Free Chapter - Recovery - From - Training PDF
Free Chapter - Recovery - From - Training PDF
Dr. Mike Israetel holds a PhD in Sport Physiology, and is currently the head science consultant for Renaissance
Periodization. Mike was formerly a professor of Exercise and Sport Science in the School of Public Health at Temple
University in Philadelphia, where he taught several courses, including Nutrition for Public Health, Advanced Sports
Nutrition and Exercise, and Nutrition and Behavior. He has worked as a consultant on sports nutrition to the U.S.
Olympic Training Site in Johnson City, TN, and has been an invited speaker at numerous scientific and
performance/health conferences, including nutritional seminars at the U.S. Olympic Training Center in Lake Placid,
NY. A co-founder of Renaissance Periodization, Mike has coached numerous athletes and busy professionals in both
diet and weight training. Originally from Moscow, Russia, Mike is himself a competitive bodybuilder and professional
Brazilian Jiu Jitsu grappler.
Dr. Melissa Davis holds a PhD in Neurobiology and Behavior and is a consultant for Renaissance Periodization. She
has 10 years of research experience studying somatosensory based disease intervention, cortical plasticity, and brain
development at UC Irvine. Her work has been featured in Scientific American, published in high impact, peer
reviewed journals, and recognized by faculty of 1000. Melissa has earned awards for teaching, scholarship, and
excellence in research. She also designed and wrote didactic material for the undergraduate Neuroscience lab
course at UC Irvine and has been involved in science outreach activities for over a decade. Melissa is currently a
Brazilian Jiu Jitsu brown belt under Giva Santana and has earned numerous titles including IBJJF Master World
Champion in 2015 and 2016. She also represented the United States for her division in the international Abu Dhabi
World Pro Competition in 2015 and 2017.
Visit us at https://renaissanceperiodization.com
There are an overwhelming number of fads, misinformation, and rigmarole surrounding the topic
of recovery. As fitness becomes more and more mainstream, the general population is
increasingly interested in the commoditization of recovery. This creates an environment
vulnerable to unscrupulous or uninformed businesses to prey upon people unable to discern
legitimate options from snake oil. Most areas of sport and exercise science also suffer from this
problem. Shake weights, detox cleanses, and other unstudied or debunked strategies continue
to be developed—and sold!—evidencing that a lack of foundational knowledge about fitness
and recovery abounds. This preponderance of misinformation and inefficacious products calls
for a need to discriminate between fact and fiction. When shopping for recovery treatments, one
thing to look for is peer reviewed literature confirming their efficacy. Having performed a
“background check”, we’ve selected those recovery modalities that have at least some potential
merit or scientific validity. The hundreds of “recovery products” that have been completely
debunked will not be discussed here, out of consideration for your time.
That said, it’s worth noting that the study of recoveryadaptive strategies for sport and exercise
is relatively new, and science is a fluid process, which is to say that some therapies have not yet
been studied enough to draw conclusions about their usefulness. This may change over time
and new methods may be developed. As new evidence emerges, strategies and therapies will
continually be refined.
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Temperature Based Recovery Modalities
Heat, cold, and temperature contrast have been used for decades to manage pain and injury.
The effectiveness of these methods in injury treatment has led many to wonder whether
temperature modalities could be used to facilitate recovery from training. While logical, recovery
from injury and recovery from training can differ substantially, given that adaptation is generally
a desired posttraining outcome, but not an option postinjury.
Cold Application
What it is
Cold applicationbased recovery modalities include direct application of cold, such as icing, cold
water immersion, cooling vests, and cryotherapy.
How it works
Cold methods can be applied locally by using an ice pack or a gel and with a more wholebody
approach using cold water immersion or cryo chambers. The effects are largely the same
regardless of how the cold is applied, but systemic application has the additional effect of
reducing core temperature, and provides the ability to target hardertoreach areas.
The effects of cold application are not entirely understood. What is known is that cold has
antiinflammatory and vasoconstricting effects. Vasoconstriction reduces flow of blood (and
other biofluids) by constricting the diameter of the transport vessels in the area. The constriction
reduces initial swelling and edema (accumulation of extracellular fluid), and may also blunt the
inflammatory cascade generated by immune responses. The cold also reduces metabolic
activity in the tissue, and can lower oxidative stress (accumulation of free radicals). With cold
treatment, the muscle tissue also becomes less compliant, or more stiff, which might provide a
favorable energy state for repair processes. Decreases in nerve conduction velocity as a result
of cold produce an analgesic, or pain alleviating, effect. The cold also appears to help recover
neuromuscular parasympathetic response, and expedite neuromuscular recovery of exercise
performance.
If subsequent exercise is planned, systemic cold application can reduce elevated core
temperatures. Elevated core temperature is highly associated with fatigue and decreases in
performance, particularly in endurance exercise, so cooling may allow for a slight advantage.
But please be cautioned that after cooling proper warmups are still needed prior to subsequent
exercise!
Expected Outcomes
The effectiveness of the cold treatment largely depends on the StimulusRecoveryAdaptation
(SRA) time course. Small disruptions in fatigue will probably see little to no benefit from cold
application, while large disruptions will likely get a noticeable benefit.
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Cold application effects can include:
· Decreased perception of pain
· Decreased perception of fatigue
· Increased recovery of exercise performance
One thing that should be immediately noted is that cold aids in neuromuscular recovery of
performance, or the ability to make powerful and coordinated movements, rather than healing
the actual structural damage to the afflicted areas. It is also important to understand that cold
treatment does not actually boost performance above the athlete’s baseline, so cold treatment
should not be used for performance enhancement. Cold application recovers performance of
sportingtype movements like jumping, sprinting, and sport tasks more so than maximal dynamic
or isometric strength related tasks. Perception of pain and fatigue are generally also reduced
with cold therapy. This is likely due to a combination of the treatment’s analgesic and
antiinflammatory effects. Most athletes report feeling cold and stiff, but slightly less achy after
cooling.
How to apply it
Research generally agrees that skin temperature must drop to approximately 1015 degrees
Celsius in order to elicit a meaningful effect on the muscle underneath it. Surface temperatures
higher than this indicate insufficient penetration of cooling to the targeted tissues. Local cold
application periods of about 1520 minutes are widely accepted and can also be repeated
multiple times, with breaks of about 520 minutes in between, or as desired.
Local application, such as placing ice packs on sore legs, and ice baths or cryo sessions have
been shown to have equivalent effects in most cases. Some areas of the body, such as the
shoulder girdle or hip may require immersive modalities in order to cool target tissues due to
structural limitations, as these areas are further from the skin’s surface, and more difficult to cool
with local ice application.
If the goal is to reduce inflammation and expedite return to athletic activity, cold application
should generally be performed immediately following exercise. This will help blunt the
accumulation of inflammation and immune responses. Though a slight benefit may be had
applying cold in the hours post exercise, the greatest benefit seems to come from doing so
immediately following.
Special Considerations
Though it may seem obvious, if used improperly, application of cold can lead to skin burns,
frostbite, and hypothermia. It is important to exercise caution, especially with immersive cooling,
as carelessness may cause serious harm to the athlete.
Because the effects of cold have antiinflammatory properties, they also have the potential to
blunt the adaptive response. The cold allows for the enhancement of recovery at the cost of
some amount of adaptation from training. This is not inherently good or bad, but it is a tradeoff
that coaches and athletes need to understand. Favoring recovery and employing cold therapy
may be a viable tool during times when the athlete’s immediate performance needs to be
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maintained. On the other hand, during general preparatory phases and trainingfocused periods,
losing some of that hardearned adaptation only to alleviate minor soreness might not be a
worthwhile compromise.
An advantageous application of cold therapy during a sporting season is to use it to keep
athletes performanceready where competitions occur in rapid succession. Inseason athletes
may compete multiple times per week or even per day. Under these circumstances,
performance is a priority over adaptation, and icing can help keep an athlete competitive. Cold
therapy can also be used when the athlete is too beat up to continue their normal regimen and
adaptive potential is therefore comprised. These recovery measures should be accompanied by
a reassessment of the athlete’s MRV or training program, as early overreach suggests that the
training protocol was not designed well, or was not adjusted for recovery when unexpected
fatigue arose. In the case of cold treatment for inseason or unexpectedly overreached athletes,
there is a favorable tradeoff being made. Since new gains are seldom made inseason, the
tradeoff of adaptation for recovery is desirable. When an athlete overreaches early in a
mesocycle, foregoing some small amount of potential adaptation to prevent the athlete’s total
breakdown is worthwhile. The alternative is missing out on the remaining mesocycle’s potential
gains, resulting from the fact that prematurely elevated fatigue would prohibit overload for its
remaining microcycles. In this case icing will save the mesocycle from being completely
unproductive by allowing the athlete to overload later on.
Cold therapy should be reserved for these types of tradeoffs. A poor time to rely on cold
therapies would be when the athlete is actively training to improve fitness, such as during
preparatory phases. During these phases, athletes and coaches often turn to various cold
therapies, not realizing that they are losing out on fitness gains by doing so. This is the time for
“no pain no gain”, “putting some hair on your chest” [insert your choice of cheesy motivational
quote here] and allowing the normal discomfort and inflammation of training to run its course
and make the athlete better.
One last consideration for cold is speculative, but worth mentioning. Some sports, such as
Brazilian Jiu Jitsu, Golf, and Diving are more dependent upon complex exercise techniques and
less so on fitness. In these sports, the ability to acquire, maintain, and refine techniques is a
limiting factor to performance. This is also one of the first capacities to fade with fatigue, so
using modalities such as cold therapy has the potential to allow for a greater training frequency
of sports skills. This increased training allows for greater improvements in technical abilities for
those athletes, possibly making it a worthwhile tradeoff over fitness adaptation. More research
needs to be done before this can be said with any certainty.
Heat Application
What it is
Recovery modalities using heat include hot packs and gels, warm water immersion, and acute
exposure to heat in the sauna or steam room.
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How it works
Just as with cold therapy, heat therapy can be applied both locally and systemically. Unlike cold,
which constricts blood vessels, heat causes vasodilation to the applied areas. Vasodilation
increases flow of blood and biofluids to the warmed areas. The increase in blood flow to a tissue
is associated with an increase in the oxygenation, increases in nutrient availability and uptake,
and removal of local waste products like CO 2 , inorganic phosphates, lactate, and others. These
effects also increase the metabolic activity of the tissues.
Heat also promotes muscle relaxation by downregulating muscle spindle stretch sensitivity. The
relaxing effect on muscles goes handinhand with psychological relaxation which is by itself is a
powerful recovery tool.
Expected Outcomes
Heat application effects can include:
· Antispasmodic effects
· Reduction in Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS)
· Analgesic effects
· Enhancements in cellular and tissue recovery
· Improved lymphatic drainage
· Psychological relaxation
Heat alone appears to aid in the physical repair of tissues, but does not improve exercise
performance (unless paired with cold). This is contrary to what is seen in cold treatments, where
exercise performance is recovered but damaged tissue is not.
The authors speculate that one of the major benefits of heat is its relaxation effects. This is
supported through heat’s effects on reducing muscle spasms, increasing the compliance of the
tissues, its analgesic effects, and general soothing nature.
How to apply it
The literature suggests that a temperature of about 36 degrees Celsius at the skin’s surface is
needed for sufficient heat penetration. Just as with cold, there is a large interindividual
variability in heat tolerance, so coaches and athletes should take care to individualize
application. Recommended application time is typically about 2025 minutes. Repeated bouts
are generally not required. Heat therapy is best applied about two hours post exercise. Unlike
cold treatment, for which immediate application is preferable, applying heat should be delayed
to allow for swelling and edema to settle prior to application. Note that applying heat to already
swollen areas can increase the flow of blood and fluids to those areas and exacerbate swelling
and inflammation.
Special Considerations
Like cold therapy, heat also bears the risk of burns and heat related illness. The head should
never be directly treated with heat. The athlete should remain inactive during the treatment (not
attempting to continue exercise while inside of a hot sauna!). Chronic exposure to heat is also a
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significant stressor and contributes to the accumulation of fatigue. Heat therapy should be
applied judiciously with these potential health hazards in mind, and the maximum duration of
heat application should be respected — onehour sessions in the sauna may hurt your athlete
more than help. Whether training outdoors in an extremely hot climate or relaxing in a sauna,
overexposure to heat can be fatal.
Like cold, heat treatment can also potentially reduce adaptive potential after training. While heat
application does not have an antiinflammatory effect, it does increase blood and fluid flow. This
hastens metabolic waste removal and lymphatic drainage, washing away molecules that aid
recoveryadaptive processes. Though acting via different mechanisms, both cold and heat
treatments have the capacity to limit the adaptive potential from exercise. As is the case with
many of these interventions, the use of heat therapies is subject to the same costbenefit
analysis discussed for cold.
Contrast Application
What it is
As the name implies, contrast involves alternating heat and cold application, typically using
saunas, water immersion, or local application techniques.
How it works
Contrast therapy takes advantage of both the antiinflammatory, vasoconstricting effects of cold
and the relaxing, vasodilating effects of heat. It has been hypothesized that alternating
vasodilation and vasoconstriction creates a mechanical pumping effect within the vasculature of
the muscles. Because contrast is often achieved using water immersion, it is also worth noting
that there are potentially confounding effects, as the hydrostatic pressure of water immersion
alone may cause the following, regardless of temperature:
· Elevated cardiac output
· Elevated muscle blood flow
· Elevated diffusion of waste products into the bloodstream
· Reduced formation of edema
This confounds some of the results of applying cold or heat therapies by way of water
immersion, but improved recovery has also been verified using nonimmersion modalities, so we
can be sure that temperature itself also has a significant effect.
Expected Outcomes
Contrast application effects can include:
· Increased recovery of exercise performance*
· Reduction in DOMS
· Reduced edema
· Decreased perception of fatigue
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· Improved lymphatic drainage
· Analgesic effects
* It should be noted that conflicting results have been reported regarding the efficacy of contrast
on recovery of exercise performance. The overall consensus seems to affirm that contrast
therapy aids in recovery of exercise performance based on current research; again, mixed
results have been reported. It also appears that cold alone may provide a better therapeutic
effect on performance.
The potential benefit of contrast therapy for recovery is the ability to address both exercise
performance recovery, and physical recovery of damaged tissues. Cold or heat only address
those individual issues respectively, while contrast may provide a more extensive recovery.
Subjective measures such as decreased joint stiffness and a sense of “lightness” have also
been reported after contrast therapy. More research is needed to unequivocally determine
whether contrast therapy is overall superior to cold or heat therapies alone.
How to apply it
The heating and cooling portions will generally follow the same previously outlined temperature
guidelines. For treatment using water immersion, two separate tanks of hot and cold water seem
to be preferable to showers, saunas, or tubs. For local application, alternating between hot and
cold packs is recommended. Heat should be at 3844 degrees Celsius, and cold should be
around 10 degrees Celsius.
Efficacious protocol recommendations vary significantly. We recommend a protocol similar to
the one described by Mujika and Hausswirth (2013), though other protocols are likely fine. The
athlete starts with 57 minutes of heat, followed by 12 minutes of cold. This is followed by 4
more minutes of heat and another 12 minutes of cold. The last pattern is repeated from there
for a total of 30+ minutes, but no less than 10 minutes. It does not appear to matter if one ends
with heat or cold. Contrast should be performed about 90 minutes or sooner following exercise
in order to prevent the heat component from exacerbating existing swelling and edema.
Some authors have recommended a 1:1 ratio of heat:cold application, with intervals lasting
around 5 minutes each, as well as starting contrast immediately following exercise. At present,
there is no consensus on which protocols are the most efficacious, so coaches and athletes are
advised to develop individualized protocols using these recommendations as guidelines and
refining timing and dosing based on recipients’ performance and feedback.
Special Considerations
We cannot stress enough the aforementioned warnings concerning heat or cold related injuries.
Because contrast requires the athlete to alternate between cold and hot, this introduces the
simple risks of slipping, tripping, or falling as they move from one therapy to the next. Caution
should be taken to ensure a clear area free of debris and slipping hazards.
Contrast also parallels the adaptive compromise previously presented for both cold and heat
therapies: contrast may actually undermine adaptive potential via multiple mechanisms.
Conclusions from the research are inconsistent on this. Theoretically, tradeoffs between
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enhancing recovery and adaptation should also be considered for contrast treatment. Research
on the tradeoffs for hot or cold treatment individually is clearer; contrast research may
eventually share similar conclusions.
There are potential stressrelated issues when using contrast. The benefits of relaxation and
hydrostatic pressure when using water immersion are both potential confounders in temperature
treatments, which could result in positive outcomes independent of heat or cold. In other words,
the effects of being relaxed while submerged in water or of the hydrostatic pressure from the
water (which can improve blood flow) might be the important variables for recovery irrespective
of the water’s temperature. Contrast requires a fairy frequent change in conditions, so the
athlete is generally not allowed to fully relax. Switching temperature treatments from hot to cold
would require the athlete to physically get up and move about, and jumping from a warm tub into
nearly freezing water is inherently shocking. Although there seem to be tangible benefits to
performing contrast, it may be that some of the benefits of heat or cold treatment on their own
are lost by decreasing the potential for relaxation, the passive recovery modality that trumps any
other in this section.
Contrast is wildly impractical for most nonprofessional, noncollegiate athletes. Aside from the
use of hot and cold packs, which is relatively easy, one needs to have 2 separately controlled
tubs for both heat and cold that the athlete can toggle between with relative ease. In the
absence of homes or gyms equipped with a hot tub or sauna conveniently located adjacent to
an ice bath or cryotube, athletes are faced with some very practical limitations to the contrast
method.
Compression Based Recovery Modalities
Like temperature therapies, the use of compression garments has become a staple in the
management of sport injuries. In fact, the acronym RICE (Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation) is
often used to describe the immediate procedures for treating injuries. Compression garments
have also been suggested to aid in noninjury related recovery from exercise, and are
advertised as such to the general fitness community. Although the role of compression garments
in injury recovery has been widely recognized, its validity for recovery from sport and exercise is
questionable.
Static Compression
What it is
Recovery modalities using static compression include the use of compression garments like
sleeves, tights, shins, socks, shorts, shirts, gloves, and other garments which provide a constant
(static) pressure to the applied areas.
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How it works
Compression garments work by externally compressing areas of the body, which results in an
increase in extravascular pressure. Compression decreases the pressure gradient between the
extra and intravascular environments, leading to vasodilation and increasing blood flow. It may
also reinforce the muscle pumping action that increases blood circulation, particularly in the
lower extremities. These changes can be measured in both peripheral and systemic blood flow,
as well as venous return.
Increases in blood flow normally result in increases in limb oxygenation, nutrient uptake, and
metabolic waste removal. There is a small consensus that suggests compression may also
positively act on exerciseinduced muscle damage, but research is mixed: some analyses have
also shown a negative effect of compression on identical or related biomarkers, such as blood
lactate concentrations. The effect of compression on biomarkers currently remains unclear, but
is trending towards a positive effect.
The effects of compression have also been shown to reduce postexercise edema and swelling,
and aid in recirculating excess biofluids. This effect is suspected to be a result of simply
decreasing the space available for swelling, and promoting lymphatic outflow back into
circulation.
Compression can also increase muscle and skin temperature. This is likely a result of both the
insulating effects of the clothing, and diminished loss of heat through sweat evaporation. This
could be a net positive in terms of recovery, but should be used with caution particularly in hot
environments, as it also likely to be detrimental to thermoregulation during exercise.
Expected Outcomes
Compression application effects can include:
· Increased recovery of exercise performance
· Reduction in DOMS
· Reduced edema
· Decreased perception of pain
· Improved lymphatic drainage
The effects of compression treatment are somewhat unique in that they appear to aid in
recovering performance in resistancetraining type activities more than in jumpingandsprinting
type activities. Positive outcomes for recovery of performance can be seen for power, strength,
and endurance training, with the greatest magnitude of effect being observed in higher intensity
activities, and those with large eccentric components. This is slightly askew from what is
normally observed in cold therapy, which favors recovery of powerful and coordinated
movements and has less (if any) impact on strength recovery.
Though still not fully understood, the main effects of compression are speculated to be a result
of increases in cellular regeneration and protein synthesis through the enhancement of blood
flow, which helps remove waste and accelerate nutrient availability. The role of compression in
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clearing metabolic waste and lymph may also support the reduced perception of pain and
DOMS, and hinder the accumulation of further inflammatory effects.
Some analyses have noted that the effect sizes of compressive therapies are generally less
impressive than those seen in other recovery methods such as water immersion, active
recovery, or carbohydrate supplementation. Because the outcomes of compression are
consistently positive, however, compression therapy can still provide a significant benefit and
supplement passive recovery.
How to apply it
The pressure applied will vary from garment to garment, though recommended ranges generally
fall between 1040 mmHg. There is no consensus regarding the relationship between the
magnitude of pressure applied and recovery effects, nor are there currently any regionally
specific recommendations. It has been suggested that a pressure of at least 15 mmHg is
needed to stimulate venous return. Timing recommendations consistently cite 1248 hours post
exercise as ideal for promoting recovery. Based on what is known about the delayed effects of
Stimulus Recovery Adaptation (SRA) and the proposed regeneration benefits of compression,
timing recommendations may coincide with normal delayed elevations in skeletal muscle protein
synthesis following exercise. This evidence is in line with the hypothesis that compression
promotes cellularlevel recovery. Studies have recommended anything from 2 to 48 hour
windows postexercise for compression application, though 1248 tends to be the most common
range. It might be the case that application during different time frames following exercise exert
positive effects via different mechanisms.
There is no consensus on dosing in compression therapy. Until this research is fleshed out, use
compression during down times as tolerated. Since static garments can generally be worn as
clothing and are not overly cumbersome, they can be applied without much inconvenience.
Special Considerations
There are very few risks involved with compression outside of using excessive compressive
forces, resulting in occlusion. This however becomes painfully obvious (see what we did there?!)
to the user, so isn’t a risk that’s likely to do damage before it can be caught and averted. It
should go without saying that compressive devices should not be applied to the head or face!
It will become intuitive to you that there is a costbenefit analysis that must be performed when
considering the use of compression. Because it removes metabolic waste and lymphatic fluids,
enhanced recovery very likely comes at the cost of the adaptive potential from training. The
effects of compressive therapy effects are notable but relatively small, and may best be paired
with another modality such as cold therapy. In fact, applying cold and compression may be a
more practical way of eliciting some of the same benefits of contrast therapy, with much less
fuss and hassle. An example of combining cold and compression might involve using an ice
bath immediately following a soccer match to reduce inflammation, then wearing compression
stockings the following day. Both cold and compression come at some cost to adaptation.
Luckily, a trained athlete won’t gain much (if any) fitness from a single soccer match, so this
could be a very favorable tradeoff in promoting recovery for the next match.
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Dynamic Compression
What it is
Recovery modalities using dynamic compression are similar to static compressive therapies, but
rather than applying a constant pressure, it is applied in periodic intervals. Dynamic
compression uses special machines or garments that alter the amount of pressure across
regions of the applied areas. This is typically done in a peristaltic manner, where waves of
pressure move longitudinally across the limb, creating a “dough rolling” action. Examples of
devices for dynamic compression include the NormaTec Recovery System and other pneumatic
compression devices.
How it works
Dynamic compression for recovery is a relatively new treatment. Though still limited to a few
studies, research has thus far been very positive. Given the existing data on static compression
and this early research, it is likely that dynamic compression will emerge as an effective
supplemental recovery modality.
If shown to be as effective as static compression, dynamic compression would likely work via
the same mechanisms. It seems reasonable to assume that the “pumping” action of dynamic
compression might be more effective at facilitating blood flow and reducing edema compared to
static compression, but this remains to be explored.
Expected Outcomes
Given that dynamic compression overlaps with static, their shared effects will not be listed here.
What has been documented specifically for dynamic compression includes:
· Improved lymphatic drainage
· Improved pressure to pain threshold
· Short term improvements in flexibility
· Reduced muscle soreness
· Reduced muscle proteolysis
· Reduced oxidative stress
One study examined the effects of dynamic compression on the pressure to pain threshold––a
technique used to estimate exerciseinduced muscle trauma. Results from this study indicated
an increase in pressure to pain threshold following treatment with dynamic compression,
suggesting a positive effect on recovery. The study did not examine the effects on recovery of
exercise performance, however the finding seems to coincide with results from static
compression, suggesting improvements in fluid flow and muscle regeneration.
Though outside the scope of this discussion, it’s worth noting that multiple researchers have
suggested that dynamic compression may have an effect on the thixotropic properties of the
muscle tissue, meaning that dynamic compression may also increase flexibility.
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Reductions in muscle proteolysis and oxidative stress were also observed with dynamic
compression treatment following overreaching lifting sessions in a recent study. This likely
translates to attenuated secondary trauma due to inflammatory responses and faster recovery
of performance, but further study in general and mechanistic research specifically are needed.
Athletes report relaxing effects from dynamic compression therapy, as well as feelings of
“freshness” in the areas treated.
How to apply it
Although there is no direct data on how to use dynamic compression at the current time, some
evidencebased suggestions can be made. Dynamic compression should likely be used with
similar timing recommendations as static compression, between 12 and 24 hours after training.
The amount of pressure generated can vary across and within devices, so athletes should
choose a setting just before the point of discomfort, and avoid settings or positions that generate
numbness. Doses should typically be 1530 minutes at a time, with repetition likely fine as well.
Athletes will be largely immobilized throughout the application of this therapy, so preparations
should be made to find a comfortable place to rest with any gadgets, food, or necessities
nearby. We recommend a bed or reclining couch, so athletes can simultaneously engage in
relaxation practices.
Special Considerations
There are very few special considerations for dynamic compression, simply because the data on
the subject is currently insufficient. Having personally experienced this method, we have found
minimal opportunities for it to cause actual harm when applied with common sense, and find it
very easy to implement. One noteworthy aspect of this treatment is that it forces the user to
engage in relaxation, which may result in a valuable compounding of the effects of both
compression and relaxation. Although the effects of compression may not be profound, this
could potentially be used as a means to initiate relaxation practices for athletes who struggle
with fatigue management. As before, there is the potential for adaptive compromise, so a
costbenefit analysis should probably be done prior to use.
Therapeutic Recovery Modalities
Social Support
Social support is an external therapeutic aspect of tending to psychological state. Whether
support comes from family, friends, coaches, a therapist, or your dog; feeling loved and heard
has a direct effect on your state of mind and stress levels and indirectly impacts your ability to
recover from physical training.
What it is
Social support creates the perception that one is loved, valued, and has access to external
assistance with life’s problems. This can mean having a trusted friend with whom to share
successes and failures, a parent who will lend money in a rough patch, or a pet who offers
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unconditional love. It could mean access to an online community of likeminded individuals who
might offer advice or encouragement, or the presence of a coach who believes in and looks out
for your needs. Social support comes in many forms, but the end result is the same: a socially
supported person is one who does not feel alone, insecure, or without help.
How it works
Social support is correlated with decreased morbidity and mortality in diseased states —again,
no surprise that it is also correlated with improved physical recovery in a healthy state. The
downstream result of social support that impacts one’s recovery may amount to mere decreases
in stress. There is mounting evidence that social support also impacts biological markers
correlated with improved physiological health. As is often the case with psychophysical
interactions, the correlations are very complicated and causality can be very difficult to parse.
For our purposes, it is sufficient to say that social support is worth seeking out and reinforcing,
for the sake of general wellbeing and physical recovery.
Expected Outcomes
Similar to a people with healthy psychological states and wellmanaged stress, socially
supported people tend to sleep well, adapt to obstacles, and commit to training and recovery
plans. These factors alone allow socially supported people to generally recover better than
those without support.
How to Apply it
The application of this modality is a bit different than applying an ice pack or compression
sleeves. It can involve more drastic lifestyle changes well outside of what athletes do in the gym
or as part of their training. The added benefit to applying this modality for recovery is that a
social support system can have positive effects extending beyond sport training as well. To
employ this modality, athletes should consider the people they surround themselves with as
elements that directly impact their recovery. Negative and selfinvolved individuals will typically
fail to offer consistent support, and will also tax mental resources and increase stress. Finding a
good coach, surrounding oneself with positive, genuine people, and limiting exposure to
positivity and energysapping individuals will all add subtle enhancement to one’s physical
recovery, not to mention increase overall life satisfaction.
Special Considerations
Most of the research done on social support is related to its effect on mortality and morbidity in
the seriously ill or elderly. It is reasonable to assume that positive health states in these cases
are similar to recovery ability in a healthy state, but little explicit research on this exists. Even
without this assumed connection, the minimizing effect of social support on stress is
welldocumented; so is the effect of stress on recovery. Though the mechanisms of action have
not been completely elucidated, it’s a fairly safe bet that developing a strong social support
network will be a boon for your recovery and physical progress.
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Compassionate Touch
Massage has traditionally been revered as one of the essentials for recovery in sport. To this
day, many people balk at the idea that this may prove to be false or incomplete. However, as
more recent research comes in, massage has rightly come under a greater degree of scrutiny,
as data has failed to validate its effectiveness. Due to the mounting evidence, massage is best
classified under the subcategory of what we like to call “compassionate touch”. Being touched in
a pleasant way, or even just the possibility of having a rapport with someone (see social
support) strong enough to support touching, provides some recovery improvement.
Unfortunately, the effects elicited by compassionate touch are completely misunderstood in the
context of stimulating recovery from sport or exercise.
What it is
Compassionate touch can include various forms of massage, sexual and nonsexual touch from
loved ones, petting, and other forms of pleasant physical interaction.
How it works
This is where things get a little interesting. Previously, massage and touch were assumed to
provide increased blood flow, increased range of motion of movement, increased metabolic
clearance, and increased muscle temperature. A complete lack of evidence supporting these
benefits and refutation of their existence in some cases has rendered most of these
assumptions incorrect. Massage and touch do not usually apply sufficient pressure to simulate
increases in flow to the skeletal muscle, or facilitate metabolite clearance, and any changes in
blood flow or temperature remain completely superficial at the skin level. Massage also does not
appear to have a meaningful effect on flexibility.
It turns out that the positive effects of compassionate touch are likely due to a combination of
previously discussed recovery modalities. Compassionate touch decreases sympathetic and
parasympathetic activity, resulting in a decrease in overall autonomicnervous activity, and a
restoration of autonomic balance. This makes a rejoinder to our most valuable
modality––passive recovery. Relaxation is again the confounding factor and likely a large
contributor to any positive outcome from massage and other forms of compassionate touch. The
other factor at play is likely social support. The feeling that someone else cares is inherent in
being touched compassionately, and probably also contributes to positive outcomes when using
this modality.
Expected Outcomes
Although compassionate touch seems to provide a psychological benefit, research suggests
that this modality has virtually no direct physical benefit. In other words, positive outcomes are
the indirect effect of relaxation and social support, and are not caused by the physical touching
action on the muscles themselves. Most assumptions about therapies like massage centered on
their supposed plethora of various physical effects, which have now failed to be confirmed by
research.
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Compassionate touch application effects can include:
· Placebo
· Reduction in DOMS
· Reduction in low to moderate intensity pain
· Increased feelings of wellbeing
· Improved perceived recovery
Compassionate touch treatment is soothing and feels wonderful, but note that this modality only
enhances perceptive measures practically speaking, not physical or performance measures. In
fact, compassionate touch does not appear to have any consistent effect on recovery of
exercise performance. It may even have the potential to decrease recovery of exercise
performance, let alone fail to promote it.
Given its effects on autonomic activity and the feelings of being cared for by another human,
compassionate touch may be an excellent strategy to promote relaxation. This is something we
may do unconsciously all the time with friends and loved ones: head scratches, shoulder rubs,
or back pets can quickly and easily soothe anxiety and put us in a more relaxed state. Physical
and psychological relaxation are crucial components to recovery, and although compassionate
touch may not provide tangible physical results for recovery, its effects on psychology cannot be
denied and should be acknowledge in a holistic approach to recovery.
How to apply it
There is such a wide variety of potentially qualifying compassionate touch activities that it can
only be applied in the most general sense. Massage is the beststudied compassionate touch
treatment, and may be best applied within 2 hours of exercise in short sequences of about 512
minutes. It appears that the effects of massage are more noticeable following higher intensity
activities compared to lower intensity ones. It should also be noted that massage applied after
exercise does not accelerate recovery of strength, and can actually result in a temporary
reduction in strength. Other forms of compassionate touch are likely best implemented to initiate
or coincide with dedicated relaxation practices and can be applied more liberally, since there is
very little risk associated with being kindly touched. There is no real consensus on timing and
dosing, but what can be said is that time spent being physical with your loved ones is probably
time well spent.
Special Considerations
The first consideration for compassionate touch therapy is that is has an a demonstrable
placebo effect. This has been well documented, particularly for massage. This is also supported
by findings that show increases in perceived recovery without corresponding increases in
performance or physical recovery markers, indicating the effect is primarily perception based.
Training age also factors in, as the largest effect sizes appear to be in untrained populations
compared to more experienced groups.
Another important problem is that when perception of recovery is not accompanied by actual
recovery, athletes come under the incorrect assumption that they are ready to overload again.
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This can lead to suboptimal training, premature overreaching, and increased risk of injury,
especially when perception of pain has been reduced.
Although most forms of compassionate touch are pleasant and enjoyable, there are some forms
that are deliberately traumatic to muscle tissues. Extremely hard massage can often inflict
structural damage to the muscle and skin and be quite painful during and after the session.
While one might think that this increased pressure on the muscle might make it more effective
than “only skin deep” massage, the added fatigue of tissue damage must also be taken into
account. Hard, painful massage actually adds trauma and fatigue rather than taking it away, and
actually decreases recovery ability despite any small benefits to blood flow etc.
Coaches and athletes should also be wary of rashes, skin sensitivity, and the potential to spread
skin related illness such as ringworm when implementing compassionate touch therapies. This
type of treatment is also a personal and semiintimate interaction with another human being,
which could potentially be uncomfortable for some, disabling the effects of relaxation and social
support.
Studies also seem to suggest that there may be no additional positive effect from the touching
aspect of compassionate touch––it may be just the compassion that enables recovery. In other
words, spending time with a therapist might be equivalent to spending time with a therapist who
also give you a massage. Accordingly, part of the effect of compassionate touch seems to be
limited by the rapport between therapist and recipient. It does appear that trusting and knowing
someone well enough to engage in compassionate touch with them is a confounding factor,
suggesting that social support is one of the effectors of positive outcome for compassionate
touch therapy.
Electrical Stimulation Recovery Modalities
EStim has been a widely accepted tool for rehabilitation and pain management for decades.
Virtually every athletic training room and physical therapy clinic has an estim system.
Considering its profound effect on healing injured or deconditioned muscle, many have
speculated that it should also play a role in noninjury related recovery from sport and exercise.
A wise man once told us: “that doesn’t do what you think it does”. In this particular case, that
thing did do what we thought it did, but there is an implicit recommendation in the statement: it is
important to validate assumptions before using any treatment. In the case of Estim and its
typical usage, that wisdom amusingly rings true––the thing does not do what most people think
it does.
What it is
Estim uses the electrical stimulation of muscle fibers, using superficially applied electrodes to
the muscles. Examples of EStim are TENS, MENS, HVPC units, and other similar devices.
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How it works
The electrical stimulation of the muscle is thought to produce two major effects:
· Increases in local blood flow due to muscle contraction
· Inhibition of nociceptor signal transmission to the spinal cord
Voluntary contraction is subject to Henneman’s size principle, which states that different fibers
and proportions of fibers are recruited for different tasks and output needs during contraction. By
contrast, electrical stimulation appears to activate muscle fibers less discriminately. Normally,
when the muscle fibers are activated through voluntary action, blood flow is preferentially
distributed to those areas. Under high energy demand conditions, this effect can be magnified
by a process called reactive hyperemia, which increases vasodilation from hypoxia and the
presence of metabolic byproducts. One of the proposed mechanisms of action for EStim
treatment is that it can stimulate larger muscle fibers (and is not limited by Henneman’s size
principle) and generate more metabolites, leading to further increases in vasodilation.
It’s also worth noting that EStim simply blocks the perception of pain, and does not necessarily
treat the underlying causes. Caution is always suggested during exercise following analgesic
treatments, as they result in false negative errors in perception of pain and injury.
Expected Outcomes
Effects of EStim therapy can include:
· Analgesic effects
· Increases in local blood flow
· Placebo
EStim can have a positive acute effect on the perception of pain, but very inconsistent and
seemingly ineffective results in the management of DOMS. EStim also appears to increase
blood flow to the muscle in a similar way to voluntary muscle contraction, suggesting that the
increase in flow is simply due to contraction and not unique to EStim treatment. Some also
claim that EStim provides an equivalent effect to that of active recovery. This would be a
significant benefit, but is unproven. One of the major benefits of active recovery is the continued
practice and refinement of sport skills, which an electronic device is unable provide of its own
accord (that is to say, unless it is a device designed to coach you on active recovery). Drawing a
comparison between the two is largely unfounded.
Reliable recovery of exercise performance has not been shown with Estim treatment, which
could be due to methodological flaws of the studies looking into Estim. It’s safe to say at the
current time that EStim does not appear to have any meaningful effects on potentially
shortening training SRA curves.
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How to apply it
There is a massive variety of application methods to EStim, all varying in the frequencies,
impulse duration, time of application, time from initial exercise, and electrode placement. We
recommend seeking out exercise physiologists, athletic trainers, and physical therapists with
expertise in this therapy before applying it. Strict adherence to the manufacturer’s instructions is
advised.
Special Considerations
This particular treatment modality is in a grey area: it does not seem to aid in recovery from
sport and exercise, but does seem to have significant clinical benefits, and can be effective in
treating pain. Pain is generally there to let us know that something is not quite right and can
result from injury or inflammatory effects induced by hard training; pain signals to us that the
hurting area needs to be at least temporarily rested and allowed to heal. Masking pain presents
a problem in possibly allowing athletes to begin training before sufficient recovery has taken
place, or by obscuring the fact that the athlete is exceeding his or her MRV.
While Estim seems to be a great tool for dealing with pain, your inner skeptical sport scientist
should be asking why the athlete is in pain to begin with. It is important to discern if your athlete
is experiencing the pain that comes with training or pain from a physical injury.
We suspect that Estim is a passing fad for recovery from training. We will enjoy a big slice of
humble pie if that turns out to be incorrect down the road, but at present it appears to be just
another fun toy that cannot replace our basic recovery strategies. Even if we assume that active
recovery and EStim provide comparable effects, active recovery also has the benefit of
continuing sport skill and tactical practice and refinement, and can activate the trained
musculature with a higher degree of specificity. Thus, we would still preferentially prescribe
active recovery methods.
(Dis)Honorable Mentions
So far, all of the methods we have discussed have at least some merit or potential to promote
recovery. The following modalities are generally either poor strategies, ones that have no
supporting data, or no indication that supporting data will ever surface. That said, let’s keep in
mind that some of these may be useful in recovery from injury or in other contexts outside of
recovery from training.
Foam Rolling: This method has no meaningful effects on recovery, but can reduce DOMS and
temporarily boost flexibility and mobility characteristics.
Cardio: T
his one is often confused with active recovery. Light cardio such as walking can be
used as active recovery, but most cardio is overload training. Anything beyond light cardio adds
fatigue instead of reducing it. Cardio does not aid in recovery in any meaningful way (outside of
chronic adaptations).
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Stretching: T
here is no apparent short or longterm benefit of stretching as a recovery modality.
It may reduce DOMS, but does not demonstrate any consistent pattern of recovery
enhancement.
NSAIDS: D rugs like ibuprofen have been consistently shown to blunt the adaptive response and
can mask underlying injury and inflammation. This does not mean that these drugs need to be
avoided at all times, but should be reserved for when an athlete is particularly uncomfortable,
instead of serving as a go to every time she feels sore.
Sustained Heat Exposure: Short doses of heat or contrast may be beneficial, however sitting
in a hot environment such as a sauna or steam room for more than about 30 minutes will start to
accumulate effects of heat stress and dehydration without any benefit.
Recovery Drinks: If it does not have a significant dose of carbs or protein, it probably doesn’t
do anything meaningful.
Amino Acid Supplements: Taking BCAA’s (branched chain amino acids), glutamine, leucine or
the like does not appear to have any additional benefit when daily recommended amounts of
complete protein are already being consumed. These are expensive and have no advantage
over whey protein or other complete protein sources. Not to mention that these, if you don’t
mind our saying, often taste “gross”.
Cupping: T his treatment appears to have no meaningful effect on promoting recovery outside
of placebo. Cupping also inflicts significant trauma on to the subject, adding fatigue rather than
reducing it. Any potential benefit could also be confounded by relaxation or compassionate
touch therapy.
Yoga: Y
oga is a fine practice for other purposes, but does not appear to significantly aid in
recovery from training. Any effects on recovery are likely confounded by relaxation or active
recovery.
Breathing Techniques: A
ny effects using these techniques are likely just the result of
relaxation.
Sensory Deprivation: T
his might offer some positive effects, but probably all are due to
relaxation!
Swimming / Pool Training: Technically this is just another form of active recovery, with less
specificity (for nonswimming sports). Being submerged may also add the benefit of hydrostatic
pressure.
Acupuncture and Dry Needling: B oth of these treatments can reduce localized pain, but it is
unclear whether they produce any other meaningful effects, and are again likely to be
confounded by placebo, relaxation, and compassionate touch therapy.
There is a quote that says “There is no such thing as overtraining: it's all in your head.” While
the “mind over matter” philosophy is common in the athletic community as a mantra for
selfmotivation, this is simply untrue. There are clear upper bounds to the amount of
accumulated stressors one can tolerate before performance will stagnate and even regress.
Following this too closely will end in injury. While some may follow the “if you’re going to be
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dumb, you gotta be tough” approach, our philosophy guides you to aspire to be tough enough to
overload train, and smart enough to properly recover from it, so that you can repeat and
improve.
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