practice describes the main more capital dollars on a higher quality,
features of road drainage, selection of more durable road design. To provide for
design alternatives, and maintenance of road an approach with the highest value, the
drainage systems. The intent is to assist development of a road drainage design must
municipalities in managing all components be completed under a life-cycle costing
of road drainage, in terms of planning, approach; where the costs of the design,
design, construction, asset management, construction, operation of the road,
maintenance, and rehabilitation, while maintenance, rehabilitation and reconstruction
considering local economic, environmental, of the road are considered, and a balanced
and social factors. solution chosen.

This best practice addresses the The best practices presented in this document
considerations taken into account when address the six steps required in the planning,
developing a road drainage system for both design, and implementation of road design
rural and urban road systems, using a number alternatives. The steps include planning,
of planning, design, and implementation steps. design, construction, operation and
The best practices in the engineering design maintenance, quality control, monitoring
functions for roads and road drainage will and assessment, and rehabilitation. A number
draw upon three fundamental and essential of key issues/items need to be considered
resources including: while proceeding through the steps:

■ sound engineering knowledge and skills; ■ the overall drainage plan (i.e., the need
for major/minor systems, the need for
■ appropriate technical reference manuals or
storm water management);
guidelines; and
■ the selection of drainage criteria;
■ supporting analytical and evaluation tools.
■ the need for a closed drainage system;
Proper road drainage design can result in
significant cost savings in terms of ■ the need for an open drainage system;
maintenance and rehabilitation. Road design ■ road surface drainage/right-of-way
methods that are less expensive to implement drainage; and
typically tend to be of lower quality and lack
■ structural design of the roadway.
durability, therefore requiring more frequent
replacement or rehabilitation. Spending less
capital dollars will then lead to spending more
money in maintenance than would spending

Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003 9

Executive Summary The best practices presented in this guide ■ geology/topography;
provide typical and/or generic values for each ■ urban/rural setting;
key issue listed above, which may be used to
■ water quantity/water quality;
design roadways with effective road drainage.
■ road classification;
Road drainage is a subset of a larger set of
systems designed to manage storm water ■ municipality size;

and is a mandatory component of the design ■ climate/seasonal variations;

and operation of every road. Proper design ■ regulatory authorities/planning authorities;
and maintenance is critical to the basic safe
■ engineering capabilities;
functioning of the road and for reducing
adverse impacts on the natural and social ■ asset management; and
environment adjacent to, upstream, or ■ operations and maintenance.
downstream from the road. As such, the best
Please refer to Section 4 to review the
practices presented in this guide are limited
limitation of the best practices presented in
in terms of:
this guide.

10 Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003

1. General 1. General

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Scope
1.1 Introduction The scope of considerations given to best
practices in road drainage design is limited to
This document outlines the best practices
the drainage of water from the road surface and
for road drainage, selection of design
granular base and the drainage of water, (i.e.,
alternatives, and maintenance of road
storm water and snowmelt) from the road right-
systems. Proper road drainage design can
of-way. It should be noted that drainage from
result in significant cost savings in terms of
external sources outside these limits has many
maintenance and rehabilitation. This best
implications for road drainage, some
practice document is part of the National
of which are discussed here. This guide,
Guide to Sustainable Municipal Infrastructure The main function
however, is primarily limited to the scope
(InfraGuide). InfraGuide assists municipalities of a road drainage
discussed above. Storm sewer design and
in managing all components of municipal
maintenance is discussed within the storm and system is to
infrastructure projects, including planning,
waste water (SWW) set of best practice guides, convey storm
design, construction, asset management,
and does not constitute the scope covered
maintenance, and rehabilitation, while water efficiently
underthe municipal roads (MR) guides.
considering local economic, environmental, and effectively
and social factors. 1.2.1 Issues Related to Drainage
from the road
This best practice guide is based on a review For the purposes of the development of this
surface and
of relevant existing literature, as well as a best practice, a series of key drainage issues
detailed survey of 11 municipalities located or items that are typically considered and pavement structure
in different geographical regions across influence the approach that is used in the while minimizing
Canada. The survey consisted of 35 questions planning, design, construction, and
the accumulation
pertaining to the various key road drainage maintenance of roadways are covered:
of standing water
elements and their associated planning, ■ developing an overall drainage plan
design, and implementation (PDI) steps. (Section 3.2.1); on the roadway

■ selecting drainage criteria to be applied

1.2 Scope
(Section 3.2.2);
The main function of a road drainage system
■ applying closed drainage systems
is to convey storm water efficiently and
(Section 3.2.3);
effectively from the road surface and
■ applying open drainage systems
pavement structure while minimizing the
(Section 3.2.4);
accumulation of standing water on the
roadway. This provides for the safe passage ■ providing road surface drainage/right-of-
of traffic and pedestrians, and assists in way drainage (Section 3.2.5); and
providing a cost-effective design life for the ■ structural design of the pavement structure
road surface and reduced life cycle costs. (Section 3.2.6).
This document addresses the considerations
taken into account when developing a road
drainage system and the factors leading to a
best practices approach in the PDI steps.

Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003 11

1. General 1.2.2 Planning, Design, and Through the information covered in this guide,
Implementation Cycle a number of principles are addressed that
1.2 Scope
form the basis of a best practices approach.
This guide discusses the various issues
related to road drainage within the context ■ Ensure that a drainage function is provided
of the steps that should be followed in a best that meets basic road service levels. Design
practice approach for roadway design and geometry to facilitate drainage.
implementation. The steps are illustrated on ■ Recognize the dual drainage system in
Figure 1-1 and include planning, design, design (major and minor drainage). Ensure
construction, operation and maintenance conveyance levels exist for the different
(O&M), quality control, monitoring and road classifications, and flood and property
assessment, and rehabilitation. protection for major systems. Maintain
emergency functions for safety.
These steps are referred to in this guide as
■ Consider life-cycle costs as the basis for
the PDI steps, with the implementation steps
design selection. Consider construction, life
including the construction, O&M, monitoring,
duration, and operation and maintenance
and rehabilitation phases.
costs of alternative road and drainage
This document provides road drainage systems.
practices for use in both rural and urban ■ Provide for storm water management
areas in municipalities of various sizes. (SWM) in the design. Recognize the impact
It should be used in conjunction with the of road drainage and SWM opportunities in
recently issued Centre for Expertise and rights of way.
Research on Infrastructures in Urban Areas ■ Recognize opportunities presented by
(CERIU) Compendium. The Compendium, replacement and rehabilitation. Ensure
originally issued in French as the Classeurs service levels and design standards can
du CERIU, is designed to educate and increase be upgraded.
awareness among urban infrastructure ■ Use hydrograph techniques (models) in
professionals with respect to the various the design.
facets of the latest investigation and
■ Ensure road safety as it relates to effective
rehabilitation technologies used in
drainage.
underground infrastructure and municipal
pavements (CERIU, www.ceriu.qc.ca, internet, ■ Address environmental concerns.
last accessed in October 2003). In addition to ■ Consider the full life cycle of roads from
the Compendium, there are a number of best initial construction through stages of
practices that provide supplemental pavement preservation, and then the
information, including: planning and design for reconstruction.

■ Repair and Replacement of Utility Boxes in ■ Look at how best practices have evolved
Pavements; through advances in road design.

■ Construction of Utility Boxes in Pavements; ■ Integrate structural and performance

and assessments of drainage infrastructure
into pavement rehabilitation programs.
■ Source and On-Site Controls for Municipal
Drainage Systems.

12 Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003

1.3 General Health and Safety 1.4 Glossary 1. General

The design and location of drainage structures Boulevard — An area within the road right-of- 1.3 General Health
should receive as much attention from a safety way not used as part of the driving surface. It and Safety
point of view as other roadway features such is usually separated from the driving surface 1.4 Glossary
as geometry, lighting, signing, and guardrail by a physical barrier and contains
elements, since the main objective of road landscaping.
design is to provide a safer environment for all
Catchment — An area of land where runoff
right-of-way users. Road drainage systems
can flow to a point (e.g., inlet or outfall
must be designed to minimize the potential for
structure) in the drainage system.
accidents and uncomfortable riding conditions
for all travellers (including cyclists), minimize Closed drainage system — A system where
the potential for snowmelt refreezing, minimize the storm water conveyance components (i.e.,
ponding in ditches to prevent drowning pipes) are located below the frost line,
hazards, and minimize any splashing of protected from the atmosphere.
pedestrians using the right-of-way. Distributed runoff control (DRC) — A system
The elements of a drainage system should that can accommodate the variable control of
enhance the safety of roads without peak flows at various levels to meet specific
sacrificing the main function of these flow or design criteria.
elements, which is removing storm water from Drainage — Natural or artificial means of
road surfaces. The major safety concerns intercepting and removing surface or
associated with drainage systems are the subsurface water (usually by gravity).
location and condition of these features.
These systems should be located, modified or, Drainage system — A system of catch basin
wherever necessary, protected (shielded) to inlets, pipes, overland flow paths, open

create the least possible hazard. The location channels, culverts, and detention basins used

of underground storm water conveyance to convey runoff to receiving waters.

structures is discussed in further detail in the Environment — The biotic and abiotic
best practice guides Repair and Replacement elements and systems and their interactions,
of Utility Boxes in Pavements and Construction including effects on human quality of life.
of Utility Boxes in Pavements. Appendix A Environmental elements and systems include:
provides a summary of generic safety land (including flora), water, air (including
treatments and issues to be considered noise, light) and soil.
as part of road drainage.
Erosion — (1) The wearing away of the land
surface by moving water, wind, ice, or other
geological agents, including such processes
as gravitational creep. (2) Detachment and
movement of soil or rock fragments by water,
wind, ice, or gravity, (i.e., accelerated,
geological, gully, natural, rill, sheet, splash,
or impact, etc.).

Groundwater — The water below the

ground surface, and typically below the
groundwater table.

Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003 13

1. General Impervious area — The area within a drainage Overland flow path — Open space floodway
catchment that is impermeable to channels, road reserves, pavement expanses,
1.4 Glossary
groundwater infiltration. and other flow paths that convey flows
typically in excess of the capacity of the minor
Infiltration — The slow movement of water
drainage system.
into or through a soil or drainage system.
Rational method — A design method for
Life cycle — The consideration of all phases
calculating peak flows based on the runoff
of roadway design (i.e., planning, design,
coefficient, drainage area, and rainfall
construction, operation and maintenance,
intensity. This method is adequate for small
quality control, monitoring and assessment,
drainage areas (i.e., <65 ha).
and rehabilitation/replacement).
Runoff — That portion of the water
Life-cycle costing — A method of expressing
precipitated onto a catchment area,
cost in which both capital costs and
which flows as surface discharge from
operations and maintenance costs are
the catchment area past a specified point.
considered in comparing different alternatives.
Storm water management (SWM) — Drainage
Major storm — The design storm with an
practices implemented to protect natural
average recurrence interval selected on the
waterways and receiving waters from urban
basis of satisfying requirements for flood
impacts. Controls used include peak flow
immunity and safety. Design may vary in
control for flood control, peak flow and volume
accordance with local authority guidelines.
control to mitigate erosion impacts, and water
Major drainage system — The major drainage quality controls for water quality impacts.
system includes ditches, channels, and
Sub drains — Small diameter perforated
sewers designed for the 100-year flow or
pipes placed in trenches with granular
the regulatory storm flow, whichever is the
backfill, at the edges of roadways to
adopted criteria.
facilitate subsurface drainage.
Minor drainage system — The minor drainage
Swale — A shallow channel, often grass-
system includes curbs and gutters, roadside
lined, which is used to transport storm
channels, inlets, underground drainage, junction
water, sometimes as an alternative to
pits or access chambers, and outlets designed
the curb and gutter system, or as a pre-
to contain and convey the minor storm.
treatment to other measures. Swales are
Minor storm — The design storm with an generally characterized by a high top width
average recurrence interval selected on to depth ratio and gentle grades.
the basis of satisfying requirements for
Tail water — The downstream water level
convenience and safety of pedestrians and
that, if high enough, could influence the
vehicles. Design may vary in accordance
capacity/water levels in a conveyance system.
with local authority guidelines.
Watercourse — A river, creek, or stream
Open drainage system — A system where
in which water flows permanently or
the storm water conveyance components
intermittently in a natural or artificial channel.
(i.e., ditches) are located above grade and
are exposed to the atmosphere. Glossary based on InfraGuide's Glossary of
Terms (www.infraguide.ca).
Outlet — The point at which water discharges to
a stream, river, lake, tidewater, or artificial drain.

14 Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003

 1. General

Figure 1-1
Concerns in the planning,
design and implementation
steps

Figure 1-1: Concerns in the planning, design and implementation steps

■ What is the drainage approach to be used?

■ How does it fit into Master Plan?
■ What are Storm Water Management
(SWM) Requirements?
■ What are the Triggers for ■ What are the impacts and how are they mitigated?
Reconstruction or Replacement?
■ Performance Targets
■ Does timing meet design life?
■ What standards and criteria
Planning
are to be followed?
■ SWM Needs
■ Major and Minor System
■ Cost-effective Design

Rehabilitation
Design

■ What are the factors influencing

the construction approach?
■ Mitigate Impacts
■ Construction Controls
■ Environmental Protection

Quality
Control and
i Monitoring Construction

■ Has road exceeded its life? Operations

■ Drainage Infrastructure (monitor flow and
and quality; assess structural integrity). Maintenance
■ What are the Monitoring Needs and Schedule?
■ Do the findings influence quality control during
planning, design, and implementation?
■ Are there factors that require roads to ■ What are the Operations and Maintenance needs and timing?
be rebuilt? (i.e. traffic capacity problems, need ■ What are equipment needs and procedures to be followed.
for bike lanes, pedestrian walkways)

Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003 15

2. Rationale and General Background 2. Rationale and
General Background

2.1 General Concerns

of Right-of-Way
2.1 General Concerns of ■ What is the most efficient way of providing
Drainage
Right-of-Way Drainage drainage in the road right-of-way during
major (flood) events and minor events?
In past years, the key objectives of road Figure 2-1
■ How will drainage be provided for during Drainage features
drainage were generally considered to be the
construction while protecting the
best and quickest means of removing water
environment?
from a road surface in order not to impact the
ability to travel on the roadway safely. This ■ What are the operating, maintenance, and
was rooted in the fact that the primary monitoring needs?

function of a road design was to provide for ■ What is the design life? When will Over time, it has
the safe conveyance of vehicles and, in many rehabilitation or reconstruction be needed? been recognized
cases, roadside pedestrians and cyclists. Over ■ What are the drainage needs to protect the that a number of
time, it has been recognized that a number of road infrastructure (i.e., subsurface
concerns with regard to drainage can result in drainage)?
concerns with
conflicting and overlapping objectives. These regard to drainage
The practice of providing for only quick removal
have typically included the following. can result in
of water from the roadway often resulted in high
■ How does road drainage fit into the overall investment requirements or, by sacrificing the conflicting and
master drainage planning of an area? level of service, poor performance. The use of
overlapping
■ Will the road drainage disrupt drainage storm water management (major and minor flow
patterns in a manner that affects overall systems) emerged in the 1960s and 1970s, and objectives.
servicing in an area or that creates flooding provided the opportunity for cost-effective
in upstream or downstream areas? servicing and for satisfying many other
■ Will the road drainage system impact on objectives. Figure 2-1 shows the drainage
adjacent lands or the environment through features of a road right-of-way, how they
impacts on water quantity (flow regime, interact with the surrounding environment and
peak flows, timing, volume) or water quality how they play a role in the drainage of waters
(e.g., pollution, siltation, habitat degradation, from the entire watershed.
eutrophication, toxicity, oxygen depletion)?

Figure 2-1: Drainage features

Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003 17

2. Rationale and 2.2 The PDI Approach environment outside the road right-of-way.
General Background For this reason, the physical constraints of a
Road right-of-way drainage treatments have
road right-of-way may put limits on the ability
2.2 The PDI Approach evolved to meet the concerns and resulting
to deal with drainage issues or needs outside
2.3 Storm Water Runoff
demands on the drainage system. These
the right-of-way.
Management and
demands or requirements span the PDI steps
of a drainage system, from planning through The external drainage issues or the needs
Controls
to the maintenance and rehabilitation stages. external to the road right-of-way are primary
This document discusses best practices for factors that have influenced drainage design
each of the six PDI steps (see Figure 1-1). significantly over recent years. Concerns over
the potential impacts of flooding and erosion,
The six PDI steps are valid for the construction
or environmental impacts (typically water
of new roads as well as the rehabilitation of
quality) have resulted in the need to provide
At the quality existing roads. At the quality control,
conveyance, and manage or control storm
monitoring, and assessment steps, the road
control, monitoring, water in a manner that will mitigate these
designer/evaluator must decide whether the
impacts.
and assessment road can be rehabilitated to function properly.
steps, the road If rehabilitation is not acceptable, the road will The need to practise SWM as part of road
have to be reconstructed, and the cycle of the right-of-way drainage is discussed in more
designer/evaluator
PDI steps begins again. detail in the best practice Source and On-Site
must decide Controls for Municipal Drainage Systems.
The physical limit of the right-of-way is often
whether the However, the concepts are discussed here,
the main constraint in the development of a
in the context of how they coincide with
road can be road drainage system. In some cases, the
drainage design considerations. The need for
rehabilitated to right-of-way drainage system may
SWM on road drainage is typically considered
accommodate, or share facilities with, an
function properly. as quantity and/or quality control.
external system. However, this is not typical
since the road authority will need to have
2.3 Storm Water Runoff
ownership or jurisdiction over the drainage Management and Controls
system. Although integration is the norm, in
cases where there are separate jurisdictions, Storm water management refers to the control
efforts to integrate could be made where it is of storm water to satisfy both local and
cost effective. A number of the issues or downstream objectives, in terms of quality
concerns that arise are through the potential and quantity. A variety of objectives may be
impacts on drainage systems, lands, or the considered, as described in Table 2-1.

Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003

Table 2-1: Storm water management objectives and design considerations 2. Rationale and
General Background

Objective Design Consideration Application to Road Drainage 2.3 Storm Water Runoff
Protect sewer system Reduce volume and Inlet controls limiting flow; allowance for on street ponding; Management and
from flooding basements peak rate of runoff conveyance system storage. Controls
and causing sewer
overflows
Table 2-1
Protect against Reduce peak rate of Conveyance system storage. Storm water management
downstream flooding runoff objectives and design
and erosion in
considerations
watercourses

Protect surface water Capture sediments Catch basin design with sumps for sediment capture; use of
from spills and sediment and oil GOSS traps; oil-grit separators used as inlets or in the
conveyance system. Street sweeping and catch basin
cleaning. Detention/retention in an SWM pond.

Protect water quality Capture pollutants Use of filtration system in the right-of-way (as part of road
rehabilitation or reconstruction); oil-grit separators used as
inlets or in the conveyance system. Managed road salting and
sanding practices. Use of retention ponds or wetlands.

Maintain natural Allow for infiltration "Leaky pipe” exfiltration system in the right-of-way (as part of
hydrology a road rehabilitation or reconstruction); conventional
roadside ditches; enhanced roadside ditches; catch basin
infiltration designs. Avoid direct connection of roof drains to
storm sewers.

Road and highway design must take account Further details on the typical impacts of storm
of requirements for SWM. The road system water, the need for controls, and the typical
and storm drainage system or conveyance approach are outlined in Appendix C.
system are intermediate in the overall urban
A separate best practice document deals with
drainage system. Lot drainage ends up in the
source and on-site controls for storm water
conveyance system, usually constructed as
{Source and On-Site Controls for Municipal
part of the road right-of-way as either
Drainage Systems). This document includes a
underground pipes (storm sewers) or open
description of source controls that occur on
ditches. Usually, if required, downstream
the road, such as street sweeping and catch
SWM facilities are constructed outside of
basin cleaning. These measures are also
the road right-of-way.
described in the Storm Water Pollution
SWM is typically incorporated into a design to Prevention Handbook (TRCA, 2001).
mitigate the impacts of development (including
Other available documents describe
roadways) and/or to meet downstream
downstream controls, such as SWM ponds,
constraints. The SWM needs and resulting
in great detail (MTO, 1995-1997).
criteria can be categorized as follows:

■ quantity control for flood and erosion

protection, and maintaining groundwater
infiltration; and
■ quality control for protection of streams
and/or aquatic environments, and
groundwater quality protection.

Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003 19

3. Best Practices for Road Drainage 3. Best Practices for
Road Drainage

3.1 Framework for Best

Practices
3.1 Framework for Best Practices Development of the overall drainage plan is
usually considered in the planning stage of a 3.2 Drainage Elements
Best practices in road right-of-way drainage
drainage system (see Table 3-1); however it is and Best Practices
systems have evolved out of concerns
also considered in the design, construction,
regarding road drainage and the goal of
and monitoring phases.
providing more efficient and effective drainage
systems that will meet these concerns. In the planning stage, the overall drainage
plan must ensure that all external drainage
A number of items in each of the drainage
areas are taken into account. Both existing
issues described here lead to the development
and future land use conditions must be In the planning
of best practices. These issues are related to
considered. stage, the overall
the PDI steps discussed previously and are
summarized in Table 3-1. The best practices The drainage system should be planned to drainage plan must
that have evolved out of each of the elements accommodate both minor (i.e., within the
ensure that all
and corresponding issues are discussed in the drainage system) and major (i.e., extreme flood
events) flows.
external drainage
following sections.
areas are taken into
Under major storm conditions, criteria can be
3.2 Drainage Elements and account.
set for either maximum allowable depths of
Best Practices
surface flooding or, at the very least to identify
3.2.1 Overall Drainage Plan the flood potential.

The development of an overall drainage plan The road authority should work with the
for the roadway and external drainage areas drainage authorities to identify criteria to be
requires careful consideration of the criteria used for both the capacity and SWM criteria
that will influence drainage, existing local to mitigate any external impacts.
criteria (capacity and SWM) and an approach
Under the design stage, an approach must be
that will meet the short- and long-term
developed to ensure the drainage criteria are
requirements of the roadway. If the proper
being met both for capacity and SWM.
approach is not given careful consideration,
significant problems will exist. For example,
if providing conveyance under major storm
events is not considered, there could be a
significant impact on traffic safety and flooding
of private property during severe events.

Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003 21

3. Best Practices for
Road Drainage

3.2 Drainage Elements

and Best Practices

Table 3-1
Drainage considerations
leading to best practices Table 3-1: Drainage Considerations Leading to Best Practices

Planning, Design and Implementation (PDI) Steps

Drainage Operations Quality Control,

Issues/ltems Planning Design Construction and Monitoring Rehabilitation
Management and Assessment
Overall drainage Accounting for external drainage. What are the criteria? Are there any Can staff, Are performance Protect and enhance
plan (Section Is a master plan needed? What are the SWM needs? environmental equipment, and targets being met? natural features
3.2.1) Any current flooding and erosion? protection needs? procedures be met (i.e., wetlands/streams).

Major/minor by current Have the ability to

What are the overall drainage
systems resources? mitigate downstream
needs?
Need for SWM effects.
Has provision been made for
major drainage?
Selection of What level of service/safety is What are the criteria? What are operating Has the overall criteria
drainage criteria needed? requirements been met?
(Section 3.2.2) What are the current criteria and is (e.g. sediment

there a need for change? removal frequency)?

What are the watershed or

environmental protection needs?

Closed drainage Are there provisions for Material selection? Have local site What procedure is What is the frequency What is the design life?
system major/minor drainage? Drainage criteria? conditions (i.e., to be set? of monitoring? Have new criteria or
(Section 3.2.3) Are there ways to meet soil) been Can operations and Are there performance opportunities for
Groundwater levels?
quantity/quality control? considered? maintenance be monitoring upgrade been
Local site conditions (i.e. soil)?
carried out safely? specifications? considered?

Has sediment control

been considered?

Open drainage Have provisions been made for How to handle driveway Selection of Maintenance Frequency of What is design life?
system major/minor drainage systems? crossings? materials? needs and by Monitoring? New criteria or
(Section 3.2.4) Are there ways to meet Need for under drains? Maintenance whom? Performance opportunities for
quantity/quality Control? Dealing with safety/aesthetic approach? Actual costs? monitoring specs? upgrade?

Safety concerns? issues? Sediment control?

Aesthetic concerns? Landscaping approach? Vegetation control?

Ownership/maintenance?

Road surface How to set objectives? Criteria for geometry? Winter New criteria or
drainage/right- Setting right-of-way needs? Criteria to meet winter maintenance opportunities for
of-way drainage conditions? needs? upgrade?
(Section 3.2.5) Preservation of
Landscaping criteria?
Geometric design trees?
CBs spacing location on
standards
roadway curb cuts.
Structural design Loading/use restrictions? Meeting local conditions, soils, Changes to meet Scheduling of Monitoring program
of roadway groundwater. conditions found? O&M? details and scheduling
(Section 3.2.6) Subsurface drainage Methods used?
needs/conflict with drainage? Specific problems
Adverse conditions (i.e., rutting, snow
(i.e., Permafrost) clearing
Base/sub base design
Location of other buried
infrastructure re.

22 Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003

During the construction stage, the criteria ■ currently established local and provincial 3. Best Practices for
needed to provide for both interim drainage criteria; Road Drainage
and environmental protection are to be ■ other uses of the right-of-way; and 3.2 Drainage Elements
identified and incorporated in the construction
■ constraints or protection needs for the and Best Practices
documents to ensure controls are properly
receiving system (quality, quantity, and
implemented. Interim drainage can include Table 3-2
other environmental controls).
temporary channels, piped systems, or Drainage criteria and their
pumping. Environmental controls typically As the design of drainage systems has evolved,
relativity to road design
include silt control, as well as barriers around best practices now include a comprehensive
vegetation or other environmental features. set of drainage criteria to be included beyond
the historic approach of addressing only the
As part of the monitoring program, the capacity of the drainage system.
protocol is set to evaluate the performance
of the drainage system against the criteria. Drainage criteria components typically

The monitoring can range from identifying included in road design and their link to road

sediment deposits and their potential to design are noted in the Table 3-2.

reduce the capacity of the drainage system, As well as being used for design, the
to monitoring the performance of the SWM established criteria can be used to set
facilities to meet targets for flow control, performance targets and applied in a monitoring
infiltration, and water quality control (i.e., plan. This will generally apply to the capacity
pollutant removal). of the drainage system and SWM criteria.
3.2.2 Selection of Drainage Criteria
Table 3-2: Drainage criteria and their
The performance standards and level of relativity to road design
service provided by a roadway with respect to
drainage are established through the drainage Criteria Relation to Road Design
criteria selected. The level of service is usually
Conveyance system capacity Criteria to follow in designing road
defined by the return period (frequency) of the drainage conveyance elements
rainfall events the minor and major systems
Road crossing capacity Criteria to follow in designing
must handle. Other level-of-service criteria conveyance (and free board) of road
(e.g., materials, configuration, and geometric crossing over a waterway (generally
requirements) can be defined as well. In some varies with class of road)
regards, the drainage criteria can also affect Maximum depth of flooding on road Can relate to flows along roadway
the level of safety since it will include the during major design event or flow
allowable depth and duration of ponding on over the road at a watercourse
the road surface or in the open conveyance crossing
Depth and location restrictions to
system. In most cases, drainage criteria are
protect pedestrians from splashing
not set by the road authority alone, but
and ensures safe travel for cyclists
typically include input from the local drainage
Free board between roadside ditch To protect the road base from
authority, as well as provincial and possibly
and road base saturation and structural damage to
federal agencies.
the road surface
A number of factors are typically taken into SWM criteria for quantity, quality To protect the receiving stream and
account in setting criteria for drainage. These control, and infiltration environmental conditions
include: Maximum surface/gutterflow Pedestrian safety
velocity
■ the level of service to be provided;
Grating requirements for inlet and Public safety
■ acceptable risk to safety (as related to outlet structures
ponding of water on the road surface);
Other environmental protection Protection of specific vegetation,
■ cost of drainage works as compared to stream conditions, or characteristics
benefit provided; and habitat conditions

Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003 23

3. Best Practices for 3.2.3 Closed Drainage Systems ■ Provisions must be made for some external
Road Drainage drainage inflows. Have these been
A closed drainage (i.e., storm sewer) system is
identified?
3.2 Drainage Elements characterized by a system of connected pipes
and Best Practices or conduits located below the frost line, as a ■ Does the preliminary design provide for a
continuous overland flow route for storms
minimum, which collect storm runoff based on
greater than the closed system design
gravity flow. Closed drainage systems are
storm, particularly in sag areas where
almost always designed to collect runoff from
limited ponding/flooding will be permitted?
the minor storm event only (i.e., one year up to a
10-year event in Southern Ontario) and consist ■ Do the roadway's other systems, safety
barriers, and noise barriers interfere with
of curbs, gutter, catch basins, maintenance
the major system flow configuration?
holes, pipes, and services. Typically, the 25-year
storm event is used to design major trunk ■ Is the receiving system (i.e., storm sewer,
A closed drainage sewers in Southern Ontario. watercourse, channel) appropriate and
suitable with regard to capacity,
(i.e., storm sewer) A closed system is usually selected to drain acceptance of higher peak flows, more
system is road rights of way in lieu of an open system flow erosion, and other impacts?
characterized (i.e., ditches) for the following reasons.
Selection of Design Criteria
by a system of ■ In urban environments, right-of-way widths The discussion on criteria presented here
are an important consideration, and open is largely based on the Ontario, Ministry of
connected pipes or
ditches with depth and side slopes require Transportation drainage management
conduits located more land.
manuals. Road designers must consult the
below the frost line, ■ Open ditches are perceived to be more of a governing guidelines applicable to their
as a minimum, hazard to traffic, although for higher speed province/municipality.
roadway facilities, ditches with suitable
which collect storm slope treatments are recognized as an area Design Capacity for Flow

runoff based on of attenuation for errant vehicles. The design capacity for flow generally varies
from the 1:1 to 1:10 year frequency (i.e., return
gravity flow. ■ Roadside ditches may experience ponding
frequency of design event to be used). The
waters and, as a result, can be perceived to
selection of a lower design capacity will result
provide lower functionality by the public.
in a smaller, less expensive system; however,
■ The critical configuration of a storm sewer
the major (i.e., overland) flow routes will be in
system tends to have fewer constraints
use far more frequently, and may be perceived
than a ditch system. (Ditches are
to be more hazardous by the public. The
constrained by grading limitations.)
selection of the drainage criteria is therefore
■ In areas of steeper grades, a storm sewer based on a balance between the cost of the
system is independent of erosion and
drainage system and the level of risk the
stability factors, which are considerations
agency is prepared to accept. A five-year
for an open ditch system.
design capacity is most commonly selected.
■ There may be expectations/demands by
adjacent property owners in terms of Road designers can conduct a formal
landscaping and aesthetics. documented decision-making process, which
includes a risk analysis, before selecting their
Planning Considerations
drainage criteria. Further information
The section of roadway being considered must
regarding the decision-making process is
always be planned within the context of its
provided in the decision making and
role in the major drainage system. This is
investment planning (DMIP) set of best
discussed in general terms in Section 2.1.
practice guides.
Major drainage considerations in planning
must include the following.

Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003

System Criteria pavement cross-fall reversals, at boulevard 3. Best Practices for
System criteria (i.e., the approach to locations in low lying areas, and in locations Road Drainage
be used in selecting drainage system to collect snow melt.
3.2 Drainage Elements
components) is typically based on broad- ■ Many municipalities use a rule of thumb and Best Practices
based criteria including: (i.e., minimum spacing) for locations. Where
entrances are located in immediate
■ safety (vehicular and pedestrian);
proximity to theoretical inlet locations, the
■ operations and maintenance requirements; locations should be shifted to upstream of
■ cost; and the entrance.

■ design life. ■ Spacings can be calculated based on inlet

capacity, gutter capacity related to grade, the
System criteria depend heavily on the type of
maximum acceptable depth of gutter flow,
materials selected. A variety of materials with and the allowable encroachment of flows or
different coefficients of friction are available. spread into the travelled lane. Computation
The coefficient of friction of the material chosen methods include the use of Mannings
will affect the capacity of the pipes chosen. Equation, empirical charts or special
software (e.g., MTO CBSpace, MTO Drainage
Typical criteria used in the system selection
Management Manual, Part 2, Chapter 4:
include the following.
Pavement Drainage Design, 1995-1997).
Minimum flow velocities
In some cases "inlet restrictions" are used
■ 0.75 m/s in smooth walled pipes to 0.9 m/s
to reduce the inflow to the storm drainage
in corrugated pipes.
system. This is common if either the receiving
■ Lower minimum velocities will provide for system has limited capacity or if the storm
less self-scour and potentially more drainage system (combined or separate) is
maintenance.
connected to adjacent buildings through
Maximum flow velocities foundation drains or other services. This
■ 5.0-10.0 m/s practice can lead to road safety problems
■ Higher velocities may result in more scour through excessive ponding of storm water on
and cavitation, and reduce the service life the road surface through either the reduced
of the sewer. capacity or blockage of the inlet control. This
application is still feasible, provided the
Minimum pipe size
potential depth and duration of street ponding
■ 250 mm
is calculated during design, and maintenance
■ Smaller diameter pipes have the potential
procedures are established to check for and
for more frequent clogging, and are subject
minimize the potential for blockage.
to freezing.
Minimum grades for catch basin connections
Manhole spacing
■ 1.5 percent
■ 100 - 150 m for smaller pipe sizes (i.e., less
than 1200 mm diameter), 200 - 350 m ■ Where inlets must accommodate unusual
spacing for larger diameter. drainage areas, the connections must be
designed individually.
■ A shorter spacing provides more access
and potentially less difficult maintenance Curb Selection
operations. Conversely, the presence of The treatment at the edge of pavement can vary
more manholes in the pavement surface will from no treatment (gravel) to a concrete or
adversely affect vehicular riding conditions. asphalt curb. Curb types can also vary from
Inlet spacing mountable to barrier types. A mountable curb
■ Optimum locations for inlets include sags, essentially provides a means of facilitating
upstream of intersections, upstream of drainage with a minimal height to allow for
pedestrian crossings, upstream and driving access over the curb. A barrier type curb
downstream of bridges, at locations of allows for conveyance of water along the curb

Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003 25

3. Best Practices for at a greater depth, and also protects traffic from experience with various types of
Road Drainage hazards in the boulevard. Various treatments for appurtenances will significantly influence
curbs, compiled by the Transportation its range of acceptable products.
3.2 Drainage Elements
Association of Canada (TAC) in the Geometric
and Best Practices Design Considerations
Design Guide for Canadian Roads, are illustrated
The design of the road drainage system
in Appendix D. The selection of the type of curb
includes the analyses of both hydrologic and
will depend on cost, durability, drainage
hydraulic functions. The hydrologic analysis
provided, and integration with catch basins
includes calculation of design flows, as well
or drainage outlets.
as the design of SWM for quantity and quality
Concrete gutters are generally provided control. The hydraulic analysis is necessary
adjacent to curbs to facilitate roadside for the design of the conveyance system, as
drainage, since their flow capacity is well as possible input to SWM facility design.
The selection of significantly greater than the adjacent
Hydrology
the type of curb pavement. Gutters are not considered to be
Hydrologic analysis can be carried out through
part of the driving pavement width and provide
will depend on relatively simple analysis tools or more
for additional space from the traffic lanes to
cost, durability, comprehensive computer models. The most
the face of the curb to enhance safety.
common simple analysis approach includes
drainage provided,
Installing perforated-pipe sub-drains (wrapped the rational method, which uses a runoff
and integration in filterfabric) in granular trenches underthe coefficient, time of concentration (and
with catch basins curbs will facilitate drainage at the low edges resulting rainfall intensity), and the
of the granular layers underlying the asphalt corresponding drainage area to calculate
or drainage outlets.
pavement. The sides and bottoms of the sub­ design flows. Computer models are more
drain trench can be lined with geotextile to complex, but use the same basic principle of
prevent contamination of the permeable simulating the runoff characteristics for the
granular backfill. drainage area and expected rainfall to provide
a design flow or design hydrograph. The
Materials Selection
difference in the computational methods is
A variety of precast types of maintenance
generally in the detail used in analyzing runoff
holes, catch basins, and ditch inlets are
response characteristics. Details regarding
available for installation. Some municipalities
analysis and modelling methods are available
are now specifying side (curb) inlet catch
in various publications.
basins on road bike lanes. However, this type
of catch basin is not compatible with The general principles to be followed include
subsequent pavement overlays. the following.

Various types of catch basin grates are ■ The Rationale Method is primarily for the
available with diagonal or "herringbone" and calculation of peak flows. The use of this
curved patterns that are more "bicycle friendly" method to calculate runoff should be limited
and still provide satisfactory inflow capacity to simple pipe sizing in small drainage areas
without stormwater management.
(Toronto, 2002). In addition, some manufacturers
Elsewhere, the use of hydrologic models
have developed catch basin grates with a wavy
is required.
surface designed to prevent debris from
completely blocking the grates. Some ■ When designing SWM facilities, hydrologic
municipalities have adopted a fish grate design models should be used.
to remind the public of the direct link of the ■ The modelling tools should always be
storm sewer to the natural environment. developed to reflect local conditions,
including the selection of design events
However, as with other components, a
(including rainfall and snowmelt) to be
municipality's maintenance history and applied.

Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003

Hydraulics Operation and Maintenance 3. Best Practices for
The analysis and design of conveyance Many municipalities use a geographical Road Drainage
systems require the use of hydraulic analysis information system (GIS) to manage
3.2 Drainage Elements
methods for either determining the capacity of maintenance records and programs for
and Best Practices
existing systems or designing new drainage their sewer systems.
systems (open or closed). Similar to hydrologic
Surface maintenance activities generally
analysis, methods can range from relatively
focus on street sweeping in the fall and spring.
simple analysis methods (using charts and
A regular street cleaning program is important
calculations) to more complex models
for both maintaining drainage on the roadway
providing the ability to develop a more detailed
as well as protecting water quality. Regular
analysis of hydraulic processes. These are
catch basin cleaning to remove leaves and
typically used for conveyance systems that
other debris prevents ponding of surface
vary in type or complexity. Sewer systems
water. As well, research has shown that
Sewer Design regular street cleaning and catch basin located under
Sewers should be designed on the basis of cleaning are effective in protecting the quality
pavement areas in
the following major considerations: of receiving streams and water bodies.
particular, must be
■ pipe flow at 90 percent full under sub- The use of trenchless technologies are an
critical conditions;
properly constructed,
emerging trend in more municipalities for
■ free outlet; repair/rehabilitation to minimize disruption to since repair costs,

■ careful review of critical or super-critical

vehicular traffic. This includes sewer lining. including societal
flows; Municipalities are considering storm sewer costs due to
■ modelling of hydrographs and a hydraulic maintenance in conjunction with, and delay and traffic
grade line along the sewer to identify integrated with, the maintenance cycles of
infringement, will
surcharge impacts and provide for other infrastructure renewal (i.e., sanitary
basement protection if downstream outlet sewers and water systems, bridges, and be significant
pipes are undersized or submerged; and culverts), in addition to road works.
■ ensure the acceptability of outlets for 3.2.4 Open Drainage Systems
appropriate capacity, so water levels will not
be increased to the detriment of other inflows An open drainage system has traits, which can
to the receiving pipe or watercourse, and to lead to more flexibility in design (i.e., capacity)
determine the extent of energy dissipation as well as a lower potential impact on the
and erosion protection required. receiving systems. However, open systems
have their own particular concerns with
Construction and Quality Control
regard to maintenance needs, operational
Sewer systems located under pavement areas
limitations, and aesthetics.
in particular, must be properly constructed,
since repair costs, including societal costs Open drainage systems incorporate primarily
due to delay and traffic infringement, will be ditches as opposed to pipes and conduits.
significant.
Ditch systems offer a range of advantages
Quality control must focus on: over closed systems including the following.
■ bedding, backfill, and compaction around ■ Ditches could be viewed as more
appurtenances; environmentally friendly. They allow for
■ pipe bedding, laying, and jointing to infiltration, water quality management
minimize flow exfiltration (Both infiltration through "filtering" of pollution, and reduced
and exfiltration may result in migration and peak flows and volume through reduced
collapse of cover materials and the flow velocities.
pavement structure.); and
■ backfill and compaction.

Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003 27

3. Best Practices for ■ They address the transitional period by Free board (minor storms)
Road Drainage accommodating drainage forthe initial ■ Water surface elevations to be set below
construction of roadways that are identified the pavement structure and, where
3.2 Drainage Elements
for future widening. applicable, below the inverts of the
and Best Practices
pavement sub-drains and inletting swales.
■ Ditches can be designed for major, as well
as minor drainage systems. Materials Selection
■ Since they are not constrained by curb and A variety of ditch lining products are available,
inlet systems, ditches more easily facilitate and should be selected on the basis of the
structural overlays for routine maintenance. shear strength due to the flow they must
accommodate, as well as maintenance,
■ Snow management is less expensive.
and aesthetic and fish habitat (if any)
However, open drainage systems usually considerations. For moderate and higher flow
require more right-of-way width than closed velocities, where grass-lined slopes are no
The application of
systems to accommodate the ditch depth and longer adequate, lining materials can vary
soil bioengineering the resulting side slopes. from rip-rap to concrete block and armour
techniques stone, to concrete.
Planning Considerations
integrates drainage, Similar to closed systems, open systems must The application of soil bioengineering
geotechnical, provide for the major system considerations, techniques integrates drainage, geotechnical,
such as maintenance of an overland flow route, environmental, vegetation, and landscape
environmental,
the consideration of external drainage areas, architectural expertise to address flow
vegetation, and and the suitability of the receiving system. conveyance, erosion, fisheries, and aesthetic
landscape concerns. This requires a careful
Selection of Design Criteria
architectural Design storm comprehensive multidisciplinary approach.
expertise to address Open systems are generally designed to the Design Considerations
same design storm as closed systems. The design of open drainage systems requires
flow conveyance,
Components may also be designed to convey the the application of hydrologic and hydraulic
erosion, fisheries, major system, as well as minor system flows. methods as with closed drainage systems.
and aesthetic Hydraulic analyses must considerthe
System Criteria
concerns. Minimum flow velocity presence of culverts for roadway and
■ 0.3 - 0.5 m/s driveway crossings, since these facilities
usually provide the most significant head loss.
■ Lower velocities will result in sedimentation.
Analysis and design methods are discussed
Minimum grade in Section 3.2.3.
■ 0.3 - 0.5 %
Alternative ditch cross sections can be tested
■ Flatter slopes will result in ponding and,
using a variety of channel design software.
possibly, sedimentation.
Unless self-evident, cross-section selection
Maximum flow velocity should begin with a grass-lined, V-shaped ditch
■ Variable and then step up to trapezoidal channels, as
■ Progressively higher velocities will require required. Ditches designed for both minor and
different channel liners to withstand the major storm flow conveyances generally
flow's shear forces. Liner types vary from incorporate a smaller low flow trapezoidal
grass (lower velocities) to concrete. channel for minor flow at the bottom of a larger
Free board (major storms) trapezoidal cross section. Ditch characteristics
■ 0-0.3 m, as measured from the top of the should provide for minor flow velocities large
bank, and the maximum possible water enough to avoid siltation/deposition and
elevation in the ditch. velocities under major storm conditions that can
still be addressed through cost-effective erosion
protection measures.

Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003

The performance of the ditch system in When ponding persists and becomes long 3. Best Practices for
conjunction with design flows, proposed cross term, "wetland" characteristics can develop Road Drainage
section and geometry, tail water elevation, which could increase approval requirements
3.2 Drainage Elements
can be modelled to generate a water surface for cleanout and modifications. One
and Best Practices
elevation over the system using hydraulic recommended procedure for ditch cleanout
computer models. This simulation will be includes the Lower Third Method, used by the
particularly applicable if the outlet of the ditch Ministere des Transports du Quebec, where
system is submerged and conditions impede the bottom one third of the ditch is cleaned of
performance. sediment and the vegetation lining the upper
two thirds of the ditch is left in place. The
Construction and Quality Control
vegetation on the upper portion of the ditch
Quality control aspects of open ditch
remains intact, to maintain its function of
construction will normally focus on:
sediment removal and velocity reduction The design
■ longitudinal grade tolerance to avoid (Quebec, 1997). Ditch systems may require
ponding; elements of the
mowing several times annually, depending on
■ proper construction at confluence points; local policies and the concerns of adjacent road and right-of-
■ the timing and installation of interim erosion landowners. way cross section
and sedimentation control measures such If the objective is to minimize the chance of need to be
as check dams; and ponding in a ditch system, under drains can be considered to
■ the construction scheduling of ditch lining added to provide an additional outlet. These
provide for an
to ensure stability over the immediate can consist of a granular material to facilitate
seasons. drainage, or a perforated pipe below the ditch effective and
Operations and Maintenance invert to collect and discharge water. efficient overall
Open ditch systems tend to collect garbage Depending on the design, open ditch systems drainage system.
and debris, which must regularly be cleaned may have a number of driveway culverts,
out for aesthetic, health/safety, and functional which will also require maintenance. During
reasons. Maintenance implications include winter months, these can be prone to freezing
insect breeding habitat hazards, which must which will require de-icing through steam
be treated. injection or other similar methods.
Mosquito control and the spread of West Nile 3.2.5 Road Surface Drainage/
Virus are evolving as an issue in open ditch Right-of-Way Drainage
systems. A consistent approach to minimize
The design elements of the road and right-of-
the spread of the virus has not yet been
way cross section need to be considered to
developed, although various methods are
provide for an effective and efficient overall
being considered and used, such as larvicides
drainage system. One primary objective of
to control mosquitoes, providing habitat to
road surface (geometric) designs is to ensure
encourage natural predators, and using a
that storm flow is directed away from
design approach to avoid ponding water.
pavement areas as quickly as possible.
Areas of ponding must be carefully considered For curbed roads, this requires incorporating
for ditch cleanout to address safety and minimum longitudinal slopes (0.3 to
aesthetic concerns. However, these objectives 0.5 percent) and minimum cross fall (1.5 to
must be reconciled with storm water quality 3.0 percent). The selection of gutters in
objectives, which are enhanced when storm conjunction with curbs (wider gutters), and
flow velocities are reduced and ponding is the selection and spacing of catch basins
increased to facilitate pollutant removal. will also facilitate the removal of runoff from
pavement surfaces.

Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003 29

3. Best Practices for The integration of all these elements becomes Although not as critical, boulevard areas must
Road Drainage critical when: be designed to facilitate runoff and minimize
ponding. Boulevards are ideally graded to
3.2 Drainage Elements ■ the longitudinal grade of the roadway is
minimal to begin with, and additional lanes drain over curbs into catch basins. Grades of
and Best Practices
and pavement widening are introduced; less than 0.5 percent on boulevards, are not
practical or achievable under current
■ intersecting pavement profiles must be
construction industry conditions.
integrated, pedestrian crossings, radius
curbs, and aesthetics must be considered Where areas in boulevards are lower than the
in intersection areas; and curbs, ditch inlets or catch basins should be
■ transitions are super-elevated, particularly incorporated, and their connections designed
in conjunction with flat longitudinal grades. with the same principles as storm sewer
lengths. Boulevard inlets should also be
In these conditions, the pavement elevation
For example, in considered in areas where concentrated snow
fabric must be considered in multiple
some colder directions, including the review of multiple
storage/snowmelt is anticipated. Sheet flow
drainage from boulevards or adjacent areas
climates, road profiles along curb and gutter lines, and along
behind the sidewalks will be excessive and
designers use the vehicular turning paths, to ensure storm runoff
should be collected first, using a swale system
flows from the pavement surface quickly,
upper end of the with ditch inlets to intercept flow before it
especially in areas of higher potential accident
range of cross falls reaches the sidewalk or the curbs.
locations, such as intersections.
suggested above to Road designers must consult the governing
Boulevard drainage designs must always
carefully consider any runoff contributed by
facilitate rapid guidelines applicable to their province/
abutting lands, particularly older residential areas.
drainage under municipality. For example, in some colder
climates, road designers use the upper end of In areas of low traffic volume (i.e., parking lots,
winter conditions.
the range of cross falls suggested above to etc.), centre-draining roadways may be used.
facilitate rapid drainage under winter conditions. Centre-drained roads eliminate the need for
two separate storm water conveyance
In the case of areas with very low topographic
systems located on either side of the roadway,
relief, it may be necessary to promote
and therefore, significantly reduce capital
roadway drainage by introducing a "rolling"
costs. Since there is only one conveyance
profile design. This is provided through a
system in this design, its capacity must
series of rising and falling minimum
accommodate drainage from both sides of
longitudinal grades, with a high point in
the roadway. In terms of maintenance, it is
between and catch basins placed in the low
imperative that the drains located in the centre
points. The road takes on a series of regularly
boulevard are cleaned regularly and allow for
spaced high and low points leading to the
drainage. In many cases, it is difficult to
"rolling" terminology used.
maintain the centre drainage boulevard, since
For rural cross sections, longitudinal grades access to the boulevard typically impedes
are not as critical. However, cross fall on vehicular traffic. There are certain safety
pavement and shoulders and super-elevation hazards also associated with the centre-
transitions are very important considerations. drained roadway, since standing water or ice
could be located on the roadway, and could
impede vehicle passage.

Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003

3.2.6 Structural Design of Roadway For rural cross sections, ditches should be 3. Best Practices for
located immediately adjacent to shoulders, Road Drainage
The approach used can impact the structural
with free board to ensure that water levels do
integrity, stability, and life of the road surface, 3.2 Drainage Elements
not reach the bottom of granular levels under
especially in terms of whether or not the and Best Practices
minor storm conditions. Where deep ditches
drainage of the sub-layer is considered.
cannot be accommodated and only shallow or
Ineffective drainage of the road sub-base can
"perched" ditches can be provided, it may
result in premature failure of the road surface.
become necessary to incorporate sub-drains
Appropriate roadside and subsurface drainage interfacing directly with the granular layer.
must be provided to maintain structural integrity. Unless porous highly pervious native soils are
Varying frost conditions throughout the country present, sub-drains located under, or behind
necessitate the requirement that the pavement the curbs are usually incorporated in urban
structure be effectively drained to eliminate sections, as discussed in Section 3.2.3. For rural cross
frost action and damage, minimize maintenance
potential, and prolong pavement life.
The underlying granular layers of pavement sections, ditches
structures should be sloped at 2% minimum or
should be located
3% where conditions permit, and drained by
suitable open ditches or sub-drains.
immediately
adjacent to
Granular surfaces are typically used only
for low volume roads. Although initial shoulders, with
construction costs are significantly lower free board to
than paved roads, there are greater recurring
ensure that water
annual maintenance requirements.
levels do not reach
the bottom of
granular levels
under minor storm
conditions.

Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003 31

4. Applications and Limitations 4. Applications and
Limitations

4.1 Strategic
Approaches for
4.1 Strategic Approaches for Effective regulatory obligations for quality and quantity
Effective
Implementation flow management, and applicable engineering
Implementation
design criteria forthe road and drainage
Road drainage is a subset of a larger set of
infrastructure. Proper planning provides the
systems designed to manage storm water, and is a
necessary guidance to road designers to
mandatory component of the design and operation
develop and assess alternative engineering
of every road. Proper design and maintenance is
system solutions for road drainage. With a
critical forthe basic safe functioning of the road
long-range plan, the requirements for drainage
and to reduce adverse impacts on the natural and
improvements are better understood and
social environment adjacent to, upstream, or Proper design and
opportunities for new road drainage systems
downstream from the road. maintenance is
or improvements to existing road drainage
A life cycle systems approach should be systems can be more effectively assessed and critical for the basic
adopted for road drainage, which explicitly implemented. safe functioning of
recognizes the functions of road drainage in
Best practices in the engineering design the road and to
the overall management of storm water and all
functions for roads and road drainage draw on
appropriate costs over the life cycle of the reduce adverse
three fundamental and essential resources:
road infrastructure and the road drainage impacts on the
components within it. ■ sound engineering knowledge and skills;
natural and social
There are four fundamental steps in ■ appropriate technical reference manuals
or guidelines; and
environment
establishing an effective life cycle systems
■ supporting analytical and evaluation tools.
adjacent to,
approach to road drainage.
upstream, or
1. Understand the planning and regulatory Municipalities should have an asset
context. management framework in place for their downstream
2. Sustain an engineering capability. entire infrastructure inventory. For road from the road.
drainage purposes, this requires:
3. Establish an asset management framework.
■ a road inventory that includes a record
4. Set priorities and integrate them into
of needs identifying where drainage
operations and capital works programs.
problems exist;
While oversight of SWM might best be
■ an inventory of drainage infrastructure
delineated by watershed boundaries, the assets;
reality is that there may be several
■ a regime for regular condition and
jurisdictions at the municipal, provincial/
performance assessment of those assets;
territorial, and federal levels with varying
and
responsibilities for, or interest in, SWM.
Consequently, road designers must ■ supporting analytical and evaluation tools
for needs assessment and improvement
understand the planning context for drainage
selection.
design - the availability of master drainage
plans for watersheds and sub-watersheds,

Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003

4. Applications and An important analytical tool within this 4.2 Key Applications and Limitations
Limitations framework, which assists in the selection of
Table 4-1 highlights additional applications
the optimum design treatment and its timing
4.1 Strategic and limitations associated with the use of
for implementation is life-cycle cost analysis.
Approaches for this guide.
The use of life-cycle cost analysis is
Effective
recommended. Improvements to the drainage
Implementation
infrastructure (maintenance, enhancement,
4.2 Key Applications rehabilitation, reconstruction, or replacement)
and Limitations should be implemented in concert with other
planned operations and capital works
improvements.

Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003

Table 4-1: Guide Applications and Limitations 4. Applications and
Limitations
Subject Area Guide Application and Limitations
4.2 Key Applications
Geologic/topography Applicable in most geologic and topographic environments, Special considerations are
and Limitations
required in circumstances, such as presence of rock close to the surface; presence of clays
and unstable soils; flat terrain with poor drainage outlets; high water tables; adjacent
wetlands; presence of cold water fish habitat receiving waters. Severe vertical topographic Table 4-1

relief may accentuate soil erosion problems. Certain chemical characteristics of soils (e.g., Guide Applications and
acidity) may impact the selection of engineering materials for use in conveyance systems. Limitations
Urban/rural Applicable to urban and rural areas within municipalities. Existing infrastructure upstream
and/or downstream may dictate or limit the nature and extent of the conveyance system
design. Redevelopment and reconstruction of adjacent lands and/or of road rights-of-way
may allow for the phased adoption of best practices to replace underperforming and
inadequate systems overtime.
Water quantity and Applicable to the management of water quantity issues in the planning design, construction,
quality operations and maintenance of municipal roads. Does not address water quality
management issues.
Road classification Applicable to most municipal road classifications except controlled-access divided highways.

Municipality size Applicable to municipalities of various sizes but may be of greater benefit to municipalities
with limited engineering and technical resources.
Climactic/seasonal Applicable in most climatic conditions. Extended periods of ground frost may accentuate
problems associated with surface runoff and/or snowmelt conditions by increasing runoff
quantities and velocities.
Regulatory/planning The preparation of master drainage plans and watershed plans provides the best context for
cost-effective road drainage design and the application of this guide. Storm water quantity
and quality management goals and requirements should be defined. In their absence,
conveyance design solutions may not meet performance goals.
Engineering This guide is suitable for most engineering applications. A coherent set of engineering
standards and specifications should be developed and/or adopted for municipal road design
and the associated drainage design; manuals and procedural guidelines should be available.
While the guide is a useful reference, it should not be seen as a substitute for appropriate
technical reference manuals for engineering design purposes.

Restricted site conditions may impose limitations on the geometric design characteristics of
the road and the drainage systems. The treatment of the pavement cross fall requires
particular attention with wider/more lanes and at intersections of major roads.

Road safety is a key consideration in design of road and roadside infrastructure. Aesthetic
considerations in design (e.g., open versus closed systems) must be balanced to meet the
requirements and expectations of travellers and adjacent property owners.

Asset management This guide will be most effective where a sound asset management framework for road
infrastructure is in place and is used. Life-cycle costs can be optimized and will promote
effective priority setting for proposed improvements to the drainage infrastructure.
Coordination with capital works including those by others, such as utility operators, and
integration of operations and routine maintenance, with periodic rehabilitation and major
reconstruction works can be undertaken.
Operations and This guide is applicable to the operation and maintenance of municipal roads. Municipalities
maintenance are encouraged to have maintenance standards and operating procedures. Effective road
drainage performance can be optimized by operations management information and
feedback. Performance monitoring specifications should exist for vegetation, sedimentation,
and erosion control, beaver dam control, ditch and inlet cleanout, and culvert inspection and
clean-out.

Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003 35

Appendix A: A. Safety Issues and
Safety Treatments
Safety Issues and Safety Treatments
Table A-1
Examples of Safety Issues
and Safety Treatments
Table A—1: Examples of Safety Issues and Safety Treatments

Drainage Features Safety Issues Safety Treatments

Curbs (barrier curbs, Higher curbs may drag on the Height of 150 mm for barrier curbs.
mountable curbs) underside of some vehicles. Maximum height of 100 mm for mountable curbs.
Desirable on roads with posted Errant vehicles may overturn or become airborne on
speeds of 90 km/h or higher. impact with them.

Obstruction. In urban conditions, a minimum horizontal clearance

of 0.5 mm.
Transverse culverts Obstacles to vehicles that run off Traversable design is accomplished by matching the
the road. inlet or outlet slope of drainage structure to the
embankment slope.
Obstacles to vehicles that run off Extension of structure for a culvert is not traversable;
the road. an option is to extend the structure so the obstacle is
located at or just beyond the appropriate clear zone.

Obstacles to vehicles that run off Shielding: in cases where the two above treatments
the road. are not available, it may be necessary to shield the
obstacle with traffic barrier.

Parallel culverts They represent a significant Traversable design: the primary goal is to maintain a
obstacle, because they can be traversable slope and to match the culvert opening
struck head on by errant vehicles. with the slope. Suggested slope is 6:1 for areas with
high-speed impacts. A steeper slope can be used for
lower volume and lower speed facilities.

They represent a significant Relocate the structure: some parallel drainage

obstacle because they can be structures can be moved laterally further from the
struck head on by errant vehicles. travel area. This treatment gives the design engineer
the opportunity to flatten the transverse embankment
slope within the selected clear zone distance of the
roadway under design.
They represent a significant Shielding: in cases where the two above treatments
obstacle because they can be are not available, it may be necessary to shield the
struck head-on by errant vehicles. obstacle with a traffic barrier.

On roadway inlet Does not constitute a safety Installed flush with the pavement surface.
problem to errant vehicles.
Increase safety hazard to
maintenance workers.
Off roadway inlet Is an obstacle to errant vehicles. They should be designed and built to be flush with the
channel bottom on which they are located.

Drainage inlets/outlets Public safety due to accessibility Gratings to prevent access.

Roadside channel Sections which fall outside of Is acceptable for projects having the following
shaded region are less desirable. characteristics: restrictive right-of-way, rugged
terrain, reconstruction projects, low volume, or low
speed roads.
Sections which fall outside of Should be considered for either conversion to a closed
shaded region are less desirable. system (culvert) or shielding by roadside barrier.

Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003 37

Appendix B: B. Storm Water Quantity
Control
Storm Water Quantity Control

Storm water runoff quantity is typically viewed Road structures may impede the passage of
as the criteria that will influence the capacity flow in a watercourse and increase upstream
of the drainage system provided. Road water levels significantly. This can introduce
drainage systems can impact on the drainage floodplain storage in a watercourse that could
systems both upstream and downstream of reduce peak flows and associated flood
the road right-of-way. Road drainage systems potential downstream. The controls may
must accommodate external drainage include either the control of peaks to pre­
upstream of the roadway and safely convey it development levels or over control to the
downstream. InfraGuide best practice entitled capacity of the downstream receiving system.
Assessment and Evaluation of Storm and
SWM is, therefore, a common requirement by
Wastewater Collection Systems (in
drainage authorities to mitigate any flooding
development) describes in further detail,
impact. Similarly, drainage authorities require
methods used to select the appropriate storm
input on the drainage design criteria chosen
sewer, in terms of structure and capacity.
to avoid upstream flooding impacts.
Road systems, as part of the design approach,
Erosion
can affect both flood potential in the
immediate area, as well as the potential for Road right-of-way drainage can impact the
erosion, including the fluvial geomorphologic overall rainfall response characteristics (flow
characteristics of a stream system. regime), including runoff volume. This is not only
an impact on flood potential, but can also
Flooding
increase the potential for erosion in receiving
Road right-of-way drainage can influence streams and influence fluvial geomorphologic
flooding in two ways. processes. As a result, drainage authorities will
often require that SWM be practised to mitigate
■ The increased impervious area and
concentrated flow in the drainage system potential erosion impacts. This could include
can increase peak flows and flow volume in various controls of peak flows at specific flow
downstream receiving systems, increasing or design levels (referred to as distributed runoff
flood potential. control/DRC), the retention or detention of a
specified volume of water for a long duration
■ The size of the roadway drainage system
and/or road crossing over a watercourse (usually a minor storm event), or the use of
can constrict flows and increase flood infiltration to reduce runoff volumes.
potential upstream of the roadway.

Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003 39

Appendix C: C. Storm Water Quality
Control
Storm Water Quality Control
Table C-1
Pollution Sources
Urban land uses generate residual and waste intensity of the land use and percent
material from a myriad of individual and group imperviousness also plays a part. Table C-1
activities. Each type of land use has unique presents a summary of different storm water
characteristics that result in the generation of quality pollution sources originating from
pollutants and runoff volume. Density or different land uses.

Table C-1: Pollution Sources

Source
Sourceofofpollution
pollutionn Description Description
Vehicular traffic Accounts for much of the buildup of contaminants on road surfaces. Wear from
tires, brake and clutch linings, engine oil and lubricant drippings, combustion
products and corrosion, all account for buildup of sediment particles, metals, and
oils and grease. Wear on road surfaces also provides sediment and petroleum
derivatives from asphalt.

Lawn and garden In all types of land uses including residential, industrial, institutional, and parks,
maintenance road and utility right-of-way design should account for additions of organic
material from grass clippings, garden litter, and fallen leaves. Fertilizers,
herbicides, and pesticides all can contribute to pollutant loads in runoff.
Air pollution Fallout of suspended solids accounts for a buildup of sediments contaminated
from traffic, industrial sources, and the wind erosion of soils.
Municipal maintenance Activities including road repair and general maintenance (road surface
treatment, sanding, salting, dust control, etc.).

Industrial and commercial Activities can lead to contamination of runoff from loading and unloading areas,
raw material and by-product storage, vehicle maintenance, and spills of
petroleum products.
Illicit connections of sanitary Causes contamination of storm water with organic wastes, nutrients, bacteria
services or industrical and industrial effluents.
connections to storm sewers
Illicit disposal of household Introduces waste oil and a multitude of toxic materials to storm sewers.
hazardous wastes
Transportation spills Accidents can occur anywhere, particularly on local commercial industrial
streets.

Construction activity Introduces heavy loads of sediment from direct runoff, construction vehicles, and
wind-eroded sediment.

Animal feces and litter Introduces organic contamination, nutrients, and bacteria.

Combined sewer overflows Contain a mixture of sanitary, commercial, and often industrial waste, along with
(CSOs) surface drainage. CSOs can contain high levels of nutrients, suspended solids,
metals, organic contaminants, oxygen-demanding substances, and dangerous
bacteria and viruses.

Runoff from residential Can contain driveway sealants, oil, salt, and car care products.
driveways and parking areas

Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003 41

C. Storm Water Quality Pollutant Impacts ■ temperature changes caused by heating
Control of urban runoff on impervious surfaces;
The receiving water quality impacts of
municipal discharges vary depending on the ■ aesthetic impacts from floatable matter
quality and quantity of the wastewater and the and sediments (i.e., litter, grass clippings,
sanitary items, soil erosion, etc.);
assimilative capacity of the receiving water
body. Potential water quality concerns ■ contamination of groundwater with soluble
resulting from CSOs and storm water include: organic chemicals, metals, nitrates, and
salt; and
■ pathogenic micro-organisms associated
with fecal pollution and contributing to ■ damage to roadside and downstream
restrictions on recreational water use vegetation due to road sand and sand
(i.e., beach closures); usage.

■ nutrient enrichment, from nitrogen and The need for SWM for quality control will vary
phosphorous compounds, which can lead to significantly, depending on the criteria set by
nuisance growths of algae in the receiving local agencies and the sensitivity of the
water body; receiving system (i.e., concerns regarding
■ deposits of contaminated sediments, which environmental impacts). A wide variety of
can lead to degradation of benthic (i.e., control measures are available, with their
bottom-dwelling) organisms and restrictions selection and application depending on the
on dredging; criteria to be met. Further details are provided

■ toxicity from ammonia, metals, and organic in the best practice guides dealing with SWM.
compounds present in the runoff and
overflows and potential human endocrine
disruption from pesticides;
■ oxygen depletion potential (oxygen demand
or BOD) of the wastewater from
biodegradable organic material, which can
lead to oxygen deprivation to the organisms
in the receiving water body;

42 Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003

Appendix D: D. Typical Curb
Illustrations
Typical Curb Illustrations
Figure D-1
(Extracted from TAC Geometric Design Guide for Canadian Roads) Curb and Gutter Types

Figure D-1: Curb and Gutter Types

Reprinted with the permission of the

Transportation Association of Canada,
www.tac-atc.ca, from their Geometric
Design Guide for Canadian Roads.

barrier

semi-mountable

Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003 43

References References

AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials) (1991) Model Drainage Manual.

CERIU (Centre for Expertise and Research on

Infrastructures in Urban Areas) (2002) Centre for
Expertise and Research on Infrastructures in Urban
Areas (CERIU) Compendium. December. Available at
<www.ceriu.qc.ca/Bienvenue_ang.htm>.

Ontario, MTO (Ministry of Transportation Ontario)

(1989) Drainage Management Technical Guidelines.

Ontario, MTO (Ministry of Transportation Ontario)

(1997) Drainage Management Manual.

Quebec, Ministère des Transport (1997) "Summer

Maintenance Drainage System Ditch Cleaning,"
Environmental Promotion Record FPE-01, August.

TAC (Transportation Association of Canada) (1999)

Geometric Design Guide for Canadian Roads.

Toronto, City of (2002), "Chapter 4: Bicycle Friendly

Streets," Toronto Bike Plan, December.

TRCA, (2001) storm water Pollution Prevention

Handbook.

Road Drainage, Design Alternatives and Maintenance — November 2003 45