Chapter 3: Formulating the Research Problem

There are two types of research problems:

 Those that relate to states of nature

 And those which relate to relationships between variables

So at the very beginning, the researcher must single out the problem he/she wants to study i.e. he/she
must decide the general area of interest or an aspect of a subject-matter that he/she would like to inquire
into. A feasibility of a specific solution needs to be taken into account before a working formulation of
the problem can bet set up. Formulating a general topic into a specific research problem constitutes the
steps in scientific enquiry.

Thus these two steps are involved in formulating the research problem:

i) Thoroughly understanding the problem

ii) Rephrasing the same problem into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view

So a useful way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with your colleagues or with those having
expertise in the subject matter or area. In academic institutions, researcher can seek a guide from who is
usually an experienced person and has numerous research problems in mind. It is vital for the researcher
to examine all available literature to get himself acquainted with selected problem.

You may review two types of literature:

i) Conceptual literature regarding concepts and theories

ii) Empirical literature consisting of studies carried out earlier which are similar to the one
proposed.

The basic outcome of literature review will be knowledge as to what data and other materials are available
which would enable researcher to specify his own research problem in a meaningful context. Thus, the
task of formulating a research problem is a step of greatest importance in the entire research process.

The problem to be investigated must be unambiguously defined. By so doing, it would help in

discriminating relevant data from irrelevant ones. Thus proper care has to be taken to verify the
objectivity and validity of background facts relating to the problem. So statement of objectivity is of
basic importance since it determines the data which are to be collected. The characteristics of that data
which are relevant, relations which are to be explored including the choice of techniques to be deployed
in the exploration as well as the structure of the final report.

Extensive Literature Review/ Survey

Once a problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down i.e. a draft proposal. It is
compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a PhD degree to write a synopsis of the topic and
submit it to the necessary committee or research board for approval. The researcher at this juncture should
undertake extensive literature survey relating to the problem. For this reason, the abstracting and indexing

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journals including published or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to start. Academic journals,
conference proceedings, government reports, books, etc. must be tapped into depending on the nature of
the problem.

NB: It is worth noting that one source will lead to another in this process. Earlier studies, if any should
be studied carefully. A good library will be of great help to the researcher at this stage.

Development of Working Hypothesis

After an extensive literature review or survey, the researcher should state in clear term a working
hypothesis. A working hypothesis is a tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical
or empirical consequences. So the way in which a research hypothesis is developed is very important
since it provides focal point for the research.

A hypothesis should be very specific and restricted to the piece of research in hand since it has to be
tested. The role of a hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research plus keeps
him/her on the right track. It focuses his/her attention on the more vital facets of the problem. It also
indicates the type of data required plus the type of methods of data analysis to be deployed.

In order to develop a hypothesis:

a) Discussions with colleague and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives in seeking
a solution.
b) Examination of data and records if available regarding the problem for possible trends,
peculiarities and other clues.
c) Review of similar/related studies in the area or of the study in similar problems.
d) Exploration of personal investigation which involves interviews on a limited scale

Therefore, a working hypothesis arises as a result of a-piori thinking about subject, review of available
data and material plus related studies as well as counsel of expert and interested parties.

Preparing the Research Design

After having formulated a research problem in clear cut terms, the researcher will be required to prepare
a research design i.e. he will have to state the conceptual structure or layout within which the research
would be conducted. Preparation of such a design facilitates research to be efficient as well as yielding
maximal information. In other words, the essence of the research design is to provide for the collection
of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.

The preparation of a research design involves:

i) The means of obtaining information.

ii) The availability and skills of researcher and staff (if any).

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 iii) An explanation of the way in which selected means of information will be organised plus
reasoning leading to selection.
iv) The cost factor relating to the research i.e. finance available for the purpose.

Determining Sample Design

Every item under consideration in any field of inquiry constitutes a “universal” population. The complete
enumeration of all items in the population is known as census inquiry. So it can be presumed that in such
an inquiry, when all items are covered, no element of chance is left and the maximal accuracy is obtained.
But this may not be true or achievable in practice.

Thus any slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get bigger and bigger as the number of
observations increases. However, we select a few items from the universe for our study purpose. These
elements constitute what is technically known as the sample size. Thus, the researcher must choose a
way of selecting a sample or what is known as sample design. In order words, a sample design refers to
a specific plan determined before the collection of any data which is obtained as a sample from a given
population.

Therefore, a plan to select 20 of a city’s medicines stores in a particular way constitutes a sample design.
Samples can either be probability samples or non-probability samples

With probability samples, each element has a known probability of being included in the sample while
non-probability samples do not permit researcher to determine this probability. Probability samples are
those based on simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling.
Whereas non-probability samples are those based on convenience sampling, judgement sampling and
quota sampling techniques. But we will not look into any of this but you can research into any of them
in your own time.

Collecting the Data

It is often realised that data at hand is insufficient when dealing with any real life problem. So it is vital
to collect data that is appropriate. There are numerous ways of collecting suitable which differ very much
in terms of money, costs, time and other resources at the researcher’s disposal. The primary data can be
obtained through experiments or surveys. If the researcher chooses to conduct an experiment, he/she
observes some quantitative measurements or data with the help of which he investigates the truth
contained in his hypothesis. Whereas in case of survey, data can be collected by one or more of following
ways:

By Observation

This method entails information collection by way of investigator’s own observation without
interviewing respondents. The obtained information pertains to what is currently happening and is not
complicated by either past behaviour or future intensions/attitudes of respondents. This method is
expensive and information collected is very limited. Thus, the method is not suitable in inquiries where
large samples are required.

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Through Personal Interview

Here, the investigator follows a rigid procedure plus seeks to answer a set of preconceived questions
through personal interviews. This method of collecting data is usually carried out in a structured way
such that the output relies upon interviewer’s ability to a large extent.

Through Telephone Interview

This method of collecting information involves contacting respondents on phone itself. The method is
not widely used but plays a crucial role in industrial surveys in developed regions especially when the
survey has to be accomplished in a limited time. It is also very popular in market research.

By Mailing of Questionnaires

The researcher and respondent do not come in contact with each other if this method of survey is to be
used. Questionnaires are mailed to respondents with a request to return after completing them. It is the
most widely used method in various economic and business surveys. Before applying this method, a
pilot study for testing questionnaires is usually carried out which reveals weaknesses, if any, of the
questionnaires. Questionnaires to be used must be very carefully prepared so that it may prove to be
effective in collecting relevant information.

Through Schedules

With this method, the enumerators (person employed in taking a census of population) are chosen plus
given training. They are provided with schedules having relevant questions. Enumerators approach
respondents with these schedules. Data is collected by filling up the schedules by enumerators based on
replies given by respondents. Much depends upon enumerator’s capability so far as this method is
concerned.

Some occasional field checks on the work of the enumerators could ensure sincere work. The researcher
should choose one of these methods of collecting data taking into account the nature of investigation,
objective and inquiry scope, financial resources, available time and desired degree of accuracy. Although
he should pay attention to all these factors but much depends upon the ability and experience of
researcher.

Execution of the Project

Project execution is a very crucial step in the research project. If project execution proceeds on correct
path, data to be collected would be adequate and dependable. The researcher should make sure that
project is executed in time and systematic fashion. Data can be readily machine-processed if a survey is
to be conducted through structured questionnaires. Under this scenario, questions as well as possible
answers could be coded.

If data is to be collected through interviews, arrangements are required to be made for effective selection
training of interviewers. Training could be achieved with the help of instruction manuals which clearly
explain the interviewer’s duties at each stage. Occasional field visits should be made so as to ensure that
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interviewers are doing their assigned job sincerely and efficiently. Careful attention should be paid for
unanticipated factors in order to keep survey as much realistic as possible. In order words, this implies
that steps should be taken to make sure that the survey is under statistical control such that information
collected is in accordance with pre-defined standard of accuracy.

If some of the respondents do not cooperate, suitable methods should be taken to tackle the problem.
One way of dealing with non-response problem is to come up with a list of non-respondents plus take a
small sub-sample of them and then with help of experts, vigorous efforts can be made for securing
response.

Data Analysis

After data has been collected, the researcher turns to task of analysing the data. Data analysis needs a
number of closely related activities such as establishing categories, application of tabulation and then
drawing statistical inferences. This raw data needs to be condensed into manageable groups and tables
for further analysis.

Therefore, researcher should classify raw data into some purposeful and usable categories. Coding
operation is normally carried out at this stage through which categories of data are transformed into
symbols that can be tabulated and counted. Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of data for
coding. Once coded, the stage is ready for tabulation

Tabulation is part of technical procedure whereby classified data is represented in the form of tables.
Mechanical devices could be deployed at this juncture. A great deal of data, especially in large inquiries
is tabulated by computers. Computers do not only save time but equally facilitate the study of large
number of variables affecting a problem simultaneously.

Analysis work after tabulation is usually based on computation of various percentages, coefficient, etc
by deploying various well defined statistical formulae. During analysis process, relationships, or
differences supporting or conflicting with original/new hypothesis should be subjected to tests of
significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusion(s).

Hypothesis Testing

Once data has been analysed as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the hypothesis, if any,
he had formulated earlier.

Do facts confirm the hypothesis or do they happen to be contrary?

Thus, this should be the normal question that should be addressed while testing it. The hypothesis may
be tested by using different methods depending on the nature and aim of research inquiry. So hypothesis
testing could result in either accepting hypothesis or in rejecting it but if researcher had no hypothesis to
start with, then generalisations established on the basis of data could be stated as hypothesis to be tested
by subsequent researchers in the future.

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Generalisation and Interpretation

Generalisation could be arrived at if a hypothesis has been tested plus upheld several times - that is in
order to construct a theory. Thus the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain
generalisation. Researcher might seek to explain his/her findings on theoretical basis if he has no
hypothesis to start with. This is known as interpretation.

The process of interpretation could lead to new questions which in turn may lead to further researches.

Preparing the Report

The researcher has to finally prepare a report of what has been done by him/her. A report must be written
with great care taking into consideration the following:

1) The layout of report should be as follows:

i) The preliminary pages

ii) The main text
iii) The end matter

In its preliminary pages, the report should carry title and date plus followed by a list of tables and list of
graphs, charts, if any, given in the report.

The main text of the report should embody the following parts:

a) Introduction

It should have a clear statement of research objectives plus explanation of methodology adopted in
accomplishing the research, the scope of the study in addition to various limitations should be stated in
this part

b) Summary of Findings

After introduction, a statement of findings and recommendations should be stated – in non technical
language. If the findings are extensive, they should be summarised.

c) Main Report

The main body of report should be presented in a logical sequence and broken down into readily
identifiable sections.

d) Conclusion

Towards the end of main text, researcher should again state the results of his research clearly and
precisely. Thus this is the final summing up.

Appendices should be established in respect of all technical data at end of report

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Bibliography i.e. list of books, journals, reports etc consulted should also be given in the end. The report
needs to be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vague expressions such
as “it seems"," there may be” and the like. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be utilised
only if they represent information more clearly and forcibly.

Calculated “confidence limit” must be stated plus the various constraints encountered in conducting
research operation may as well be mentioned.

Criteria of Good Research

Irrespective of the types of research works and studies, one thing that is vital is that they all meet on the
common ground of scientific method used by them. Scientific research should satisfy the following
criteria as noted by Fox (1950)

 The purpose of research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
 The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher
to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been
achieved.
 The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are
objective as possible.
 Analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of
analysis used should be appropriate, the validity and reliability of data should be carefully
checked.
 Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of research and limited to those for
which the data provide an adequate basis.
 Greater confidence in research is warranted if researcher is experienced, has a good reputation
in research and is a person of integrity.

Therefore, we can state qualities of good research as:

• 1) Good Research is Systematic

This implies that research is structured with explicit steps to be carried out in a specified sequence in
accordance with well defined set of rules. Systematic characteristic of research does not rule any creative
thinking but it unquestionably rejects the use of guessing and intuition in reaching conclusions.

• 2) Good Research is Logical

This implies that rules of logical reasoning plus logical process of induction and deduction are of great
value in conducting research.

Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the process of
reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from that same premise.

Thus logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in context of decision making.
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 • 3) Good Research is Empirical

This implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real situation plus deals with
concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research results.

• 4) Good Research is Replicable

This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating the study and thereby constructing
a sound basis for decision.

Defining the Research Problem/Project

In research process, the first and foremost step needs to be that of selecting and properly defining
research problem i.e. the research project. A researcher must search the problem and formulate it, so that
it becomes subjected to research.

Therefore, like a medical doctor, a researcher must examine all the symptoms - presented to him/her or
observed by him/her regarding a problem before he/she can diagnose accurately.

What is a Research Problem?

A research problem in general pertains to some difficulty which a researcher faces in context of either a
theoretical or practical situation plus intends to obtain a solution for this problem.

Selecting the Problem

The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected. This task is a difficult one despite
the fact that it may not appear to be so. One may seek help from a research guide with respect to this.
Research problem must stem from researcher’s mind like a plant shooting from its own seed. Therefore,
a research guide can at the most only help a researcher to choose a subject.

Nonetheless, the following points may be utilized by a researcher in selecting a research problem or a
subject for research:

i) A subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen since it will be difficult to shade any
new light in such a case.
ii) A controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher.
iii) Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
iv) Subject/project for research should be familiar plus practicable such that relevant material or
resources of research are within one’s reach. Normally, it is quite difficult to provide definitive
ideas regarding how a researcher should acquire ideas his/her research. In this context, a
researcher should contact an expert or a professor in the university who is already engaged in
research. He could as well read articles published in current literature available on subject and
may think of how techniques and ideas discussed therein can be applied to the solution of other

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 problems. Researchers could equally discuss with others what he has in his mind with respect to
a problem
v) The importance of subject, qualifications and training of researchers, costs involved, time factor
are few other criteria that must be considered in selecting a problem. A researcher must ask
himself the following questions before final selection of problem is done:
a) Whether he is well equipped in terms of his background to carry out the research?
b) Whether the study falls within the budget he can afford?
c) Whether the necessary cooperation can be obtained from those who must participate in research as
a subject?
vi) Problem/project selection should be preceded by a preliminary study. This may not be crucial
when the problem requires conducting a research which is closely related to one that has already
been done. But if the field of inquiry is relatively new and does not have available a set of well
developed technique, a brief feasibility study must always be undertaken.

Therefore, if subject of research is properly selected by taking into account the above mentioned points,
the research project will not be boring, but rather be an interesting plus enthusiastic one/journey. As
such, a subject or problem selected must fully involve the researcher plus must have an upper most place
in his mind in order for him to undertake all pains required for the study.

The Need of Defining the Problem

It is often said that a problem clearly stated is a problem half solved. This statement signifies the need
for defining a research problem. The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously since
this would aid in discrimination relevant data from irrelevant one.

A proper definition of research problem will help the research to be on track whereas an ill-defined
problem could create serious stumbling blocks

Thus questions like…

• What data is to be collected?

• What characteristic of data are relevant plus need to be studied?

• What relations are to be explored?

• What techniques are to be utilised for this purpose?

And other similar questions crop up in the mind of the researcher who can properly plan his strategy
plus find answers to all such questions only when research problem has been well defined.

Thus properly defining a research problem is a precondition for any study and this stage is of utmost
importance. Therefore, problem formulation is a lot more essential than its solution. It is only on careful
detailing of research problem that we can figure out research design plus can smoothly carry on all the
consequently steps involved while conducting the research.

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Techniques Involved in Defining a Problem

Suppose we start with the Question: What does one mean when he/she wants to define a research
problem?

The response may be that one intends to state a problem along with the bounds within which it is to be
studied bounds. To be more precise, defining a problem embodies the task of laying boundaries within
which a researcher shall study the problem with a pre-determined objectives in view. How to define a
research problem is undoubtedly a formidable task.

Nonetheless, it is a task that must be tackled cleverly to avoid perplexity encountered in a research
operation. The normal approach is for the researcher to ask himself questions, put in place techniques
and procedures for shading more light on the question regarding the formulation or defining the research
problem. So defining a research problem properly and clearly is a crucial part of research study and it
must not be hastily accomplished under any circumstances.

But in practice, this is frequently overlooked at and it causes a lot of problems later on. Thus, the research
problem should be defined in a systematic fashion. This technique involves applying the following steps
normally one after another:

i) Statement of the problem in a general way

ii) Understanding the nature of the problem
iii) Surveying the available literature
iv) Developing the ideas through discussions
v) Rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition

We will be looking at each of these points in the next session

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