ISSN 1810-0775

Products
and profit
from poultr y
Second edition
FAO Diversification booklet 3
 Diversification booklet number 3
Second edition

Products
and profit
from poultr y

Martin Hilmi, Frands Dolberg and Robyn Alders

Rural Infrastructure and Agro-Industries Division

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Rome 2011
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and do not necessarily reflect the views of FAO.

ISBN 978-92-5-107064-2

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© FAO 2012
■■Preface vii

Table of contents
■■Acknowledgements ix
■■Introduction 1
■■Poultry and livelihoods 2
■■Poultry as a business enterprise 3
■■Purpose of the booklet 4

■■Benefits of the livelihood activity 7

■■Poultry at household level 7
■■Benefits to the farming system 8
■■Health and nutrition 10
■■Food security 10
■■Gender development 11
■■Opportunities for the sick and disabled 13
■■Improved income 13
■■Poultry as a form of saving 13
■■Livestock farming: Poultry the first step 14
■■Social, cultural and religious importance of poultry 14

■■The feasibility of the livelihood activity 15

■■Starting the business 15
■■Market research 16
■■Considerations for poultry production in the local area 17
■■Type of production system 17
■■Feed and water 17
■■Housing 18
■■Health care and veterinary assistance 18
■■Credit 18
■■Costs and profits 18
■■Evaluation of the livelihood activity 18
■■The livelihood activity 21
■■Poultry: Major types and breeds 21
■■Essentials of poultry production:
Housing, breeding and feeding 26
■■Intensification in poultry production
and improved management 39

■■Sustainable strategies for the livelihood activity 41

■■Marketing channels 41
■■Poultry products 42
■■Quality and safety 46
■■Producer organization 48

■■Support services to promote poultry 51

■■Institutional role 51
■■Access to support services 51
■■Access to markets 52
■■Technical training 52
■■Business skills training 54
■■Veterinary services 54
■■Financial services 55
■■Market information 55
■■Organizational options 56
■■Supporting women poultry producers 56
■■Role of the advisor 57

■■Challenges 59
■■Poultry health 59
■■Access to veterinary services 59
■■Access to financial services 59
■■Sustainable support services for all 59
■■Local skilled trainers 59

Table of contents
iv
 ■■Training materials dissemination 60

Table of contents
■■Infrastructure 60
■■Gender 60
■■Enterprise sustainability 60
■■Organizing producers 60
■■Public policy 61

■■Selected further reading 63

■■Sources of further information and support 71

v
 Preface

The purpose of the FAO Diversification booklets is to raise awareness and

provide decision support information about opportunities at farm and local
community level to increase the incomes of small-scale farmers.

Each booklet focuses on a farm or non-farm enterprise that can be

integrated into small farms to increase incomes and enhance livelihoods.
The enterprises profiled in the FAO Diversification booklets are suitable
for smallholder farmers in terms of resource requirements, additional costs,

Products and profit from poultry

exposure to risk and complexity. The products or services generated by the
enterprises are suitable for meeting demand on a growing, or already strong,
local market and are not dependent on an export market.

The main target audience for these booklets are people and organizations
that provide advisory, business and technical support services to resource-
poor small-scale farmers and local communities in low- and middle-income
countries. It is hoped that enough information is given to help these support
service providers to consider new income-generating opportunities and how
these might enable small-scale farmers to take action. What are the potential
benefits? What are farmer requirements and constraints? What are critical
‘success factors’?

The FAO Diversification booklets are also targeted to policy-makers and

programme managers in government and non-governmental organizations.
What actions might policy-makers take to create enabling environments for
small-scale farmers to diversify into new income-generating activities?

The FAO Diversification booklets are not intended to be technical ‘how

to do it’ guidelines. Readers will need to seek more information or technical
support, so as to provide farmer advisory and support activities relating to
the introduction of new income-generating activities. To assist in this respect,
each booklet identifies additional sources of information, technical support
and website addresses.

vii
 A CD has been prepared with a full series of FAO Diversification booklets
and FAO technical guides, together with complementary guides on market
research, financing, business planning, etc. Copies of the CD are available
on request from FAO. FAO Diversification booklets can also be downloaded
from the FAO Internet site.

If you find this booklet of value, we would like to hear from you. Tell
your colleagues and friends about it. FAO would welcome suggestions about
possible changes for enhancing our next edition or regarding relevant topics
for other booklets. By sharing your views and ideas with us we can provide
better services to you.

viii
 Acknowledgements

This booklet considerably updates the first edition of the FAO Diversification
booklet No. 3. Poultry for profit and pleasure written by Robyn Alders in
2004, but has used parts of the original text within this second edition.

Gratitude is owed to David Hitchcock, Senior Enterprise Development

Officer, Rural Infrastructure and Agro-Industries Division, (AGS), FAO,
for reviewing and providing detailed advice on the booklet. Special thanks
go to Doyle Baker, Senior Technical Officer, Rural Infrastructure and Agro-

Products and profit from poultry

Industries Division, (AGS), FAO, who provided a technical review on a
previous draft version of this booklet.

Acknowledgements for the series

Gratitude is owed to Doyle Baker, Senior Technical Officer, Rural Infrastructure
and Agro-Industries Division (AGS), FAO, for his vision, encouragement and
constant support in the development of the FAO Diversification booklet series.
Martin Hilmi managed the development, production and post-production
of the series and provided technical support and inputs. Michael Breece
undertook the design and layout of the booklets and desktop publishing.

ix
 Introduction

With the increase of world animals for small farms). Home

population and consequently in food gardens that provide small-scale farm
demand, more and more land is being families with food and important
intensively cultivated and used for surpluses to sell in local markets are
food production. Small-scale farmers now an integral element of many
in rural, peri- urban and urban areas food systems. Many such gardens
are finding profitable opportunities and backyards popularly raise poultry
for ‘backyard productions for family food requirements and for

Products and profit from poultry

systems’ in terms of crops (see market.
FAO Diversification booklet No.2 Poultry refers to domestic birds
Livelihoods grow in gardens) as that produce eggs and meat that can be
well as for small livestock ( see FAO consumed and traded by small-scale
Diversification booklet No.14 Small farmers. Poultry down and feathers

Figure 1 Chickens for sale in a market in Naivasha, Kenya

(Photo: M. Hilmi)

1
have also found multiple household nutritious food throughout the year
uses and importantly numerous and are especially beneficial for
trade opportunities, while poultry young children, pregnant women
manure is used as soil and farm and the elderly. Other parts of the
pond fertilizer, hence contributing to poultry carcass, for example chicken
increased crop and fish yields, and bones, can be boiled and provide an
commercialization. Poultry manure excellent source of nutrition to those
is especially important to small- who are sick.
scale farmers who have difficulty in Poultry are commonly found
accessing and affording fertilizers, in and around the homestead and
as well as those small-scale farmers hence provide a good opportunity for
who wish to make the best possible women to actively participate in a
use of all the natural resources found business opportunity that is also easily
and available on their farms. accessible and does not command
Domestic chickens, turkeys, excessive labour requirements.
ducks, geese, guinea fowl, dove, Poultry can also provide a form of
pigeons, pheasants, quail and ‘savings account’ for women who can
ostriches are raised throughout the have ready access to easily tradable
world, with the popularity of farm products, such as eggs and meat that
production falling on chickens. are popular among village dwellers
Pheasant, quail and ostriches are and not only.
more commonly found on large- Poultry raising skills are not overly
scale commercial farms, while other complicated and such an enterprise
poultry (chickens, ducks, geese) is can be easily integrated with other
found more commonly on small-scale farm activities and in many instances
farms and scavenging around rural, complement other farm enterprises.
peri- urban and urban households. For example, chicken manure to
fertilize soil; ducks that eat insects
■■ Poultry and livelihoods and parasites that can be harmful
Poultry are socially accepted small both to crops and livestock.
livestock in many countries. Meat is Domesticated poultry also
a good source of protein, improving contributes to environmental
farm family nutrition and contributing protection and conservation as
to overall health of family members. people no longer have a need to hunt
Eggs provide a constant source of for protein sources in the wild.

2
 case study 1 Poultry and livelihoods in Bangladesh

Poultry farms in Bangladesh have witnessed a rapid growth in recent times. With an
increasing population, growth in urbanization and increased incomes the demand for
poultry products is expected to increase appreciably.

Poultry in Bangladesh is crucial to agricultural growth. This sub-sector is particularly

important as it is a significant source of protein supply for the population’s nutritional
intake. It is an attractive economic activity as well, especially for women and the poorer
sections of society and creates employment opportunities. Many people are directly
dependent on this industry for their livelihoods.

Source: Adapted from Raihan, S. & Mahmud, N. 2008. Trade and poverty linkages. A case study of
the poultry industry in Bangladesh, CUTS-CITEE Working Paper No. 6

Products and profit from poultry

■■ Poultry as a business supplementary feeds. With
enterprise appropriate management, care and
Poultry does not require excessive vaccinations poultry can be kept
space and labour for production. healthy and productive.
Meat, especially chicken meat, and The complementary nature of
eggs are commonly always in high such an enterprise contributes to
demand. This means that small- overall farm efficiency: poultry
scale farmers have opportunities to enterprises contribute to their own
earn extra income, mostly on their raising by scavenging harvested
doorsteps. fields, for example wheat and maize
Initial start-up costs for a fields, eating residues; with their
poultry enterprise, pending on manure they contribute to increased
type of poultry raised and size of crop yields and in turn to by-product
enterprise, are commonly low and supplements that can be used in their
are fairly accessible to most small- feed.
scale farmers. Labour requirements Commonly opportunities exist
are not excessive and housing for marketing poultry products to
and other structures required can neighbours and in the local village
normally be built using locally market. However, serving more
available materials. Feed is mainly distant markets requires finding out
based on crop by-products and on what consumers need and want in
scavenging as well as on providing terms of poultry products.

3
 Box 1 Starting a poultry business

Small-scale farmers prior to starting a poultry enterprise need to ascertain what market
demand there is for various poultry products. This has to consider such aspects as
price, quantities and acceptable quality levels. Costs need to be understood such as
initial investment costs, production and marketing costs as well as expected revenues
and the profit margin that can be made.

However small-scale farmers also need to ascertain support services that may be
required for a small-scale commercial enterprise, for example the cost, access and
availability of vaccinations. Moreover small-scale farmers need to also consider what
other small-scale farmers are doing and if they are also producing poultry, as a new
market entrant may only create a glut in the local market and depress prices.

Figure 2 A duck farm

(Photo: FAO/14219/P.Johnson)

■■ Purpose of the booklet among all those involved in

Poultry, as an enterprise, can development programmes, at local,
contribute to improving livelihoods national and regional level, about the
in numerous ways. The booklet plethora of opportunities that poultry
is aimed at increasing awareness, can provide to smallholder farmers.

4
case study 2 Poultry production in Mozambique

Small-scale Poultry production in Mozambique is dominated by the village poultry

sector accounting for 95 percent of the chickens produced and consumed in the
villages (Fewsnet, 2006). Management is minimal and simply involves keeping the
birds under free-range and scavenging conditions around the homestead. The farm
family owns the birds and daily care is provided by women and children with little or no
inputs for housing, feeding or veterinary care.

The little care bestowed upon the birds includes provision of table food scraps and/or
limited amounts of grain or bran each morning. Villagers perceive these scavenging
chickens as a natural low-grade crop that offers very desirable meat on occasions.
However production is too unreliable to warrant committing investments in terms of
time, money and other resources. There is no incentive to improve husbandry because
frequent outbreaks of Newcastle Diseases cause total or partial exterminations of the
village flocks. The husbandry practiced is unimproved and traditional and there is no

Products and profit from poultry

deliberate effort to improve the chickens genetically.

Source: Adapted from Kaumbata, W. 2009. Comparison of small-scale livestock production

systems in selected SADC counties

5
 Benefits of the livelihood activity

■■ Poultry at household level accessibility to food, such as eggs

Poultry are commonly raised in and for example. Poultry thus not only
around the farm homestead or in its provides more food security, but
immediate vicinity. This provides also increases the diversity of food
for easy, convenient and daily consumed by the farm family.

Products and profit from poultry

Figure 3 A traditional henhouse in Ghana
(Photo:FAO/20879)

case study 3 The case of the Kuroiler breed and feeding

children in West Bengal, India

Krishna Kayal sees Kuroilers as a good source of eggs for her two growing sons Vivek
(7 years) and Bikram (2 ½ years). She keeps a small flock of four hens to provide her
with eggs and meat that come from a known source, her own birds!

Her Kuroilers have not let her down. She gets three eggs every day and her children
consume them as omelettes daily. Krishna and her husband too get to eat them once
or twice a week. This is very important for the family since they don’t have access to
any fish pond and the eggs are a major source of protein in their diets.

Source: Adapted from Ahuja, V., Dhawan, M., Punjabi, M. & Maarse, L. 2008. Poultry based
livelihoods of rural poor: Case of Kuroiler in West Bengal, South Asia Pro-Poor Livestock Policy
Programme, NDDB & FAO

7
 Poultry products, such as down involved in family economic matters,
and feathers, can be of household increasing there say and status within.
use, for example in pillow making; A poultry enterprise provides
by – products such as egg shells immediate access to saleable products
can be feed to other farm animals, and its easy commercialization also
for example pigs, and contribute to can mean easy access to cash for the
their nutrition; manure can be used to farming family. It can contribute to
fertilize the home garden around the increasing production diversity of
homestead and increase yields. the farm’s enterprises, lowering risk,
Women have easy access to such reducing fluctuations in cash flow
an enterprise and are commonly and enabling a more regular income.
left in charge of raising poultry and
managing the poultry enterprise. ■■ Benefits to the farming system
Women not only derive easy access Poultry can easily be integrated into
to food from such an enterprise, local farming systems. Commonly
but can also earn cash from selling poultry relies on feedstuffs that can be
poultry products and become more locally procured, and more then often

Figure 4 Keeping ducks in the rice field, after harrowing the soil, is a natural method of
biological control and better land preparation. This is because ducks feed on the snails that
thrive in the field during the planting season
(Photo: FAO/18236/J.Villamora)

8
crop by-products not fit for human and goats for diverse products and
consumption, are fed to poultry. profits) and cattle, and can hence be
Poultry also with their scavenging, introduced more easily into a farming
especially after harvest time, provide system, not burdening excessively
to be effective and efficient in other choices that the farmer may
‘combing’ areas where grains have want to take for the farm business.
been threshed or rice cleaned. Poultry Poultry in many cases does not
also recycle nutrients from crop waste require specialised housing and other
and return them to the soil. Poultry complex farm structures and have
manure is also used as a fertilizer good reproductive rates, so long as
and is commonly used to grow crops, they are managed appropriately and
which later poultry will themselves kept in good health. Poultry interact

Products and profit from poultry

feed on. Overall crop and livestock with other livestock, as well as with
interaction are positive as per the farm ponds (see FAO Diversification
complementary nature of poultry. booklet No. 13 Farm ponds for water,
Importantly the cost of poultry is fish and livelihoods) and in many
a lot less then goats, sheep (see FAO cases can provide to be good parasite
Diversification booklet No. 9 Sheep reapers on larger livestock.

Figure 5 A model of an integrated fish farm: combination of fish ponds with ducks. The
pen is built above the pond so that the water is fertilized directly with spilt feed and manure.
The manure fertilizes pond plants which fish commonly feed on
(Photo: FAO/20906/K. Pratt )

9
■■ Health and nutrition ■■ Food security
Poultry meat and eggs increases the Increased numbers of poultry,
farm family’s nutritional intake and as a result of augmented poultry
provides for greater family health production and marketing, reduces
and overall contributes to more food prices and hence enables a great
security. Consumption of poultry distribution of benefits in terms of
meat and eggs is important for food availability and access to larger
pregnant women, children and the segments of the population. This not
elderly. Poultry can make a significant only provides improved nutrition for
contribution in areas where child many, but contributes significantly
malnutrition is common. Enhanced to food security. Urban communities
nutrition improves growth, mental and not only rural communities
development, school performance also benefit from such an expansion
and labour productivity and reduces in the poultry trade as poultry
the likelihood of illness. farmers and traders look for new

Figure 6 An elderly woman raising poultry. The FAO project in El Salvador promoted
the participation of women in decision-making and in income-generating activities and
recognized the active and productive role of women in the community
(Photo: FAO/21530/G. BIzzarri)

10
untapped markets in where to sell members, especially within farm
their produce. Moreover the small households. Training focussed on
size of most poultry and the ease in gender that covers not only improved
which they can be transported further management practices, for example
enhances the opportunities for small- Poultry Farmer Field Schools
scale farmers and traders selling in (PFFSs), but also training in business
distant markets. management and marketing for
women enterprises, can be of support
■■ Gender development to many development initiatives.
In many countries poultry raising A woman who has access to such
is considered a women’s business, a business enterprise and importantly
but in many cases women have its benefits has the ability not only to

Products and profit from poultry

little or no access to the economic look after herself, but also improves
benefits of such an activity. here stance within the family,
Importantly sensitization needs community and provides a safety
to take place in communities not net in case of abandonment. It also
only to create awareness about enables women to be active outside
economic advantages of poultry, but their communities and create social
importantly the equitable distribution networks with other women and can
of benefits among the community’s provide opportunities for further

case study 4 Women, poultry enterprises and the Kuroiler

breed in West Bengal, India

Kuroiler raising is primarily a women’s enterprise and the external effects of women
entrepreneurship in terms of intra-household expenditure allocation, nutritional intake
and better education of girls are substantial. In this context, an argument is often made
that the decision-making role of women in economic enterprises diminishes with the
growth of the enterprise. As such enterprises grow and become more market oriented,
men tend to take over and women again get relegated to tending household activities.

In terms of Kuroiler raising, though, there is no systematic decline in women’s

involvement with the size of enterprise. Indeed, women’s involvement continues to be
sizeable in all activities including disposal and utilization of poultry income, decisions
about further investments and so forth.

Source: Adapted from Ahuja, V., Dhawan, M., Punjabi, M. & Maarse, L. 2008. Poultry based
livelihoods of rural poor: Case of Kuroiler in West Bengal, South Asia Pro-Poor Livestock Policy
Programme, NDDB & FAO

11
business transactions to take place. more regular basis then meat, allows
Moreover with poultry products women to ensure a far more regular
such as eggs, which can be sold on a income for the family household.

Figure 7 Woman, with a basket of birds on her head, counts her money after making a
sale at a street market
(Photo: FAO/21816/R. Grisolia)

12
■■ Opportunities for the sick and increases the number of markets
disabled in which farmers can sell in, but
Poultry offers opportunities for the provides a portfolio of products that
sick and the disabled. Commonly enables more constant inflows of
poultry raising is not labour intensive cash to the family farm. For example,
and operations are fairly repetitive eggs can be sold on a regular basis
and can be easily assimilated by year round, and meat sales, that
those with learning difficulties. In have been properly scheduled can
communities that have been hard hit also provide for revenue generation.
by the HIV/AIDs pandemic, poultry Offal from poultry, along with down
are livestock that can provide an and feathers also offer other income
easy enterprise to manage for elderly generating opportunities as well as

Products and profit from poultry

people and young children. culls in the laying flock.

■■ Improved income ■■ Poultry as a form of saving

Poultry offer numerous opportunities Poultry, like other livestock, can
for improving small-scale farmers’ be used as a ‘savings account’.
income. The multiple products However poultry is more easily
that poultry can provide not only convertible to cash as prices paid

Box 2 Poultry and HIV/AIDS pandemic

Households hit by HIV/AIDS suffer from loss of adults, capital and labor. However,
village chickens require the lowest capital investment of any livestock species and they
have a short production cycle. There are other advantages in comparison to goats and
cattle, which require herders to stay with them during the day, which is impossible for
households without working adults.

In households headed by widows, children or grandparents, chickens represent

the easiest species to raise for sale and home consumption, providing a source of
high-quality proteins, energy and vitamins, all of which play an important role in the
nutrition of HIV/AIDS patients. Poultry production is an efficient and cost-effective way
to increase the availability of high-protein food. Eggs are also a good source of other
essential nutrients and can be stored under village conditions more easily than most
foods of animal origin. For livestock departments, NGOs or any other organization
seeking to work with poultry to the benefit of people with HIV/AIDS there may be
benefits in collaboration with education and health ministries. Improved chicken
production and use of chicken meat and eggs can be incorporated into an overall
strategy for supporting households affected by HIV/AIDS.

13
are not as high as those paid for ■■ Social, cultural and religious
goats, sheep and cattle and can importance of poultry
hence provide a safety net in times In many countries, social good will
of need. is created by offering guests a meal
containing meat. Guests may be
■■ Livestock farming: Poultry the given a live bird to take home as a
first step mark of respect. Poultry and poultry
Poultry more then often represents products can be sold to obtain items
an important first step for that enable families to participate
many small-scale farmers in fully in community activities. In south
diversification from crops and a first Bhutan, for example, poultry play and
important step in livestock rearing. important role in the worship of deities.
Poultry is affordable to most small- The deities require animals be offered
scale farmers and can be used as in pairs; a chicken, duck or pigeon can
a scaling-up enterprise to larger be paired with a large animal, or can
livestock, such as sheep and goats be offered in the place of a goat or pig.
(see FAO Diversification booklet Farmers in the region believe that the
No.9 Sheep and goats for diverse offerings will ensure that there will be
products and profits). no sickness in their household.

14
 The feasibility of the livelihood activity

At village level, as commonly ■■ Starting the business

found in many countries, poultry In a feasibility study the primary
enterprises are started with local factor to consider is local market
birds and feeds to service local demand for poultry products. If there
demand. If this type of operation is demand the next consideration is
is successful and there is a stable to find out the availability of local
and growing demand, then the feed sources, access to them and the
enterprise can be scaled-up to more possibility of buying poultry feed.

Products and profit from poultry

sophisticated production systems Estimates will have to be made if
that involve improved breeds and by-products can be used, if feed
feeds as well as more sophisticated needs to be grown and/or bought and
housing and equipment. which option is the most feasible in
The type of poultry raised terms of costs, labour time, etc. Feed
often reflects traditional interests mix costs and its results in bird yield
and cultural values. These will also have to be estimated. Water
have evolved slowly and hence is yet another important element
introducing poultry as a business to consider, not only in terms of
as well as, for example, new availability, but access and quality.
types of poultry breeds, calls for An appropriate production system
care and sensitivity. In order to (improved free range system, small-
ensure that poultry as a business scale confined system, etc.) needs
is viable in a defined area it is to be planned and local or improved
good to conduct a feasibility breeds considered in comparison to
study. This needs to cover not market demand and appropriate cost
only production aspects, for and profit calculations. Housing and
example the increase in poultry equipment will also need to be taken
production in a local area (or can into account, in terms of housing
poultry be successfully introduced materials to use, fencing, and so forth.
into the local area), but also and Lastly credit and its availability will
importantly marketing aspects. also need to be considered.

15
 Box 3 The effects of increased poultry enterprises in a local
community

As part of the feasibility study, attention needs to be paid to over influx a local area with
too may poultry enterprises that market products all at the same time. Selling large
quantities of birds and eggs in a small community will inevitably depress prices and all
involved in the poultry supply chain will loose out.

Box 4 Main areas for consideration in a poultry enterprise

feasibility study

• Market demand
• Feed: sources, quality and access
• Water: sources, quality and access
• Production system to adopt
• Housing
• Health care and veterinary assistance
• Poultry breeds
• Credit and access to credit
• Costs and potential profits

■■ Market research and/or in the local village market.

The first step in a feasibility study is However if the intended target
to ascertain market demand as well markets are retailers ( butchers),
as finding out as much as possible large town markets and urban cities,
about markets and importantly for example, the market research will
competition. This involves finding be more time consuming and more
out what prices can be obtained, complex. For example, in the case
what poultry products are on sale, of butchers, it will be necessary to
how many birds and eggs, for find out if others are supplying the
example, are sold, how can markets butcher, what prices are paid, what
be accessed, what transport is quantities are being supplied, how
available, and so forth. often do products need to be supplied,
Market research will be fairly when payments are made, etc.
simple if its objective is to find out Market information is very helpful
the potential opportunities in selling in supporting production decisions,
poultry products to neighbours for example timing schedules for

16
when to introduce new birds to the systems involve improved free
laying flock, optimal flock numbers, range production systems, where
type of feed, etc. Importantly market poultry have a shelter provided,
research cannot guarantee success are given supplementary feed to
and cannot eliminate commercial scavenging and there is some health
risk. Market research can only reduce care provided. Moreover small-scale
risk by supporting decision-making confined systems allow for some
with pertinent information. scavenging to take place, within
a confined area and housing is
■■ Considerations for poultry provided along with feed and water
production in the local area and with more regular health care.
Importantly every small-scale Whatever the production system

Products and profit from poultry

farmer’s situation and context is intended to be adopted, it must be
different. Making estimations on in line with market demand and
the viability of poultry in a local local resource availability and
area requires considerations on accessibility.
such factors as: social and cultural
acceptance of poultry and/or ■■ Feed and water
commercial poultry production and Small-scale farmers need to make
poultry products; the local agro- estimates of feed and water sources
ecological environment; and so in their local area, quantities
forth. available, quality and importantly
access to them. In terms of feed,
■■ Type of production system estimates need to be made about
Estimates will also have to be made supplementary feed, where it can
on what type of production system be sourced from (home grown or
to adopt or expand into as well bought), what ingredients can be
as materials, equipment, labour used in the feed mix and of course
requirements and risks of each its overall cost as related to market
system. Commonly villages have prices for poultry products. This is
free range scavenging birds, which not commonly easy for small-scale
may be provided with occasional farmers and support and assistance
leftovers. This is not a very viable will be needed by advisors.
type of system for commercial Water, its availability, access and
poultry production, clearly pending quality will also need to be estimated
on local demand. More commercial as increasing poultry flocks require

17
greater supplies of water. In some have. This implies making a detailed
instances, water equipment may be estimate of the money required,
needed (drop drinking systems) and the period of the year when money
hence suppliers of such equipment, is required, the various options of
cost and maintenance services will where the money can be sourced
need to be considered. from and understanding interest
rates involved as well as the period
■■ Housing of loan repayments.
Building housing for the poultry
flock will also need to be ■■ Costs and profits
considered. Materials that can be Feasibility of a poultry enterprise
used, their local availability, other mainly rests in the calculation of
equipment that may be needed, estimated costs and expected profits.
such as nests and so forth need to Calculations need to be made for
be all estimated. all production and marketing costs.
Investment costs in the case of a
■■ Health care and veterinary new poultry enterprise involve such
assistance aspects as housing, equipment,
Estimates will need to be made fencing, buying chicks, etc.
on such aspects as required Production costs relate to labour,
vaccinations, regular check-ups feed, water and veterinary costs
and importantly the possibility and medicines. Marketing costs
of epidemics within the flock. typically involve transport, market
Veterinary assistance in the area fees, etc.
will also need to be ascertained as Once costs have been estimated
well as possible access to training in they will need to be compared against
primary veterinary care. market prices and this will provide an
estimate of the profit potential for the
■■ Credit poultry enterprise.
Commonly setting up a small-
scale poultry enterprise is not very ■■ Evaluation of the livelihood
costly at all. However the more the activity
enterprise is commercially–oriented, Profit is clearly an optimal indicator
the more inputs will be required. for evaluating if a poultry enterprise
This type of operation may well is feasible or not. However other
need funds that the farmer does not factors will need to be considered,

18
for example, the willingness and constraining business operation;
motivation of a small-scale farmer to social status of poultry herding, etc.
start the enterprise or expand current Overall the final evaluation needs
poultry operations; required changes to consider all pertinent factors
to the current farming system; discussed so far. The final decision
increased work load on the farm though needs to rest in the realm of
family; women and social factors small-scale farmers.

case study 5 The potential for chicken enterprises in

Afghanistan

Background
A supply chain study of the poultry subsector conducted in 2004 found that 99 percent

Products and profit from poultry

of Afghanistan’s chickens were raised using a “backyard scavenger system,” and
operations were almost exclusively owned by women. High mortality as a result of
disease and low egg production because of poor feeding rendered the productivity
of these chickens insufficient to meet domestic demand for both eggs and meat. As
a result eggs and live birds were being imported from Pakistan and Iran, and frozen
chicken meat from Brazil and the United States of America, to supply about 90 percent
of what was sold in urban markets. Village producers sold what surplus eggs and
live birds they had locally or to traders who transported them to urban markets. There
were also some peri-urban producers using a more sophisticated, semi-commercial
approach to rearing chickens. They marketed products from their home or through
local market channels.

At the next level of the supply chain, the study found urban wholesalers of imported
table eggs and of frozen chicken meat for distribution in urban markets. Urban retailers
of table eggs and frozen meat sold in small stores throughout urban areas. Urban
semi-wholesalers of imported live birds from Pakistan and Iran distributed them in
large central urban markets. Urban live bird retailers were small vendors of imported or
village live birds obtained from semi-wholesalers or village live bird traders.

Potential
There is good market potential for eggs, live chicken, chicken cuts and butchered
chickens produced in Afghanistan for the local market. But careful production planning,
execution and marketing are essential for the success of operations. Several semi-
commercial and commercial ventures have failed in the past few years because of a
lack of technical skills in poultry production; the cost and difficulty of securing timely
inputs such as chicks, proper feed mixes and fuel; and inattention to marketing.

Source: Adapted from USAID.2008. Case study of the poultry and grape/raisin subsectors in
Afghanistan, Microreport No. 106

19
 The livelihood activity

In most rural areas suitable for raised commercially under optimal

poultry production, farmers are conditions will lay between 280 to
already raising their own birds. 300 eggs.
Output of village poultry in terms of
weight gain and number of eggs per ■■ Poultry: Major types and breeds
hen per year is often low, but there
is minimal input in terms of housing, Domestic chickens
disease control, management and The domestic chicken descended

Products and profit from poultry

supplementary feeding. from the Asian jungle fowl. Two
Rural poultry flocks consist types of domestic chicken have been
mainly of chicken, whether in Africa, developed in recent decades, one
Asia or Latin America. With regard for eggs and one for meat. Breeds
to other types of poultry, there are such as the New Hampshire and the
many more ducks in Asia than in Light Sussex were previously used
Africa and Latin America, while the for both purposes. Dual-purpose
number of turkeys, comparatively, breeds are inefficient in competitive
among the regions is highest in Latin commercial markets, but they are
America, followed by Africa and ideal as household chickens; cocks
Asia. Africa leads on Guinea Fowls. are used for meat, hens for both eggs
The most common rural household and meat.
poultry flock in all regions is small Many local breeds are recognized.
and frequently consists of only 3 to They are well adapted to their
5 adult birds, but flocks can of course environments: they can avoid
be larger and consist of many more predators by flying, and the colour
birds. The largest flocks will typically and patterns of their feathers provide
be seasonal duck flocks in Asia that camouflage. Hens’ strong instinct for
scavenge the fields after the rice brooding enables them to hatch their
harvest. A scavenging hen lays only own eggs and mother the vulnerable
30 to 50 eggs per year distributed chicks. They scavenge for food, so
over 3 to 4 clutches, but can lay more, they require little attention. Their
up to 100 with some management meat has a strong flavour that is
interventions. By comparison a hen generally liked by consumers; it is

21
well suited for boiling, a common of Central America. They are now
way of cooking meat. Their eggs raised worldwide; over 50 percent of
often have a light brown shell and a production is in developed countries.
dark yellow yolk which consumers The main breeds are the Norfolk
like. Black, Mammoth Bronze and the
Broad-breasted Bronze. The lighter
Domestic turkeys breeds do well in the dry tropics if
The turkey was probably they are allowed to range and there is
domesticated in Mexico. It was adequate shade and feed.
used as a domestic fowl of Native
American communities in what is Domestic ducks
now the South-western United States The Mallard is generally regarded
of America. Turkey meat is high in as the ancestor of the domestic duck
protein and low in fat; it therefore has except for the Muscovy from South
high nutritional value. Turkeys were America, which actually belongs
introduced into Europe in the 1500s to the goose family. Of the 800
as a result of European colonization million ducks kept worldwide, 550

Figure 8 A chicken and chicks in Nicaragua

(Photo: FAO/PO_NIC_0091/S. Palma)

22
 Products and profit from poultry
Figure 9 A woman farmer feeding a flock of turkeys
(Photo: FAO/ 24710_8313/ V. Maximov)

Figure 10 A woman farmer feeding her ducks in Bangladesh

(Photo: FAO/ 24706_1752/ M.U. Zaman)

23
million are in Asia. Commercially feathers. Domesticated geese
raised ducks such as the Aylesbury descend from the Wild Grey Goose
and Peking are primarily for meat: of Europe and the Swan Goose of
those such as the Khaki Campbell Asia. Domestic geese are much
are for eggs. Local breeds of ducks larger than their wild ancestors
are recognized in many countries. and can no longer fly. Geese are
The Muscovy is an extremely good exceptionally good grazers and will
forager that does well under free- eat large quantities of grass and
range conditions, because it does not herbage, which makes them useful
need much water. The meat of the in many countries where they can
Muscovy contains less fat than other graze in the place of animals such
breeds. as goats that damage crops. For
example in Egypt they are used as
Domestic geese scavengers around villages and are
Geese are raised primarily for meat, also used to weed cotton before
and they also produce excellent insecticides are introduced.

Figure 11 A flock of geese at Red Star People’s Commune near Beijing. This farm
produces 10 000 geese a month for the Beijing market
(Photo: FAO/8859/F.Botts)

24
 The main meat-producing breeds are raised commercially under
are the Toulouse, Oie des Landes, intensive conditions for eggs and
Embden, Roman, American Buff meat. Under village conditions,
and Pilgrim, which descend from guinea fowl usually do not brood;
the European Greylag Goose. The their eggs are hatched under
Chinese breed probably descended domestic chickens. There are well-
from the Swan Goose; it is well known varieties: the Pearl, the
adapted to hot climates and capable White and the Lavender.
of laying 100 eggs per year.
Doves and pigeons
Guinea fowl In countries were doves and pigeons
Guinea fowl originated in West are raised, owners provide overnight

Products and profit from poultry

Africa, but are now raised in many housing and the birds scavenge for
parts of the world although the their food. They are often raised in
numbers raised outside Africa are villages in conjunction with domestic
small. In France and Italy, they chickens and ducks.

Figure 12 A flock of Guinea fowl in Yemen

(Photo:FAO/12194/J. Van Acker)

25
Figure 13 Pigeons while feeding
(Photo: FAO/ 24634_4400 /T. Tinazay)

■■ Essentials of poultry production: Table 1 shows the three production

Housing, breeding and feeding systems. There are also other
At village level poultry production production systems, associated with
systems can be divided into three far more commercialized poultry
different categories: traditional free- production: confined in deep litter;
range; improved free range; and contained with raised floor; and cage
small-scale confined rearing system. or battery.

table 1 Poultry production systems at village level

Village-based poultry production systems

Traditional free-range Improved free-range Small-scale confined

1 -10 birds 5 - 50 birds 50 - 200 birds

Low input Low input High input

Low output Low output High output

Home consumption Home consumption
and sale on local market

26
 table 1 Poultry production systems at village level (Cont.)

Village-based poultry production systems

Traditional free-range Improved free-range Small-scale confined

Small cash income Family income Business income

Social & cultural
importance (gifts, Social importance Little social importance
religious)
Indigenous / imporved Hybrids (broilers or
Indigenous breeds
breeds layers)
High mortality Moderate mortality Low mortality

Products and profit from poultry

Local feeding/semi-
No feeding (scavenge) Balanced feeds
scavenge
Newcastle disease Several vaccination
No vaccination
vacc. schemes

No medication Little med/local remedy Full medication

Houses with cages or

No housing Simple housing
deep liter

30 - 50 eggs/year/hen 50 - 150 eggs/year/hen 250 - 300 eggs/year/hen

Long broody periods Short broody periods No broodiness

Growth rate: 5 - 10 g/day 10 - 20 g/day 50 - 55 g/day

Source: SCC. 2006a. Poultry keeping for small-scale farmers: Book one, management, animal
selection, breeds and feeding, Swedish Cooperative Centre

Traditional free-range local breeds are used. Vaccinations that

In this type of production system the may be administered only occur in the
poultry flock (between 1 and 10 birds) case of widespread epidemics.
is provided with no shelter, feed or In such a production system the
water, even though they may receive flock produces few eggs, which are
occasional scarps from the farmer. commonly hidden, and meat yields
The poultry flock finds its own shelter, per bird are small. There is also a high
avoids predators via its instinct and rate of chick loss as per disease and
breeding is uncontrolled. In this system predators as well as theft.

27
Figure 14 Free-range chickens
(Photo: M. Hilmi)

Improved free range Small-scale confined

Housing is provided for the poultry Small-scale confined systems can
flock, which is comprised of 5 to 50 come in many types and flock size is
birds on average, but commonly only commonly between 50 to 200 birds.
as an overnight shelter and some The main aspect is that the poultry
supplementary feed is provided along flock is sheltered during nights and
side the flock’s scavenging. Breeding unfavourable weather. Some systems
is not controlled, but nesting is allow for fencing where poultry are
provided by the farmer. In this system, free to scavenge in the permitted
local breads are used. In such a system area. In this type of system local
some vaccinations may be provided. breeds are used as well as improved
Here egg production is higher then the breeds. In such a system the farmer
traditional free range and meat yield provides water, feed and care when
per bird is more or less the same, even needed. Here eggs yields and meat
though supplementary feed, pending carcass yields are higher then the
the amounts, can contribute to slightly improved free range production
higher yields per bird. system.

28
 Products and profit from poultry
Figure 15 Improved free-range chickens provided with traditional housing and some
supplementary feed
(Photo: FAO/ 24706_0581/M.U. Zaman)

Figure 16 An example of a small-scale confined poultry production system in Guinea

(Photo: FAO/21776)

29
Confined in deep litter 15 cm deep. The birds are commonly
In this system poultry are confined improved breed and feed, water,
permanently. The floor has a deep nesting, medications and perches are
litter commonly composed of either all provided by the farmer indoors.
wood shaving or hulls from rice and Such a system requires a considerable
wheat, which are good at absorbing investment per bird; yields in eggs
moisture. The litter can be up to about and meat increasing accordingly.

Figure 17 Intensive production of confined chickens in deep litter

(Photo: FAO/3308/G. Tortoli)

30
 Products and profit from poultry
Figure 18 Chickens in a coop with a raised wooden floor
(Photo: FAO/ 24716_0143/W. Astrada)

Figure 19 Gathering eggs from battery egg-laying hens

(Photo: FAO/ 24634_4742/T. Tinazay)

Contained with raised floor difference being that the flock lives on
This production system is similar to a raised floor that is semi-open to allow
that of the confined deep litter, the only for manure to drop to the floor below.

31
Cage or battery various types of buildings, pending
This type of production system is on investments made by the farmer.
only used for egg production. Birds Commonly birds used in such
live in cages and can be placed in systems are improved breeds.

case study 6 Poultry production systems in some countries of

the South African Development Community

Small-scale poultry production in the region is characterized by traditional poultry

keeping which involves free ranging where the birds are left to fend their own feed
and are hardly fed concentrates except kitchen wastes. It is characterized by low (or
zero) input and low output, except in urban and peri-urban centres where commercial
backyard chicken production is practiced. The majority of poultry keepers in this
sector are poor small-scale farmers who usually reside in rural areas. For example in
Mozambique 95 percent of the chickens consumed in rural and peri-urban centres come
from the village poultry sector, and in Zambia and Tanzania it is almost 100 percent. In
many countries the major drawback is high mortality as a result of Newcastle Disease.

Source: Adapted from Kaumbata, W. 2009. Comparison of small-scale livestock production

systems in selected SADC counties

Figure 20 In Bangladesh a vaccinator and poultry expert shows the difference between
the egg from the improved breed of hen and the deshi hen (local breed). The new breed of
hen can lay many more eggs than the deshi hen
(Photo: FAO/12654/F. McDougall)

32
Breed layers, culling unproductive animals
Breed determines the characteristics and not selling too many eggs that
of the bird, for example in terms of are fertile i.e. chick is in development
shank length. Raising the right kind inside the shell.
of bird is crucial to the success of Choosing the right breed is
a poultry flock. The birds must be important pending on the type of
adapted to local conditions and not production required. Birds can be
associated with local taboos. Local duel-purpose (meat and eggs) or can
birds, in many cases, out perform their be only meat and only egg producing.
commercial cousins, commonly in In general terms for chickens, hens
village conditions. Local varieties are for egg production are ‘boat-like’
well adapted, can find their own feed, shaped, while meat producers have

Products and profit from poultry

take care of the young and are good long legs.
at escaping from predators. Local
breeds can be improved by replacing Feed
local cocks with more productive The feed available for scavenging
cocks, so as to avert in-breeding, birds depends on location,
mating only the more productive season and the resources of the

Figure 21 Poultry feeding from new troughs

(Photo: FAO/21775)

33
 Box 5 Feed management good practices

• Local feed ingredients for local breeds

• Knowledge is required of quality, feed value and price and possible changes to
prices of each feed ingredient
• Feed mix should be changed based on availability of ingredients, quality and prices
• Flock size to be reduced in lean seasons and if feed becomes too costly
• Feed changes should be done slowly and gradually
• Feed ingredients need to be mixed uniformly
• Mixed feed and feed ingredients should be stored separately
• Allow for ventilation in storage to avoid humidity
• Ensure safe storage so as to avert rat and other pests from contaminating feed

Source: Adapted from SCC. 2006a. Poultry keeping for small-scale farmers: Book one,
management, animal selection, breeds and feeding, Swedish Cooperative Centre

household (Mekonnen et al., 2010). protects birds from the hot sun, rain,
Supplementary feeding can greatly spells of cold, predators, thieves
improve the birds’ performance and importantly also provides
and the great challenge is to ensure shelter for eggs.
that the feed provided is affordable, The type of housing facility
locally available and provides a built for the poultry flock will
balanced diet. When supplementary depend on local tradition, available
feed is scarce, farmers should be building materials and their cost, and
encouraged to ensure that chicks up importantly if the housing provided
to the age of two months have access will increase commercial returns.
to additional feed; young chicks Houses can be built from wood,
are the first to suffer from feed stone, brick, bamboo, etc. However
shortage and their survival rate will several factors need to be considered
fall. Creep feeders made from local for housing poultry:
materials dispense small quantities
of feed without greatly increasing the • Location: House needs to be
amount given to household poultry. oriented in a way that it is
protected from wind, but allows
Housing for ventilation; prevents too much
Housing of poultry is important for heat from penetrating; and allows
production efficiency and for better for sufficient drainage of wet
management of the flock. Housing floors.

34
• Temperature control: • Moisture control: Controlling
Temperature needs to be moisture inside the house is
considered within the house. important. Humidity that results
Extremes in temperature inside in wet droppings can cause
the house, either too hot or cold disease.
are stressful on poultry; • Space: Adequate space needs to
feed and water that is placed be left per bird as over crowding
in the house also should not be can provide for nervousness,
exposed to temperature pecking and cannibalism.
extremes. Water left for drinking • Roof: Roof needs to be rain
always needs to be clean and proof and protect against
cool. the sun.

Products and profit from poultry

• Insulation: Poultry health • Floors: Floors built will depend
is commonly promoted by on type of production system
insulation that protects from chosen, but overall should be
temperature extremes. built so they are easy to clean and
• Ventilation: To avoid smothering convenient in removing manure.
in birds ventilation is • Protection: House needs to
essential. protect against predators.

Box 6 Ten simple rules for good housing

1. Build houses out of local materials to reduce costs;

2. In wooden houses, use slatted, raised floors to remove droppings and avoid
predators;
3. In clay houses, use wire mesh for the windows to keep out predators;
4. Place the perches and nests inside the house, and make them removable to
facilitate cleaning;
5. Make sure winds will ventilate the house without making chickens or hens cold;
6. Place the house so that heavy rains will not damage or enter the house, and the
sun will not overheat it;
7. Provide nests with clean straw, and make sure that you can easily control, clean,
and move them;
8. Make sure that houses are easy to enter and clean;
9. Always house young chicks with their mother away from other adults;
10. To reduce chick mortality and reduce costs, use baskets for night and day shelter.

Source: Permin, A., Riise, J.C., McAinsh, C. V. & Frederiksen, L. 2007. Keeping village poultry, a
technical manual on small-scale village poultry production, Danida

35
Disease control Newcastle disease (ND) in chicken,
Vaccines and medicines exist, but where commercial ND vaccines can
are not always available for poor prevent the disease in areas with an
households keeping poultry in rural adequate cold chain and in areas
areas. Accordingly the biggest where that is impossible a thermo-
challenge is organizational, i.e. how stable vaccine should be used.
to deliver medicines and vaccines However, there may be other diseases
to rural households in a timely and to account for like fowl cholera and
sustainable manner. The answer lies fowl pox. Duck plague is a common
in keeping an open mind to the ways problem in ducks. Parasites are a
in which the delivery of vaccines problem in both chickens and ducks.
and medicines can be organized Poultry health programmes need
by involving representatives to be set up as prevention is better
from the private sector or NGOs then cure and can avert costly bird
to complement the government’s losses. A programme needs to be
efforts, often by using lay vaccinators. devised that considers: vaccinations;
Important diseases to organize for are blood testing; providing nutritionally

Figure 22 Extension training: an extension worker using didactic material to teach

farmers how to vaccinate poultry against cholera
(Photo: FAO/21491/G. Bizzarri)

36
balanced diets; introducing sanitary to be productive and profitable. Birds
rules for the flock, for example new that are poorly fed, have little access
birds are never directly introduced to water, are not allowed to behave
into the flock; and keeping poultry naturally, are badly handled and live
house and premises clean. in unhygienic surroundings, and have
not been vaccinated and/or treated
Poultry health with some medicines when required,
Health management is not only about are affected by worms and parasites,
looking after diseases and vaccinations, will be inefficient and unproductive.
but it is about an overall management Table 2 below shows the difference in
strategy of birds in a poultry flock. appearance of healthy and unhealthy
Poultry as a business requires birds birds.

Products and profit from poultry

table 2 Appearance of healthy and unhealthy birds

Healthy Unhealthy

Smooth and net feathers Ruffled and loose feathers

Breath quietly Cough, sneeze and breath noisily
Soft and compact droppings Wet droppings or diarrhoea
Eat and drink normally Eat and drink less
Alert Dull eyes and comb
On guard Tired and lifeless
Walk, run, stand and scratch continuously Sit or lie down
Lay eggs normally Lay less or stop laying altogether

Box 7 Overall good management practices for a chicken

enterprise and healthy bird characteristics

Overall management practices:

• Poultry houses that are simply built and easy to clean
• Perches inside house
• Provide day and night nests that are clean
• Check nests two times a day
• Clean poultry house on a daily basis

37
 Box 7 Overall good management practices for a chicken
enterprise and healthy bird characteristics (Cont.)

Overall management practices:

• Provide quality feed
• Unlimited access to clean water
• While feeding separate adult birds from chicks
• Check birds health regularly ( see below)
• Check for worms and external parasites
• Check for feather pecking and cannibalism
• Follow vaccination and treatment programmes
• Isolate sick birds immediately from the rest of the flock
• Cull unproductive birds

Characteristics of a healthy chick:

• Well developed body length and depth
• Shiny, dry, thick coloured feathers
• Soft belly
• Clean, dry navel hollow
• Thick shank with spaced out toes
• Big clear eyes
• Lively behaviour

Characteristics of a healthy growing bird:

• Appears healthy and lively
• Feathers are shiny and not roughed
• Feathers are clean around vent
• Eyes clear and shiny
• Clean and dry beak and nostrils
• Straight legs and toes
• Large size for age

Characteristics of a healthy egg-layer:

• Appear healthy and lively
• Feathering normal for breed
• A red comb ( more coloured when in lay)
• Eyes clear and shiny
• Clean and dry beak and nostrils
• Clean feathers around the vent
• Straight legs and toes
• Less coloured in lay
• Breast bone not too sharp

Source: Adapted from SCC. 2006a. Poultry keeping for small-scale farmers: Book one,
management, animal selection, breeds and feeding, Swedish Cooperative

38
■■ Intensification in poultry instinctively, so replacement stock
production and improved needs to be considered. This in itself
management requires a reliable source of day-old
It may seem that having more chickens or older birds in the case of
poultry may make an enterprise more layers.
profitable, but this is not always Overall improvement in poultry
the case. Care needs to be taken to production, in a cost effective
ensure that inputs and expertise are manner, requires the introduction
available as well as affordable. As the of appropriate management skills,
density of a poultry flock increases and husbandry inputs such as
more sophisticated disease-control supplementary feed, disease control,
measures are required. Improved shelter, community collaboration,

Products and profit from poultry

breeds need good quality housing farmer group formation and the
and feed to produce well. Improved development of effective marketing
hens, for example, do not brood strategies.

Box 8 Keeping track of the poultry business: Record keeping

Every business should keep records on their activities and what they own. In poultry
enterprises this is even more important as tracks need to be kept on births, numbers
in the flock, eggs laid per day, vaccine administered and when, treatments received
and which bird received which treatment and so forth. This will help better manage the
poultry enterprise, reduce costs and improve required interventions. Records need to
be kept on the following:
• Where possible keep a record for each bird;
• Vaccine and medicine: Price, date of purchase, when administered, for what
reasons and the effects it had on the bird;
• Feed and intake: Feed expenditures, quantities, price and date of purchase;
amount of feed intake; weight of bird; rate of egg laying;
• Egg production: Date of hatching of layer; laying percentage and length of laying
period; number of eggs laid per day; egg weight; changes in egg production;
• Meat production; Size of bird; weight;
• Losses: Bird and egg losses;
• Family consumption and gifts: meat and eggs consumed; gifts;
• Income: Sales of meat and eggs; value of meat and eggs consumed and given as
gifts; production and marketing costs (materials for house, laying nests, vaccines,
labour, transport, market fees, etc.).

Source: Adapted from SCC. 2006a. Poultry keeping for small-scale farmers: Book two,
management, animal selection, breeds and feeding, Swedish Cooperative Centre

39
 Sustainable strategies
for the livelihood activity
Simply expanding poultry production ■■ Marketing channels
and/or introducing poultry Small-scale farmers have a number of
enterprises into new localities is options to choose from in organizing
no guarantee of success. A poultry for marketing. They can sell their
enterprise to be successful and earn products direct to consumers and/or
profits requires market outlets where may chose from a variety of marketing
to sell quality produce. This requires organizations that comprise a
planning as estimates need to be marketing channel and/or may choose

Products and profit from poultry

made on egg and meat production in to join a producer organization and
a year and how much can be provided market poultry produce collectively
to markets. It is also necessary to with other farmers.
ascertain who the customers will Small-scale farmers which are
be, the costs involved and the risks not at an excessive distance from
involved in the intended production consumers can carry out direct
and marketing system that will be marketing. However they need to
employed for the enterprise. consider the time involved in direct

Box 9 Poultry products

Poultry meat

Poultry offal

Eggs

Down

Feathers

Manure

Slaughter waste

41
marketing, the costs, skills and devised as they may not only break,
techniques required for marketing as but with excessive exposure to heat,
well as transport. Small-scale farmers for example, while in transit, can
selling directly to consumers can sell compromise their quality.
their poultry products from the farm Indirect marketing is when small-
gate, set up a stall in the local village scale farmers sell their poultry
market, street hawk and also provide products to marketing organizations
door-to-door sales. found within the poultry supply chain.
In terms of direct sales of eggs Commonly this is because markets
to final consumers, small-scale that are being served are at a distance
farmers need to be advised about from the location of the producing
quality and health factors and avert farm. Marketing intermediaries are
breakages and excessive exposure to commonly rural traders, assembly
heat, water and other factors that can merchants, wholesalers and retailers
reduce the quality and safety level of (butchers and street food vendors, for
eggs. However when it comes to live example).
birds and the necessity to carry out
slaughter operations, farmers must ■■ Poultry products
be knowledgeable not only of how to Meat is mostly sold as a live bird,
slaughter birds appropriately, but be so as to enable consumers to verify
aware of safety risks in terms of meat the healthiness of the bird at time
contamination. This may well require of sale. Meat carcasses are also
training support and demonstrations sold, commonly in markets, where
on how to slaughter birds on-farm. butchers and/or street vendors
Transporting live birds to market slaughter the animal at moment of
is a common practice, but more then sale and prepare it for consumers.
often transport conditions of birds Birds that are reared specifically for
are not ideal and arrival at markets meat are marketed between 8 to 20
sometimes reduces the quality of weeks of age. Less than 12 weeks of
the bird as it has broken feathers, age meat is very tender, while from
bruises or has fought with other 16 to 20 weeks meat is less tender.
birds while in transit. Appropriate After 20 weeks meat tends to be
transport methods are fundamental tougher and is usually consumed in
to up hold quality of birds for sale stews or boiled.
in local markets. Eggs also need Commonly in markets for live
to have careful transport methods birds prices are highly variable as

42
 Products and profit from poultry
Figure 23 Women on-farm who have slaughtered and plucked chickens on demand for
immediate sale
(Photo: FAO/18592/G. Bizzarri)

case study 7 Transporting live birds in Kampala, Uganda

The transport of live chickens to urban markets was largely by buses, taxis, lorry
trucks (92.2 percent ) and motorcycles (Bodaboda) (7.8 percent ). Traders of Nakawa,
Nakasero and St.Balikuddembe had their chickens transported on taxi racks and in bus
boots. For Kalerwe market, most of the chickens were transported using motorcycles.
This was because the source of local chickens was within Kampala and Badaboda
motorcyclists could agree to offer transport services.

Source: Adapted from Emuron, N., Magala, H., Kyazze, F.B., Kugonza, D.R. & Kyarisiima, C.C.
2010. Factors influencing the trade of local chickens in Kampala city markets, Livestock Research
for Rural Development 22 (4)

they depend on: demand, which for normally command a higher price
example can be very high during then improved breeds and the
festivities; size of bird; appearance; demand for local birds is increasing
colour; and weight of birds. For as consumers view them as haven
example, in the case of chickens, been reared on feed that is free
cocks normally command a higher from antibiotics and ‘promoters of
price then hens. Local breeds growth’.

43
Figure 24 Poultry being sold in a market in Togo
(Photo: FAO/ 24722_0392/ G. Napolitano)

case study 8 The influence of price on market participation of

small-scale poultry farmers in Kenya

Over 70 percent of the domesticated birds in Kenya are indigenous chicken providing
meat and table eggs. They are frequently raised through the free range, backyard
production system. Small flock sizes are a characteristic of this production system
and often, sales are mainly at the farm gate. Although indigenous chicken production
possesses enormous potential marketing systems are undefined and variable. The
influence of prices on market engagement has frequently been assumed. A study of 68
farmers conducted in Machakos, Kibwezi, Nzaui and Mwala District in 2008 revealed
that 70 percent of all indigenous chicken sales were conducted at the farm gate while
only 19 percent of the sales were at the local market. Farmers complained of poor farm
gate prices for indigenous chicken offered by middlemen.

Source: Adapted from Mailu, S. & Wachira, A. 2009. The influence of prices on market
participation decisions of indigenous poultry farmers in four districts of Eastern Province, Kenya,
Munich Personal RePEc Archive

44
 In more developed settings Eggs need to be marketed as soon
where a refrigerated supply chain as possible, while still fresh, if
is available, poultry meat can be refrigeration is not available. Eggs
marketed in slaughtered form. need to be kept out of direct sunlight
Under these conditions meat can be and away from sources of heat. To
sold: dressed (slaughtered, bled and minimise breakages eggs need to
plucked); eviscerated and ready to be packaged appropriately in egg
cook; poultry parts (legs, wings, etc.); trays preferably, but if these are not
and boned (muscle, fat and skin only). available in other suitable packaging
Meat can also be cooked and sold; as materials, for example banana leaves,
for example, by street food vendors in boxes with saw dust or wood
(see FAO Diversification booklet No. shaving or chopped dry grass. Eggs

Products and profit from poultry

18 Selling street and snack foods). sold are either fertile or non-fertile
Poultry eggs are sold far more eggs. However non-fertile eggs are
frequently then live birds and hence usually found more in peri-urban and
provide a more regular source of urban areas, more than in rural and
income for small-scale farmers. remote areas.

Figure 25 Fried chicken for sale in Thailand

(Photo: FAO/24511/D. White)

45
Figure 26 Selling eggs using egg trays
(Photo: FAO/ 24632_0761/S. Nelson)

Eggs from local breeds are more easily characterised and codified.
expensive even though they are Such quality features are appraised
smaller then eggs from improved in relation to species, sex and age.
breeds. This is because consumers see Aspects related to such standards
local eggs as being more wholesome are: conformation (the shape of the
and thus demand is high. carcass); fleshing (muscles are full
and well developed, assuring a good
■■ Quality and safety proportion of meat to bone); fat (fat
Live birds for sale in markets, and under skin is important because it
along the poultry supply chain, are gives the carcass a light appearance by
not sold based on formal quality covering up the pink or red muscles
standards. Grading is commonly underneath); skin dislocations, tears
carried out visually with buyers and cuts; and bruises.
identifying age, weight, condition of Consumer acceptance of poultry
feathers and breed. Formal grades meat varies depending on its
exist for poultry meat carcasses tenderness, flavour and juiciness.
as quality features can be more Live birds need to appear healthy,

46
clean, have no missing or displaced considers such factors as cleanliness,
feathers, bare skin and cuts, and soundness (unbroken), smoothness
broken bones. Birds with these quality and shape. Internal quality is usually
characteristics commonly need to carried out by ‘candling’ i.e. placing
be managed properly while rearing: the egg in front of a source of light and
appropriate feed, water, housing, inspecting the yolk. Quality yolk is
vaccinations, medications and allowed round and firm.
to behave in a manner that does not Upholding egg quality depends
go against their natural behavioural on numerous factors. These factors
patterns. Moreover, and as mentioned are good overall management of
previously, while in transport to the flock, breed, age, the quality and
market, birds need to be placed in safety of feed and water provided,

Products and profit from poultry

crates and/or baskets that are not disease control, housing and of
overcrowded, allow for air circulation course appropriate collection and
and overall are handled appropriately. handling of eggs. Temperature control
Eggs are more easy to grade is a critical factor while marketing
formally, even though in many eggs, as if exposed to excessive
markets traditional grades are heat and humidity, egg deterioration
used as parameters to define will accelerate rapidly. Appropriate
quality. Commonly found quality packing is also important in
characteristics consider shell, yolk and temperature control and for handling
albumen. For example shell quality and other marketing operations.

case study 9 Quality attributes as perceived by chicken

traders in Uganda

Traders gave different reasons as to the qualities considered by consumers when

purchasing local chickens. More than half of the traders (56.7 percent) perceived taste
as the main attribute that attracts consumers to local chickens. According to the traders,
local chickens were also thought to be drug free when compared with their exotic
counterparts. Traders also asserted that some of their customers considered local
chickens as having a vital role in socio-cultural functions, for which exotic chickens
were not acceptable. Consumers were reportedly willing to pay more money for the
purchase of local chickens.

Source: Adapted from Emuron, N., Magala, H., Kyazze, F.B., Kugonza, D.R. & Kyarisiima, C.C.
2010. Factors influencing the trade of local chickens in Kampala city markets, Livestock Research
for Rural Development 22 (4)

47
 Eggs that are dirty usually obtain can benefit from joining together into
lower prices then clean eggs. Eggs associations. Commonly this will
have a natural coating that protects reduce costs and increase income for
it from bacteria and moisture small-scale farmers, but appropriate
penetration. Eggs that are washed organizational management of its
remove this coating and cleaning activities is required. Costs can be
eggs via rubbing with a cloth or fine reduced via bulk buying of inputs
sandpaper lightly is more appropriate. such as feed, equipment, chicks and
Small-scale farmers that market so forth. An association, for example
safe and quality poultry products tend may have the opportunity of buying
to gain a reputation in local markets a feed mixer that prepares feed and
and thus have consumer preference. hence can then be distributed to all
members. Associations may also have
■■ Producer organization better access to finance and hence
Small-scale farmers involved in provide loans to its members and in
poultry production and marketing some cases at more favourable rates.

Figure 27 Nine hundred and eight-three hens in this chicken cooperative farm produce an
average of 600 eggs a day, which are sold in the market in El Progresso, Honduras. Profits
are shared among the cooperative’s members
(Photo: FAO/12385/F. Mattioli)

48
 In terms of marketing, inspection and grading operations
associations have more bargaining thus increasing the possibility of
power with buyers as they are obtaining higher prices for products.
organized, can provide more In some instances associations may
quality poultry products, have also be able to buy equipment for
greater quantities and offer more slaughtering and refrigeration, which
reliable and constant supplies. will allow serving new and more
Associations may also carry out distant markets.

Products and profit from poultry

49
 Support services to promote poultry

■■ Institutional role road system can encourage travel

Fostering an enabling business between rural and urban areas
environment is a central role that and help small-scale farmers to
needs to be played by the public sell their poultry products in more
sector. An enabling business distant markets.
environment supports and facilitates, The public sector can also foster
for example, trade and fosters new more private sector involvement in
trade opportunities. Providing terms of providing support services,

Products and profit from poultry

institutional support to businesses is for example in business training.
also another public role. For example
reducing paper work and taxes for ■■ Access to support services
business registration encourages Support services to be of value in
formalization of enterprises. The developing small-scale farmers and
passing of legislation and provision their poultry enterprises need to be
of a regulatory environment that importantly accessible. This means,
favours and supports small-scale for example, that small-scale farmers
poultry enterprises is another role not only can afford them, but also that
that the public sector needs to be support services are in proximity of
involved in. production areas. Moreover services
The public sector is commonly provided require sustainability:
the provider of infrastructure services are provided for the long-
such as roads and water services. term and resources and planning are
Telecommunications in many devoted to this goal. There is little or
countries is mostly now privatized. any use in having services up front
However the public sector still that only operate efficiently and
provides rules and regulations for effectively for a short period of time
this sector. Such infrastructure and then cannot continue as a result
and its services are important for of lack of resources. Services need to
business development in general be seen from a long term perspective
and for small-scale poultry and importantly consider the need for
enterprises in particular. For constant improvements and updating
example, a reliable and well-kept of services.

51
 Information dissemination through breeds, but also in terms of better
training and extension is one of negotiation with buyers in formal
the fundamental aspects of support supply chains and so forth.
services. This is fundamental as, for Contract farming is another option
example, research and development that can support farmers in their
may have improved some local breed access to markets. Contracting has
and extension is a viable manner in been implemented in many countries,
which to distribute such knowledge. but has to be treated with care since
Communication technologies, especially the types of contract might fail to
wireless communications, should also have a clear benefit for small-scale
be considered as a viable option, farmers. Market information services
especially for rural and remote that provide information on prices
regions, in distributing knowledge. and quality requirements, transport
Media can also be very effective in information, etc., are also another
making services sustainable and way of enabling access to markets.
accessible, radio is a prime example Importantly infrastructure, in terms
of this. of communications, roads, water,
markets and so forth, is yet another
■■ Access to markets way to allow small-scale farmers to
Formal supply chains within access markets.
countries use commercial breeds that Promoting the benefits of poultry
are not usually accessible to small- meat and egg consumption at national
scale farmers. Local bird breeds do level can also be an effective way of
not meet the required criteria and thus supporting small-scale farmers and
cannot be part of a formal developed increase chances of market access.
poultry supply chain. Promoting
market linkages is an important ■■ Technical training
element for small-scale poultry as For poultry production and
very often small-scale farmers have management many countries have
difficulty in entering formal supply considerable traditional knowledge
chains and need to be supported. and skills. Technical training needs
Supporting farmers’ organizations, to recognize these skills and build
commodity associations and the like on them in order to increase the
can be one effective way of enabling likelihood of improving skills and
market access by providing small- capacity of small-scale poultry
scale farmers not only with improved producers.

52
 One constraint in technical training have been very successful in the
is not only the lack of appropriately past and have given some promising
trained extension staff, but time results. The PFFS approach is based
devoted by extension workers to on a ‘learning-by–doing’ approach
farmers. Typically extension workers where farmers learn directly in the
need to cover large rural areas and ‘field’ working with poultry and each
have a full schedule. One way to avert activity that they carry out involves
the constraints in contact time between action, observations, analysis and
extension worker and farmers is to then taking a decision. The aspects
provide for farmer group technical considered do not only focus on the
training and encourage farmer-to- ‘how’ but importantly on the ‘why’.
farmer training from the cadre of initial Further information on PFFSs can be

Products and profit from poultry

farmers trained. In this particular case found in the Selected further reading
Poultry Farmer Field Schools (PFFSs) section of this booklet.

case study 10 Disseminating information to poultry farmers

In most developing countries, the poultry subsector does not receive due attention
from agricultural policy-makers (including livestock specialists). Small-scale poultry
farming is not yet regarded by many researchers, development or extension workers
as an area of importance in terms of political significance or scientific prestige (Guèye,
2000). Yet, there is a strong need for governments, non-governmental organizations,
international agencies and donors to provide all people interested or involved in the
subsector with institutional support by promoting easy access to relevant information.

Training, education and extension in poultry are channels for spreading information
on new technologies among poultry-keeping farmers (Kassal, 1998; Branckaert
et al., 2000; Guèye, 2003a). Unfortunately, extension services in many developing
countries are not effective, when they exist. Training and education are difficult and
time-consuming tasks (Guèye, 2002b), although they are essential if farmers’ skills are
to be improved (Huque, 1996; Branckaert and Guèye, 2000).

Small-scale poultry farmers, especially women producers, tend to be fluent only in local
languages (i.e. their mother tongues and, in some cases, other local languages) and
generally cannot write. In addition to being illiterate, many of them are also innumerate
(Guèye, 2003c). Women’s needs for information are to be structured according to their
gender roles and responsibilities (Aitkin, 1998). All these factors should be taken into
account in deciding which information dissemination methods to use.

53
 case study 10 Disseminating information to poultry farmers
(Cont.)

Unconventional methods for information dissemination need to be used. For example

word-of-mouth, theatres, songs, traditional communicators/singers/troubadours and
‘learning by doing’ are to be preferred, and simple extension messages must be used.
Some interesting results from this approach have been obtained in Mozambique
(Alders and Bagnol, 2000). Other historically alternative methods must continue to be
explored and promoted in order to achieve broad dissemination of information and the
effective uptake of the most suitable innovations/interventions.

Since farmers, especially women producers, undertake many other activities, meetings
to share information must be brief and frequent. They must be scheduled in those
periods of the year when target groups are not involved in other duties, although this is
a challenging exercise. Furthermore, campaigns for the elimination of illiteracy are to
be recommended whenever possible.

Source: Adapted from Guéye,E.F. 2009. The role of networks in information dissemination to
family poultry farmers, World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 65

■■ Business skills training ■■ Veterinary services

Improved technical training will Poultry flocks are vulnerable to
hopefully increase poultry production diseases and especially in the last
yields in the intent of having more years to global pandemics. Improved
products to sell in markets. In this breeds tend to be more susceptible
realm small-scale farmers will to disease then local breeds and
also need appropriate training in have less resistance to weather and
marketing as well as in business climatic vagaries. To avert reduced
management. Such competencies are productivity and loss of birds as a
commonly acquired with a ‘learning- result of disease, vaccination and
by-doing approach. Very much like medicines are required. However the
PFFSs where small-scale farmers lack of public veterinary staff and the
learn via action, observations, high costs of private services have
analysis and then taking a decision, provided to be a major constraint for
training in business and marketing poultry enterprise commercialization.
needs to be carried out in very much Preventative treatments, such as
the same manner for it to build keeping housing facilities clean,
business management and marketing providing a well balanced feed
capacity in small-scale farmers. mix and potable water can help in

54
supporting health within poultry If, though, the enterprise needs to
flocks. Vaccinations though are also become more commercial some
required and need to be administered. investments will be required, for
Here is commonly where example in fencing for confinement,
veterinarians are required to support improved housing and so forth. This
small-scale poultry production, but may be out of reach for small-scale
also small-scale farmers trained in farmers’ financial resources and
poultry health ( para- veterinarians) hence will require credit.
can provide services not only to their For many small-scale farmers
flocks, but also to those of other formal credit and credit products
farmers. are not available. Often financial
The public sector is involved in institutions see poultry farming as a

Products and profit from poultry

regulation, preventive veterinary highly risky enterprise and hence may
services, feed safety standards, not loan at all or if they do will provide
research, laboratory work and some loans at high interest rates. The
aspects of training. The private public sector needs to promote and
sector is mainly responsible for create an enabling environment that
clinical veterinary services and also allows private financial institutions
for some aspects of training. Clinical to provide credit profitably even to
services can be supplied by fully small-scale farmers. It also needs to
qualified veterinarians, by veterinary promote tailored loan packages that
assistants or by community animal can support poultry farmers and in
health workers or para-veterinarians general the small-scale agricultural
as discussed previously. This three sector. In parallel to this though,
tier system can be very effective saving programmes need to be
in reducing costs of health care, promoted. This will ‘relieve’ birds
making them more affordable to all from being seen as ‘small savings
and bringing health care closer to the accounts’ and producers will develop
community. a clearer focus on productivity of
their business and the respective
■■ Financial services marketing options.
Small-scale farming at subsistence
level rarely needs to be financed as ■■ Market information
input costs are minimal to start an Market information is important
enterprise and well in reach of small- for all those involved in the poultry
scale farmers financial resources. supply chain. However in many

55
countries market information is Support is also required in terms of
not widely distributed and this can business management of producer
impede trade development and organizations and can be provided
appropriate allocation of margins via training and mentoring services.
along the poultry supply chain. Promoting and facilitating
Regular collection of market commodity associations, including
information on such aspects as prices all interested players in a supply
and quantities traded, for example, chain (farmers, traders, assemblers,
and its dissemination on a timely butchers, etc.), will enable more
and regular basis, can support the ‘voice’ for the sector and its
development of a more effective development as well as contribute to
and efficient poultry trade. It enables market development. On a national
small-scale farmers to decide on basis these associations can be turned
whether to expand, contract or keep into a national poultry association
poultry production constant. It also that assures the different stakeholders
enables a more equitable distribution are heard within decision-making
of returns as players in the supply processes influencing the sector.
chain are more informed and hence
have a better bargaining position ■■ Supporting women poultry
as well as facilitating contractual producers
agreements. Market information A particular focus needs to be given
can also support and help in terms to women when considering the
of reducing trade risk and improve development of the poultry sector
identification of target markets for and its small-scale enterprises within.
small-scale farmers. Women are commonly responsible
for poultry raising, but may face
■■ Organizational options barriers, such as cultural and social
As is well documented producer barriers, for example that do not allow
organizations provide many benefits them to participate actively in the
to small-scale farmers. Support commercialization of their produce.
is required in not only enabling Sensitization programmes, along with
small-scale farms to join existing women-based training in improved
organizations, but also facilitate production practices, business
the creation of such organizations management and marketing can
in areas where they do not exist. support the development of women

56
in the poultry sector. Promoting and • Provide marketing advice as
facilitating the formation of women’s well as information on pricing,
groups can provide a wide range of marketing channels, sources of
benefits that can help them not only market information, etc.;
improve production know-how, but • Advise on opportunities,
importantly give them more ‘voice’ challenges and risks;
within the sector. • Advise on marketing
improvement programmes and
■■ Role of the advisor plans;
The role of the advisor to support • Facilitate and promote
small-scale poultry enterprises is the formation of producer
indispensable as they can be catalysts organizations;

Products and profit from poultry

in operationalising all other efforts • Provide information on
to support the sector as well as legislation
provide important information on
such aspects as market opportunities,
sourcing of input supplies such as
feed and so forth. The main aspects
that an advisor can cover to support
small-scale farmers in their poultry
enterprises are:

• Provide an overview of the

poultry sector in a country;
• Advise small-scale farmers on the
potential opportunities that can
derive from poultry production
and marketing;
• Advise on where inputs can be
found, the prices, quality, etc.;
• Where credit can be obtained, the
interest rates, payback periods,
etc.;
• Aspects related to technical
matters in poultry production;

57
 Challenges

■■ Poultry health ■■ Sustainable support services

Providing animal health services for all
for small poultry flocks in rural The increasing costs of services over
and remote areas is a challenge as time and the lack of investments in
the government veterinary service many services by the public sector
in many countries is of limited often does not allow them to survive
outreach. in the long run. This often calls
for a retrenchment in services and

Products and profit from poultry

■■ Access to veterinary services hence services have a limited reach
Vaccines and medicines do exist, but in remote and rural areas. This in
are commonly not available in rural turn impedes access to such services
and remote areas. The challenge by many rural small-scale poultry
is twofold: distribution of vaccines farmers, while small-scale farmers
and medicines with affordable in peri-urban and urban centres
prices in rural and remote areas that have better access. Over time this
is sufficient to enable access to them makes rural small-scale farmers less
by small-scale poultry farmers; the competitive then their peri-urban and
costs of such a distribution system urban counterparts.
do not make it unprofitable for
private companies marketing such ■■ Local skilled trainers
products. As a result of budgetary cut backs
in many public support services,
■■ Access to financial services including extension and training
In most countries, governments have services, in many rural areas it is
handed over provision of financial difficult to find staff that has been
services to the private sector. However provided with training in the latest
as a result of costs in serving widely technical skills in poultry production.
dispersed rural customers in remote This challenge of disseminating
areas means that many small-scale improved technical information and
farmers have difficulty in accessing knowledge results in local poultry
financial services and their financial production being less efficient and
products. competitive.

59
■■ Training materials ■■ Enterprise sustainability
dissemination Poultry enterprises like any other
Conducting trainings and business enterprise needs to generate
distributing training materials in profits over time to be able to remain
remote and rural areas is a challenge in business. Some of the profits
as its costs are high as a result of earned also need to be reinvested in
dispersed small-scale farmers. This the enterprise so as to keep it efficient.
has become even more of a challenge Commonly prices vary considerably
as governments have cut back on in local poultry markets and hence
public services in recent years, even this variability requires careful cost
in terms of public radio broadcasting. control and management in terms of
poultry production and marketing.
■■ Infrastructure Access to reliable and accurate
Efficient marketing is frequently market information is often another
a problem, especially for poor, challenge that does not allow poultry
women headed households. In many producers to identify and target
situations there is a need to improve markets that offer more opportunities
infrastructure like roads and market and better profits. Further, as a result
stalls as well as communications of public spending cut backs, poultry
where mobile phones as well as producers cannot be trained in
broadcasting of market information business management and marketing
can help farmers to obtain fair prices. matters. All these factors sum up to
make business sustainability a major
■■ Gender challenge for small-scale poultry
In some countries there are cultural producers.
and social barriers to sensitization
programmes and training sessions ■■ Organizing producers
organized for women who raise Organizing widely dispersed small-
poultry. This is one of the biggest scale poultry producers in rural and
challenges as commonly women remote areas is not an easy task.
are in the majority of countries It requires some initial funding,
poultry producers. This hampers meetings to take place among
all attempts to increase production producers, travel time and costs,
skills and competencies as well as and good communications among
those involved in marketing poultry small-scale farmers. It also requires
products. motivation and consistency to be

60
able to keep the organization going to favour only one player in the
once it has been set-up. This requires supply chain. However small-scale
funding as well as good management poultry producer policies should
practices, especially in terms of strengthen and develop local markets
financial management. with adequate product quality
assurance, without undermining the
■■ Public policy development of large-scale poultry
Legislation passed to support an production facilities and related
agricultural sub-sector such as poultry destination markets. Further many
and in particular to support small- small-scale farmers have typically
scale farmers can be a challenge. This numerous problems in coping with
may be seen by others involved in the legislation related to health and food

Products and profit from poultry

poultry supply chain as an attempt safety standards.

61
 Selected further reading

ACIAR. 1999. Measurement and maintenance of duck and hen egg quality
in Vietnam, Research Note No. 23, Australian Centre for International
Agricultural Research, Canberra, Australia.

Agricultural Training Board. 1982. Handling turkeys, England.

Ahlers, C., Alders, R., Bagnol, B., Cambaza, A. B., Harun, M.,
Mgomezulu, R., Msami, H., Pym, B., Wegener, P., Wethli, E. &

Products and profit from poultry

Young M. 2009. Improving village chicken production: A Manual for Field
Workers and Trainers, Australian Centre for International Agricultural
Research, Canberra, Australia.

Ahuja, V., Dhawan, M., Punjabi, M. & Maarse, L. 2008. Poultry based
livelihoods of rural poor: Case of Kuroiler in West Bengal, South Asia Pro-
Poor Livestock Policy Programme, NDDB & FAO.

Alders R.G. & Spradbrow P.B. 2001. Controlling Newcastle disease in

village chickens: a field manual, ACIAR Monograph No. 82, Canberra,
Australia.

Alders, R.G. & Spradbrow, P.B. 2001. SADC Planning Workshop on

Newcastle Disease Control in Village Chickens, In ACIAR Proceedings,
No. 103: Proceedings of the International Workshop, Maputo, Mozambique,
6-9 March 2000,.

Alders, R.G., Spradbrow, P.B., Young, M.P., Mata, B.V., Meers, J.,
Lobo, Q.J.P. & Copland, J.W. 2001. Improving rural livelihoods through
sustainable Newcastle disease control in village chickens, 10th International
Conference of the Association of Institutions for Tropical Veterinary
Medicine, Copenhagen, 20-23 August, Abst, C-9.

63
Alders R., Anjos F. dos, Bagnol B., Fumo A., Mata B. & Young M.
2002. Controlling Newcastle disease in village chickens: a training manual,
2nd edition, ACIAR Monograph No. 86, Canberra, Australia.

ARC-LNR. 2001. Fowls for Africa: Bringing poultry Production to the

people of Africa, South African Agricultural Research Council, Animal
Improvement Institute, Irene, Republic of South Africa.

Attfield, H.H.D. 1990. Raising chickens and ducks, VITA.

Branckaert, R.D.S., Gaviria, L., Jallade, J. & Seiders, R.W. 2000.

Transfer of technology in poultry production for developing countries, Paper
XXI World Poultry Congress, Montreal, Canada, 20-24 August.

Cagauan, A.G., Branckaert, R.D.S. & Van Hove, C. 1998. Rice-duck

farming in Asia: increasing its production potentials by integration with
fish and the nitrogen-fixing fern Azolla, Paper 1st INFPD/FAO Electronic
Conference on Family Poultry, 7 December 1998.

Dolberg, F. 2003. Review of Household Poultry Production as a Tool

in Poverty Reduction with Focus on Bangladesh and India (Available at
http://www.fao.org/Ag/againfo/programmes/en/pplpi/docarc/
wp6.pdf).

Dolberg, F. & Petersen, P.H. 1999. Poultry as a Tool in Poverty

Eradication and Promotion of Gender Equality, Proceedings of a
Workshop conducted in Denmark (Available at http://www.fao.org/
docrep/004/AC154E/AC154E00.htm#TOC ).

Downes, A. 1999. A guide to Guinea fowl farming in Malawi, UNDP/

Department of National Parks and Wildlife, Lilongwe.

Dwinger, R.H. 2006. Improving farmyard poultry production in Africa:

Interventions and their economic assessment, International Atomic Energy
Agency, Vienna.

64
Emuron, N., Magala, H., Kyazze, F.B., Kugonza, D.R. & Kyarisiima,
C.C. 2010. Factors influencing the trade of local chickens in Kampala
city markets, Livestock Research for Rural Development 22 (4).

FAO.2010. Poultry meat and eggs, Rome.

FAO. 2006a. Guide for the Prevention and Control of Avian Flu in Small
Scale Poultry, Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean,
Santiago.

FAO.2006b. Preparing for highly pathogenic avian flu, FAO Animal

production and health manual No. 3, Rome.

Products and profit from poultry

FAO.2004a. Technology review: Newcastle disease with special
emphasis on its effect on village chickens, FAO Animal Production and
Health Paper No. 161, Rome.

FAO. 2004b. Small-Scale Poultry Production: Technical Guide, Rome.

FAO. 2003. Egg marketing. A guide for the production and sale of
eggs, FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin No. 150, Rome.

FAO. 2002.Goose production, Rome.

FAO.1998a. Village chicken production systems in rural Africa:

household food security and gender issues, FAO Animal Production
and Health Paper No. 142, Rome.

FAO.1998b. Poultry, women and development: old ideas, new

applications and the need for more research, World Animal Review No.
91, Rome.

FAO. 1998c. Epidemiology, diagnosis and control of poultry parasites,

FAO Animal Health Manual No. 4, Rome.

65
FAO. 1997. Raising ducks 2, Further improvement: A larger flock,
Better farming series No. 40, Rome.

FAO. 1990. Raising ducks 1, How to begin, Better farming series No. 39,
Rome.

FAO & NDDB. 2008. Poultry based livelihoods of rural poor: Case of
Kuroiler in West Bengal. South Asia Pro-Poor Policy Programme,
National Dairy Development Board of India and FAO, Rome.

Guéye,E.F. 2009. The role of networks in information dissemination to

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 Sources of further information
and support

Networks

International Network for Family Poultry Development:

http://www.fao.org/ag/AGAinfo/themes/en/infpd/home.html

Danish Network for Smallholder Poultry Development:

Products and profit from poultry

http://www.ivs.life.ku.dk/Om-instituttet/IVS%20Development/
Network_for_Smallholder_Poultry_Development.aspx

Household Poultry Enterprise – Asia

http://www.aphca.org

Kyeema Foundation – International Rural Poultry Centre:

http://www.kyeemafoundation.org/index.php

Other sources of information

FAO – Pro-Poor Livestock Initiative:

http://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/programmes/en/pplpi/home.
html

Fowls for Africa:

http://www.arc.agric.za/home.asp?pid=2611

Livestock Research for Rural Development:

http://www.lrrd.org/

Pro-Poor Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Risk Reduction:

http://www.hpai-research.net/index.html

71
Smallstock in Development:
http://www.smallstock.info/index.htm

South Asia Pro-Poor Livestock Policy Programme:

http://www.sapplpp.org/

Tropical Animal Health and Production:

http://www.springerlink.com/content/0049-4747

VETAID:
http://www.vetaid.org.uk

Vétérinaires sans Frontières:

http://www.vsf-france.org

World’s Poultry Science Journal:

http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayJournal?jid=WPS

Donor agencies supportive of rural poultry programmes

Asian Development Bank:

http://www.adb.org

African Development Bank:

http://www.afdb.org

Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR):

http://www.aciar.gov.au

Australian Agency for International Development (ausAID):

http://www.ausaid.gov.au

Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA):

http://www.danida.dk

72
Department for International Cooperation – UKAid (DFID)
http://www.dfid.gov.uk/

Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO)

http://www.fao.org

International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)

http://www.ifad.org

The World Bank

http://www.worldbank.org

Products and profit from poultry

73
Notes
Traditionally poultry is found in many communities the world over
and can be, with adequate support, training and investment, a
viable commercial enterprise for many small-scale farmers. As a
start-up, poultry does not require large capital investments and
labour needs are not excessive. Poultry can provide for a good
source of nutrition for the farm family and an income source,
which does not depend on the harvest cycle common to crops.
Moreover poultry provides a number of important products, such
as meat and eggs as well as important and complementary
services for farm crops and other livestock. All in all poultry is an
easy enterprise for small-scale farmers to diversify into.

The booklet is aimed at raising awareness and promoting poultry

as a business to all those who are involved in supporting small-
scale farming and rural development in general.

ISBN 978-92-5-107064-2 ISSN 1810-0775

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