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STRUCTURE magazine
 Contents
Cover Feature

NOVEM BER 2020

Columns and Departments

Editorial Keeping the Public Safe – How Far
Must We Go? By Richard C. Boggs, P.E., SECB

Construction Issues Warehouse Checklist for Success

By Kurt Voigt, P.E., and Ben Pitchford, P.E., and Stephnie Reddick

Structural Quality Quality Structural Welding

and Fabrication By William C. LaPlante

Structural Practices Transferring Loads in

Existing Buildings By Ciro Cuono, P.E.

Structural Systems Lightening the (Dead) Load on Floors

By Tim Liescheidt, P.E.

Community Resilience A New Challenge

to the Practice of Structural Engineering
By Bruce R. Ellingwood, Ph.D., P.E., John W. van de Lindt, Ph.D.,

INNOVATIVE DESIGN USING and Therese P. McAllister, Ph.D., P.E.

COMPOSITE STEEL JOISTS Outside the Box Utility-Scale Photovoltaic Power Plants
By Michael Martignetti, P.E.
By Sumanth Cheruku, P.E., and Matthew T.L. Browne, M.Eng, P.Eng
The 121 Seaport Boulevard building incorporated a unique
design dictated by site challenges, costs, and an open concept
In Every Issue
with minimal columns. At the core of this beautiful building are
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CJ-Series composite steel joists rather than a typical composite
NCSEA News
beam design. Cover photo courtesy of Bruce T. Martin SEI Update
Photography for Skanska USA. CASE in Point
Resource Guide – Software Updates

Feature
SHORING THE UNSHORABLE
By Roya A. Abyaneh, P.E., and Edward S. Breeze, P.E.

A case study of rooftop cooling tower support structure repairs

highlights common but challenging obstacles and solutions.
Temporarily shoring the tower’s load to accommodate reinforcing
and/or replacement of supports can be challenging.

November 2020 Bonus Content Additional Content Available Only at – STRUCTUREmag.org

Business Practices Market Trends – Succeeding Into 2022 By Kacey Clagett

Response to October 2020 STRUCTURE Structural Failures Article By Jason B. Lloyd, Ph.D., P.E., Robert J. Connor, Ph.D., P.E., and Karl H. Frank, Ph.D., P.E.

Publication of any article, image, or advertisement in STRUCTURE® magazine does not constitute endorsement by NCSEA, CASE, SEI, the Publisher, or the Editorial Board. Authors, contributors, and advertisers retain sole responsibility for the content of their submissions.

NOVEMBER 2020
 EDITORIAL
Keeping the Public Safe – How Far Must We Go?
By Richard C. Boggs, P.E., SECB, LEED AP

W e live in a society that tends to react to the latest threats found how to apply them effectively. At that time, I recall hearing a virtual
in the most recent news cycle. A terrorist boards a plane in guarantee that the northeast would experience a significant seismic
Paris in 2001 with an explosive in his shoe, and passengers must event in the subsequent twenty years, and the alarm was sounded to
remove their shoes before boarding planes for decades. A sociopath be ready. Of course, thirty years later, this has still not happened for
enters an elementary school in Connecticut in 2012 and shoots who- most of our region, but the majority of engineers in the northeast
ever crosses his path. As a result, school design is forever changed to accept that the risk was real and remains so.
incorporate security features that were not imagined decades earlier. One of the first buildings I designed under the new 1989 code was
Did we not know this could happen? a single-story school addition. The adjacent main wing of the exist-
As structural engineers, we are in the business of managing risk. The ing school was a four-story unreinforced concrete masonry bearing
states that grant us licensure entrust us to make decisions that result wall structure built in the 1940s. There was no International Existing
in a built environment that is safe Building Code (IEBC) at that time,
for its occupants. But how is safety but the BOCA Code did contain a
defined? Most engineers would chapter that addressed renovations of
answer that safe design equals existing buildings. The renovations
conformance with the building Should design professionals contemplated in this area were clearly
code. But the building code is a be responsible for failure to anticipate not sufficient to mandate seismic
minimum standard only, and is retrofit. With my knowledge of the
the result of a series of compro- conditions not previously experienced poor performance of unreinforced
mises between various stakeholders and, therefore, not prescribed masonry bearing wall structures in
whose objectives can be in con- earthquakes, I presented what I felt
flict. This results in documents that by building codes? was a sound argument to the proj-
aspire to the public’s protection but ect manager (a co-worker in my A/E
recognize economic realities that firm) to take steps to introduce duc-
can defy the certainty of that result. tility to the existing structure. When
The risks addressed by the code can he asked whether the building code
only reflect past experience. But mandated such a retrofit, I gave the
what about future risks? How can those be determined and incorpo- honest response that it did not, and he elected not to bring the issue
rated into building codes? Should design professionals be responsible to the School Building Committee for consideration.
for failure to anticipate conditions not previously experienced and, The Code of Ethics in the Connecticut P.E. Regulations states, “The
therefore, not prescribed by building codes? engineer… shall at all times recognize his or her primary obligation to
One extreme example of this was the twin towers of the World Trade protect the safety, health, and welfare of the public in the performance
Center, destroyed in 2001. The towers’ design actually did consider of his or her professional duties.” In that context, I look back on this
the impact of an airplane, but not a fully loaded jet operating at full experience and others like it and wonder if this was an appropriate
speed, bent on destruction. Following this disaster, much was written response. How would I feel if that old portion of the school collapsed
about the performance of the structures and fire protection systems, in a moderate earthquake? How would I respond to the parents of
resilience of egress paths, etc. Building codes were modified to apply children lost in the collapse if they asked why a structure known to
the lessons learned. Similarly, the bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah perform poorly in an earthquake was permitted to be used as a school?
Federal Building in Oklahoma City in 1995 led to changes in codes and As structural engineers, do we demand the application of logic (and
prescriptive design procedures for government-funded projects intended cost) beyond what the building code requires? I have always felt that
to prevent progressive collapse. But progressive collapse was not an I had a sound legal argument by meeting the standard of care in this
unknown phenomenon before the destruction of the Murrah Building. case, but is that really enough?
Should this have been a design consideration, even though it was not On the west coast, there have been efforts to be more proactive in
mandated by code when the building was constructed? Hindsight is addressing pre-existing conditions that pose significant seismic haz-
always 20/20, but the potential scenarios one can imagine are limitless. ards. Still, even there, such efforts face opposition due to costs and a
I was a young structural engineer in the late 1980s when seismic loads perception that such actions may be discriminatory. These types of
first became a design consideration in the northeastern US states. In discussions are lacking in the northeastern states. Unfortunately, this
Connecticut, the 1987 Building Officials and Code Administrators debate will probably have to wait until an actual earthquake,
(BOCA) Code, with the 1988 Supplement, was adopted in October and its resulting death and destruction, makes the case on
of 1989, and henceforth earthquakes became a design consideration the nightly news for a more proactive response.■
for new buildings and renovations designed in my state. In prepara-
Richard C. Boggs is a Senior Project Manager at Fuss & O’Neill in
tion for these changes, seismologists and structural dynamics experts
Trumbull, CT, and Director on the NCSEA board. His 38-year career
were dispatched to educate the structural engineers in the northeast
includes a wide range of structural renovations and retrofits.
about these provisions, why they were appropriate in our region, and

STRUCTURE magazine N O V E M B E R 2 02 0
 construction ISSUES
Warehouse Checklist for Success
5 Factors for Joist and Deck Specification
By Kurt Voigt, P.E., and Ben Pitchford, P.E., and Stephnie Reddick

T he growth of e-commerce has bolstered warehouse and distribution center construction, with new project starts
forecast to increase in 2021. Here are 5 areas where collaboration between the specifying engineer and the joist/deck
supplier improves construction efficiency, shortens project timelines, and reduces total project costs.

joists are designed for compression in the top chord and tension in the
RTU Loads bottom chord, and constant positive and negative shear in the web
Often, the structural drawings for a warehouse will only gener- members, to account for varying load locations and potential stress
ally indicate the presence of a rooftop unit (RTU) on the roof reversals no matter where shear may occur within the joist. All web
plan. Not specified is the unit’s distance to a column line or the members, except the end diagonal webs of a KCS joist, are engineered
end of a joist. This information is not often known at the time to resist 100% of the published shear capacity applied in tension or
the Design Drawings are released for bidding or construction. compression. The result is a very strong joist engineered to support
Whatever the reason, the lack of specificity about the location RTU and other mechanical loads at any panel point along the joist.
of mechanical equipment will trigger a request for information KCS-Series joists are ideal for warehouses with multiple loads by way
(RFI) cycle. The joists cannot be engineered and manufactured of conveyors, catwalks, and suspended processing equipment. The
until the specification is made clear. To avoid this delay, the project cost of a joist will be higher due to the increased steel content. But,
engineer has options. in addition to the avoidance of prolonged RFI’s and potential project
delays, the specification of KCS-Series joists gives the building owner
Option A: Specify General Location
the flexibility to, at a later date, add or move loads along the joist span.
Suppose you know that the RTU will be located within the first 10
feet along the length of a particular joist. In that case, this is usu-
ally enough information for the joist manufacturer to proceed. Joist
Expansion Joints
estimators and engineers know to strengthen the joist to support the For larger warehouses, expansion joints, sometimes called “slip joints,”
RTU placement at any panel point along that 10-foot section of the allow for thermally induced horizontal shifting of a large section of
joist. The additional cost for material is nominal compared with an roof joist girders, joists, and steel deck relative to another section. For
exactly located unit within that zone, and far offset by the expediency expansion joints to perform properly, the specifying engineer must
of keeping the project moving. allow for adequate seat depths at the slide bearing locations. Doing so
will permit the differential movement between the adjoining roof areas.
Option B: Specify a KCS Joist
Allow for Joist Seat Depth
KCS-Series joists are modified K-Series joists built to address constant
shear and moment resulting from gravity loads along their spans. KCS As shown in Figure 1, if the joist seat depth is too shallow, the
diagonal end web of the sliding
joist girder will be impeded by
the column cap plate, with the
risk of structural damage during
thermal movement. Given the
proper joist girder seat depth, the
joist engineer can address the full
range of anticipated thermally
induced horizontal movements at
each expansion joint. The Steel
Joist Institute’s (SJI) Standard
Specification 100-2015, Table
5.4-3, can be used to determine
the minimum seat depth required
to accommodate the anticipated
amount of slip. The minimum
“RP” value to use in the table
equations should equal the sum
of anticipated forward and back-
Figure 1. Expansion joints. ward slip amounts, plus:

STRUCTURE magazine
 • ½ inch for K-Series joists,
• 2 inches for all LH-Series, DLH10-17, and joist girders
with a self-weight ≤ 50 plf,
• 4 inches for all DLH18-25 and joist girders with
a self-weight > 50 plf.
So, a joist girder weighing 60 plf, requiring +/- 1.75-inch slip, requires Figure 2. Wall thickness.
a minimum “RP” value of (1.75-inch x 2) + 4 inches = 7.5 inches.
Entering Table 5.4-3 with RP = 7.5 inches results in a minimum
seat depth, D: The printed issue contains
D = RP + 4 inches (for joist girders) an error in this calculation
D = 7.5 inches + 4 inches and has been corrected in
D = 11.5 inches (round up to 12 inches) all digital copies.
Figure 3. Account for jogs.

Tilt-Up Walls
Tilt-up walls are frequently used on warehouse projects for efficient
construction, but the expedience gained will be diminished when
dimensional considerations related to the steel joists and roof decking
are not clearly called out in the structural drawings.
Wall Thickness
Concrete tilt-up walls are first poured as horizontal slabs to create
panels. Each panel is typically fabricated with embedded steel plates to
support and attach the steel joists and/or joist girders. The panels are
poured on-site and tilted vertically to establish the warehouse walls.
The steel joists and joist girders are soon added to tie the structure Figure 4. Wall location.
together; but, for the joists to properly fit-up with the tilt walls,
the joist engineer needs to know the wall thickness. Wall thickness face is dimensioned from the adjacent column centerline, changes in
dimensions are sometimes completely missing from the structural panel thickness made by the precast contractor during their design
drawings. Other times, the dimensions are only partly indicated, will not affect the joist or joist girder lengths. This helps avoid length
such as when walls with varying thicknesses are not clearly called discrepancies that are costly both financially and to the erection sched-
out or when panels that have reveals are not clearly detailed. But, as ule. It also helps avoid RFI delays when uncertainty exists related to
shown in Figure 2, when these dimensions are clearly detailed in the panel thicknesses or wall face locations.
structural drawings, accounting for any variations, no related time is
Note the Bearing Conditions
lost in the engineering of the joists.
The clear specification of the bearing conditions for the joist and joist
Account for Jogs
girder connections to the tilt-up walls will avoid costly connection
Tilt-up walls sometimes have “jogs,”
at which point two panels lap or offset
each other to create a jog in the face of
the panels. The structural drawings fre-
quently do not indicate the dimensions
for these offsets, including the “gap.”
But when these dimensions are called

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out, as shown in Figure 3, the joist engi-
neer loses no time determining the exact
length of the joists. Manufacturing can
be underway, and the joist detailer can
include precise details to the erector for
the proper fit-up of the joists on-site.
Show Wall Location
Typically, one face of the wall, inside or
outside, will be located relative to the
adjacent column centerline. This infor-
mation needs to be called out in the
structural drawings, as shown in Figure 4,
regardless of which face of the panel is
dimensioned. Dimensions to the inside
face of the wall are the most critical for
joist length. When the tilt panel’s inside

NOVEMBER 2020
 Figure 5. Uplift forces. Figure 6. Uplift zones.

issues. Connections include members bearing on a precast haunch specifying engineer and erector, the sequences were reduced to 18.
on the wall face, in a wall pocket, on the face of the wall with an On another project, multiple cranes operating simultaneously were
embedded plate shear connection, or on a steel embed angle on aligned with joist and deck sequencing to opposite ends of the
the face of the wall. Leaving these connections unknown will pre- building, thus keeping two erection crews moving efficiently toward
dictably delay the project schedule and increase the potential for the middle. And, as happens on projects when the sequencing of
coordination issues. a warehouse changes, it is relatively easy to adjust – provided the
organized joist and deck sections do not change (e.g., SEQ 1 =
column lines 1-8).
Uplift Forces Too often, this is not how it goes, as many erectors can report.
Without a clear sequencing plan upfront, the joists and deck will
Show Net Uplift
arrive in bulk. The erector will lose time shaking out each truck,
RFI delays can be avoided by clearly specifying the uplift per the factors sorting and transporting the correct pieces to the appropriate loca-
shown in Figure 5: A) Indicate the wind uplift pressures required for the tions of the building. Sequencing can also be disrupted by decisions
design of the steel joists and joist girders separately; B) Indicate whether made late, after the joist drawings are submitted for approval. A GC
wind uplift is net or gross; C) State whether the wind uplift values may change the sequencing to satisfy the precast company’s request
were determined using LRFD or ASD load combinations. Unless the to deliver the walls batched to match the tilt-up schedule. Or the
structural drawings specifically state the joists are to be designed using erector may decide late that the joists, decking, and bridging for a
LRFD or ASD, the joist manufacturer may use either. It is helpful for high roof should be delivered first, having realized late that there
the structural drawings to include a note indicating the roof dead load was not enough lay-down room on-site for the entire joist order.
used to calculate the net wind uplift, in case the manufacturer needs When these changes to earlier planned sequencing occur, joist and
to convert from LRFD net pressure to ASD, or vice versa. Generally, deck delivery time is disrupted. Pieces must be manually pulled,
the full design dead load is not used to determine the design net wind re-organized, and re-identified. The disruption also impacts other
uplift, since that dead load includes allowances for equipment and project stakeholders, including the owner, as re-sequencing elevates
other incidental loads that may not be present at all areas of the roof or the potential for material supply errors, inefficient erection, delayed
for the life of the building. Net uplift pressures on warehouse projects occupancy, and lost revenue.
are typically specified using service level (ASD) net uplift, but the joist
engineer cannot assume this. An incorrect assumption can lead to over-
design, or even worse, an under-designed joist and joist girder system.
Conclusion
For many larger warehouse projects, the steel joists, joist girders, and
Show Uplift Zones
decking comprise a significant percentage of the structural material.
If the uplift values are given for different “zones” (i.e., interior, perim- The most frequent constraints to successful project delivery, related
eter, corner), then a diagram of the zones, including the dimensioned to joist and deck, are well known and documented in this article.
widths of each zone, must be provided on the structural drawings, Early collaboration among the supplier, specifying engineer, erector,
as shown in Figure 6. Do not simply show an undefined “a” dimen- and GC to address these constraints will prevent confusion,
sion, as it is a code level determination that should be made by the project delays, unnecessary costs, and assure the building
specifying engineer while specifying the uplift. owner the earliest possible occupancy.■

Project Sequencing Kurt Voigt ([email protected]) and Ben Pitchford

Efficient joist and deck sequencing go hand-in-hand with efficient ([email protected]) are Engineering Managers at New
warehouse construction. Millennium Building Systems. Stephnie Reddick is a scheduler for
The authors recently participated in a large project initially the company. ([email protected])
specified to have 126 sequences. By collaborating early with the

STRUCTURE magazine
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 structural QUALITY
Quality Structural Welding and Fabrication
A Rigorous QMS, Human Performance Attributes, and Training
By William C. LaPlante

W eld quality is the bedrock of structural welding execution

as described in American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)
specifications, and American Welding Society (AWS) Codes D1.1,
D1.2, and D1.6. The term “quality” represents “conformance to a
specification” where the term “specification” refers to the require-
ments of a code, drawing, or contract. Weld quality is not inspected
into a structure or weldment but is the result of production process
improvements. Businesses engaged in seismic structural fabrication,
American Society of Mechanical Engineer (ASME) Section III nuclear
component fabrication, or ASME Section VIII pressure vessel fabrica-
tion, understand this philosophy. Engineering endeavors exist where
weld failure is not an option without placing undue risk on human Figure 1. AWS Code D1.1 structural steel welds on galvanized steel – galvanized
coating was not removed prior to welding. Numerous welds were rejected due to
life, the environment, or property. Quality of welding workmanship
unacceptable profiles and poor workmanship.
is not a catchphrase. Substandard weld quality cost lives. Also, it
represents waste as the result of liability lawsuits, warranty repair or a Procedure Qualification Record (PQR). Also, appropriate training
replacement costs, and lost revenue due to expensive rework or repairs needs to be provided for welders and all other personnel engaged in
(Figure 1). Quality welding is a critical component in the fabrication activities that affect weld quality. Welders are directly engaged in the
of safe, dependable, and trustworthy structures. This article focuses “arcs and sparks” and have the most significant impact on weld quality.
on achieving quality structural welding and fabrication. If visual weld discontinuities occur during welding, welders bear the
responsibility to stop and seek support in determining the root cause
as opposed to continuing to weld (Figure 2). To achieve First Time
Quality Management System Quality structural welds, control production costs, fabricate safe and
Quality does not come from inspections alone, but in conjunction with reliable structures, employ a well-executed QMS, and continuously
production process control improvements. A Quality Management System maintain welders’ training and qualifications.
(QMS) focuses on the welding process as opposed to after-the-fact inspec-
tions. Employing process controls is the method by which weld quality
is built into a structure. Monitoring and controlling process parameters,
Quality Welding and Inspection
qualifying welding procedures, calibrating equipment, training, inspec- Weld inspection remains a vital and necessary component of a QMS.
tions, and maintaining records are all part of the process controls regimen. The role of AWS Senior Certified Welding Inspectors (SCWI),
Weld inspections remain a vital and necessary quality component. Certified Welding Inspectors (CWI), and American Society for
However, inspections alone cannot be depended upon to improve Nondestructive Testing (ASNT) Level II/III inspectors is to perform
weld quality. Whether on a construction job site, in a manufacturing weld inspections to determine if the weld meets acceptance criteria
facility, or in a fabrication job shop, the utilization of process controls of the applicable code, specification, or drawing. Weld inspection
and nondestructive testing (NDT) methods are crucial parts of an is a serious responsibility for all inspectors. For example, although
overall QMS. Within a QMS, process validation is required where the principal function of AWS SCWIs and CWIs is to perform
processes need to be validated before production via a test resulting in visual weld inspections, inspectors also review test results of inspec-
tions performed by ASNT Level II/III inspection crews. In addition,
SCWIs and CWIs review welder qualification test records, welding
procedure specifications (WPS), weld maps, drawings, etc., as well as
being engaged in maintaining inspection documentation, performing
fit-up inspections, verifying weld filler metals, or observing post-weld
heat treatment (PWHT).
For a given project, a customer’s weld specification may supersede an
industry welding code by specifying more restrictive weld acceptance
criteria (e.g., weld toe fatigue blending criteria, beam coping criteria, or
workmanship quality). The customer or general contractor sets the tone
of a project by conducting pre-project briefings that detail acceptable
workmanship quality expectations using photographs, representative
work examples, illustrations, and more. The goal of pre-project brief-
ings is to “calibrate” welders, inspectors, quality assurance engineers,
Figure 2. AWS Code D1.2 structural aluminum welds. Welds were rejected due to and supervisors so pertinent personnel understand the level of welding
unacceptable profiles, overlap, and poor workmanship. workmanship quality expected. The customer is the “Final Inspector.”

STRUCTURE magazine
Hence, it is essential to set the quality standard and
establish expectations before project welding, noting
that mediocre or marginal quality of welding work-
manship will not be acceptable (Figures 3 and 4 ).

Quality of Welding Workmanship

The following are key human performance attributes
that are contributing factors in achieving premium
welding workmanship quality. Ultimately for busi-
nesses, the core values and the prevailing paradigm is
such that craftsmanship represents a culture, as behavior
and a way of thinking.
1) Attitude: Taking pride in one’s personal per-
formance. Being self-motivated to provide
solutions to tasks.
2) Accountability: Taking ownership of work/
performance. Producing and delivering a supe- Figure 3. Bad lighting or paint cannot hide Figure 4. Machined groove weld on an AWS Code
poor, structural steel welding workmanship. D1.2 structural aluminum weldment. The weld was
rior product because the work reflects you.
rejected due to cracking and voids.
3) Workmanship: Employing skill/proficiency
with which a task is performed – applying 6) Professionalism and Integrity: Being honest and trustworthy
garnered experience. Having zero tolerance for rework and and doing what is right in the absence of oversight. Wanting
repairs due to poor work practices. to do top-of-the-line work the right way, the first time, or not
4) Teamwork: Collaborating with others to improve project at all (Figure 5, page 14 ).
performance. Encouraging an environment of inclusion and
constructive brainstorming to improve the overall work plan.
5) Knowledge and Training: Seeking opportunities to train
Avenues for Welder Training
and mentor others in the area(s) of your expertise. Seeking There is no substitution for a welder’s proficiency skills and training.
self-development via continuous education and training to Proficiency skills are developed and perfected through practice. Some
become an expert. companies have established training centers to provide hands-on and

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 access to welding or fabrication instruction. The U.S. military has
welding schools, and there are veteran welding training programs
accessible by way of companies, organizations, and unions. Select
unions, such as the Ironworkers, Boilermakers, and the Pipefitters
unions, offer apprenticeship programs that combine classroom instruc-
tion with on-the-job training. Regardless of the type of hands-on
training, classroom instruction, and teaching received, knowledge is
accumulative and never wasted.

The House of Weld Quality

The House of Weld Quality (Figure 6) symbolizes philosophies,
principles, and actions essential to quality structural welding and
fabrication. The objective is to uphold the structural integrity of the
House by not compromising weld quality. The House is constructed
on the Foundation of Weld Quality, a QMS such as ISO 9001. A
Figure 5. AWS Code D1.6 structural stainless-steel welding craftsmanship: Left and QMS is the House Foundation whereupon the Pillars of Fundamental
Center: Interpass and cover pass welds (mechanized GTAW) on 1.25-inch-thick Welding Knowledge and Workmanship Quality Principles arise. The
plate (1G position). Right: A manual GTAW hot pass (2n d pass) weld bead on a pillars support the roof, Conformance. Conformance includes the
1.5-inch-thick plate (3G position). requirements of a project’s Codes, Drawings, Contracts, and more.
The House of Weld Quality is structurally “sound” only as long as the
company’s quality system is robust, and everyone involved is vigilant
in improving production effectiveness and efficiency through prevent-
ing, correcting, and eliminating opportunities for errors, deficiencies,
and non-conformances that transpire throughout fabrication. A QMS
employs a proactive and predictive process approach (e.g., auditing,
reviewing inspection results, and continuously improving the process)
versus a reactive approach. Inscribed on the House walls are quality
structural welding and fabrication tenets.

Conclusion
Weld defects are not free and come at a burdensome cost. A welder
makes weld defects and is being paid for making them, as well as
to repair them, and an inspector is being paid to re-inspect for
them. Therefore, the importance of comprehensive welder train-
ing cannot be overstated. Quality is a business philosophy where
the House of Weld Quality exemplifies requisite quality structural
welding and fabrication criteria. To achieve quality structural
welding and fabrication, a rigorous QMS infrastructure is essential
Figure 6. The House of Weld Quality symbolizes philosophies, principles, and where training, in-process monitoring, process controls, auditing,
actions essential to quality structural welding and fabrication. inspections, and more are aimed at improving production effec-
tiveness and efficiency by preventing, correcting, and eliminating
classroom instruction so that welders can practice and acquire essential opportunities for errors, deficiencies, and non-conformances that
skills and knowledge required to work in fabrication departments. occur throughout fabrication.
Comprehensive welding schools such as the Lincoln Electric Welding What does this mean for you? Understanding how quality can and
School, the Hobart Institute of Welding Technology, and the Tulsa should be built into a product rather than corrected after the fact can
Welding School are well-recognized schools where welders learn help the practicing engineer better represent the owner, and ultimately,
proficiency skills and knowledge. Also, various other private/public better safeguard the general public. This can be accomplished through
vocational and technical schools are available for welding personnel to development of more quality-focused general notes and specifica-
attend. Welding schools provide hands-on, practical training coupled tions, targeting quality in pre-construction meetings, and
with classroom instruction where welders can learn the fundamentals responding knowledgeably to requests from fabricators or
of welding as well as associated practices. The AWS Certified Welder erectors about such quality directives.■
Program provides welders with experience using welding procedures
employed in structural steel, pipeline, sheet metal, and chemical A list of acronyms is included in the PDF version
refinery applications. of the article at STRUCTUREmag.org.
Furthermore, AWS offers online courses related to the science,
equipment, process variables, consumables, safety precautions, and the William C. LaPlante is a Welding Engineer, SCWI and CWE, in
advantages and disadvantages of individual welding processes. Online Anchorage, Alaska.
courses are becoming increasingly prevalent in terms of providing

STRUCTURE magazine
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 structural PRACTICES
Transferring Loads in Existing Buildings
By Ciro Cuono, P.E.

E ngineering schools routinely train young engineers in new systems

and materials to prepare them to enter the workforce. However,
renovations and adaptive reuse of existing buildings are often over-
requires more significant
open space.
Today, the design engi-
looked or omitted in an already packed undergraduate schedule. The neer or engineer of record
reality of construction today is that there is a high probability that most (EOR) would typically
engineers will, at some point in their careers, work in some capacity first determine the feasi-
on an existing building. Especially in dense urban environments, or bility of the element to
in the older parts of the country with a large stock of existing struc- be demolished and design
tures, it is often a better use of resources and more respectful of the the transfer re-support
environment to reuse and adapt an existing building. of the existing elements.
For structural engineers, one exciting and relatively common aspect of The engineer would then
renovations and adaptive reuse of a structure is when a design requires design and detail the new
the transfer of loads from an existing element to a new element. This permanent elements and Figure 1. Screw jack set up in preparation for
can be in the form of SCR or “shore, cut, and reframing” of horizontal may provide information a shore, cut, and reframe scenario.
gravity framing from an existing element to a new element or trans- and direction on the phasing, sequencing, and means of temporary
ferring vertical gravity loads from a load-bearing wall or column to support necessary to install the new framing condition. Due to the
a new transfer element. These alterations often occur when framing prevalent practice of leaving the “means and methods” of construc-
for new stair, elevator, or escalator openings where existing beams are tion to the construction team, which provides for a clear delineation
shored, cut, and reframed into new girders. Other examples include of responsibilities, it often becomes the responsibility of the General
1) cutting openings in existing bearing walls and transferring the load Contractor to retain their own structural engineer to develop the final
to a new transfer beam to create a larger open space below, and 2) design of the temporary works and transfer mechanism, develop a
cutting a column and transferring the load to new transfer girders to Method of Procedure (MOP) for the work, and oversee the installa-
create a larger opening below or to relocate the vertical elements at tion of the temporary works.
the floors below. Adaptive reuse of a building that modifies use and Guidance for the design of temporary works and load transfer mecha-
occupancy must take into account a column rhythm that may have nisms is limited. ASCE Design Guide 37, Design Loads on Structures
made sense in the existing building but does not necessarily make during Construction (ASCE 37), is an excellent resource for computing
sense with the new use. For example, an office building with a regular practical design loads for temporary structures. ASCE 37 provides the
grid of columns may not readily lend itself to an exhibition space that minimum recommended design loads for temporary works; however,
there may be some uncer-
tainty of actual loads in older
pre-war buildings framed
with archaic structural sys-
tems that then warrant higher
factors of safety. Additionally,
strength design may not be
the governing case, especially
in older buildings with brit-
tle finishes that may require
strict deflection criteria
wherein the strength design
is a secondary consideration.
Many practical aspects of this
type of work rely heavily on
the experience of working
with similar structures as
well as the knowledge of the
fundamentals of structural
behavior and the ability to
identify and visualize load
paths correctly. These skills
can be learned from other
engineers and experienced
contractors who have accu-
Figure 2. Detail for temporary screw jack set up. mulated this knowledge.

STRUCTURE magazine
Figure 3. View looking up at a needle shoring scenario. Figure 4. Needle shoring setup. In this scenario, the needle beams are cantilevered
from the inside due to site logistics.

top can be with clamps, welding to existing steel beams, or spikes

Shore, Cut, and Reframe fastened to wood beams. Calculation of the loads on the beam to be
SCR is a common abbreviation in modifications to existing buildings. supported is routine, and ASCE 37 provides guidance on temporary
Simple gravity framing that is to be temporarily supported, cut, and construction live loads. The existing supporting element(s) at the base
then reframed into a new element such as a girder or load-bearing wall can be validated with routine design checks, again, using ASCE 37
can often be supported with adjustable screw jacks with clamps. An for guidance, by temporarily reducing live loads to construction live
adjustable screw jack is a vertical load-carrying member that extends loads. Spreading the load out on heavy timber cribbing over an area
to fit different lengths or heights so it can resolve a variety of situations can keep the subsequent pressure reaction to the existing documented
and can be reused. A typical version of this is a steel pipe column with live load capacity (Figure 2). In an extensive renovation, where the floor
a threaded bar extender with a wing nut locking mechanism (Figure 1). beams being supported have been stripped of finishes, and the area is
Generally, these are intended for light to medium duty installations unoccupied, the shoring can be installed and the existing elements can
and vertical gravity loads only. Support at the base is usually with be cut and reframed to the new supporting elements without concern
hardwood spreader beams and/or wood cribbing while support at the for cracking finishes. However, where working below occupied spaces,

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 Figure 5. View of rear wall with needle shoring. Note the shoring at the window openings. Figure 6. Needle shoring through a brick wall.

including those with brittle finishes, the adjustable screw jack can be to a base such as the ground or temporary footing or spreaders
slightly overtightened to provide pressure or pre-loading to the ele- (Figure 3, page 17 ). The needle beams, when adequately spaced, sup-
ment to be supported, before making the cut, to mitigate deflection port the masonry wall above through the natural arching action of
and potential cracking. Where lateral stability considerations are well-bonded masonry. This allows the wall to be safely removed below
necessary, diagonal bracing, using pre-manufactured pipe bracing the needles for the installation of new permanent support elements.
with clamps, works well with adjustable screw jacks. Where loads are The needle beams should be designed for strength and local stiffness
high, or heights are significant, it may be necessary to design custom requirements, as well as strict deflection requirements, as mentioned
shores, for example, with hollow structural sections (HSSs). Forged above. The procedure generally requires masons to make small open-
wedge shims can be used to achieve pre-loading. ings through the wall, one at a time, to allow the beam to be pushed
or “needled” through. The space around the beam, within the open-
ing, is then packed tight with grout and shims for load transfer
Needle Shoring Masonry Walls (Figure 4, page 17 ). Generally, any window openings above are shored
Renovations and adaptive reuses may call for creating new or wid- with temporary timbers to maintain an even load distribution and
ened openings in existing stone or masonry walls. Designing a new to stiffen the openings so as not to put any undue stress on window
permanent transfer beam is often the easy part of such endeavors. elements and lintels, particularly if they are stone (Figure 5).
For load-bearing masonry, steel beams are typically used for their Since the arching action requires conservative assumptions, like
strength, ease of modification, and combustibility considerations. Per needle spacing at 2 feet to 3 feet on-center, the vertical support
the Masonry Society’s TMS-402-16, Building Code Requirements for columns below the needle beams create a logistical problem for a
Masonry Structures, the deflection of beams providing vertical sup- contractor to bring in the new permanent steel. As a result, the new
port for unreinforced masonry should be limited to the span, L, over steel should be fabricated and brought to the site before the full instal-
600. The trickier part of this design is determining and detailing the lation of the needle shoring. This allows for workers on the site to not
phasing, sequencing, and means of temporary support to re-support have to meander through a sea of temporary shoring columns, but
the wall onto the new permanent beam system. Where new openings rather simply raise the new transfer beam since it is already waiting
are modest in size and the existing wall is robust, such as multi-wythe on-site in position for installation. Otherwise, it may be impossible
brick with interlocking header or rowlock courses, it may be possible to erect the new permanent beam around the newly installed shoring.
to chip out one side and install a new steel channel header. This allows The transfer of load from the wall to the needle beams always creates
the rowlock courses to temporarily transfer the load to the remaining the risk of cracking brittle materials like masonry even if the beam
solid half of the wall below; the process is repeated on the other side. deflection is held to L/600 on the new permanent support beam.
This approach precludes the need for temporary shoring and is simply Where this is a concern, pre-loading of the new permanent beam can
a sequenced installation of the new transfer beams in a clever way to be achieved by installing tapered shims between the beam and the
save the cost of temporary works. This solution is not recommended wall or, more precisely, via a hydraulic jacking system.
for long spans, heavy loads, or relatively weak and thin walls. The hydraulic jacking system is a simple set up where portable
Another method to achieve a wall opening is to design temporary hydraulic lifting jacks are installed between the new permanent
transfer beams, commonly a pair of channels that are installed on both beam and the installed needle beams (Figures 6 and 7). The idea
sides of the wall above the proposed new opening. This is intended to is to pump hydraulic fluid into the jacks, which then extend and
temporarily bridge the load of the proposed new opening so that the impart an equal and opposite reaction above and below. The reac-
opening can then be safely made and the new permanent transfer beam tion imparted below to the new permanent beam causes the beam
installed. In this method, the wall load is transferred to the temporary to deflect. The reaction imparted above counteracts the existing
channels via adhesive anchors, through bolts in the masonry work, weight above. Based on experience, pre-loading to 80 – 90% of
or by cutting the wall out in small sections and installing plates or the realistic dead weight from above has produced excellent results
tubular sections in small lengths to the underside of the channels. in the author’s practice. More than this could lift the wall, and less
However, for heavier loads and longer spans, the optimal method than this may not be fully effective in achieving pre-loading. A
tends to be needle shoring. Needle shoring is a colloquial term used good way of handling this is to determine 1) the deflection that the
to describe a series of steel beams that are inserted or “needled” permanent beam would see from the new load, and 2) the resulting
perpendicularly through a wall and then supported vertically down pressure in the hydraulic gages.

STRUCTURE magazine
 Once the jacks are pumped, the pumping would stop when either
the deflection or the pre-determined pressure has been achieved. The
deflection can be measured via a laser level. The jacks should each be
tied to a gage and tied to a central manifold with a gage so that the
total pressure and any individual pressure can be monitored. If all goes
according to plan, the small amount of actual pre-deflection cannot
be detected without a measuring tape or ruler. Once the pre-loading
or pre-deflection has occurred, the needle beams can be removed,
and the remaining holes can then be bricked solid to the permanent
pre-loaded beam, one at a time.
The key to a successful operation is careful, robust preparation. If
the work is done well, at the end of jacking, which may only last a
few minutes, an anti-climactic moment occurs where nothing hap-
pens. For older materials with uncertain properties and uncertain
field conditions, the jacking work must occur when no other work
is happening. This allows a team member to listen for any cracking
noises and continuously monitor the existing wall and framing for Figure 7. Needle shoring in a masonry wall with a hydraulic jack.
any cracks or signs of trouble. A preconstruction meeting, and a
checklist for all parties to review, helps to ensure a successful outcome
by avoiding mistakes and keeping all parties safe.

Removing Columns
Most load transfers in older masonry buildings are generally guided
by practical considerations and simple engineering calculations with a
heap of conservatism to keep problems from arising. Far from rocket
science, the processes described above are familiar to any engineer
working on older buildings.
In contrast, removing a column from an existing framed building,
usually steel or concrete, is a more complicated endeavor. A scenario
such as adaptive reuse, say an older office building being converted
to a museum or event space, may necessitate some column removals
to achieve a new architectural layout.
The basic concept for the safe removal of an existing column is
similar to the needle shoring process with hydraulic jacks. The
idea is that a new transfer girder or pair of girders needs to be pre-
loaded and pre-deflected so that when the column below is cut,
the pre-loaded and pre-deflected girders want to rebound up. The
remaining column above wants to drop down with equal and oppo-
site forces. This cancellation of forces should result in theoretically
zero movements, which, in an existing occupied building, would
be the measure of success. See Figure 8 for a schematic setup of a
jacking assembly.
Figure 8. Schematic section at column jacking assembly.
The division of design labor would follow the usual separation of
permanent design by the EOR with the means and methods to be
designed by the contractor’s engineer. In a steel-framed building, an method-of-procedure are critically important. Control of deflections
effective transfer mechanism is to use pairs of transfer girders that flank through pre-loading is a simple and effective way of dictating how
the column to be removed. A steel jacket can then be designed around the structural components are to behave to avoid sudden movements
the existing column. The hydraulic jacks are set between the transfer and unwanted cracking.
girders and the temporary jacket. This allows the jacking to force the Similar to other aspects of a construction project, the design, detail-
girders down using the weight of the column above as a reaction point. ing, and follow-through for the means and methods of transferring
Each component of the jacket must be checked for the transfer of load. load is a team effort that requires planning and communication with
all parties. Perhaps even more than in new construction, a shared
understanding of the end goal combined with ongoing collaboration
Conclusion between the designer, the contractor, and the contractor’s
The design of new buildings is basically static. New beams and specialty sequencing/means and methods engineer is the
columns are designed for theoretical loads that may happen at very key to success.■
infrequent intervals, and the building is erected from the bottom
Ciro Cuono is the Founding Principal of Cuono Engineering PLLC, a
up. Transferring loads in existing buildings as a result of cutting
structural engineering firm located in Port Chester, NY, and NYC, and is a
walls and columns is inherently a dynamic process since the load
past Assistant Adjunct Professor at The Bernard and Anne Spitzer School of
must transfer from one element to another. In general, the statics
Architecture at the City College of NY. ([email protected])
and structural analysis are rudimentary; however, planning and

NOVEMBER 2020
 Shoring the Unshorable
Challenges in Repairing a Severely Corroded Rooftop Cooling Tower Support Structure
By Roya A. Abyaneh, P.E., and Edward S. Breeze, P.E.

R epair of corroded steel supports caused by a leaking cooling tower on an

aging building’s roof can be incredibly challenging for structural engineers.
A case study of rooftop cooling tower support structure repairs highlights common
obstacles and solutions for these rising problems.
Deteriorated steel structures are often repaired by reinforcing the existing elements
with additional steel. In cases of severe deterioration, replacement may become
more practical than reinforcement. Full or partial replacement of the structural
support requires unloading the support by temporarily shoring its load. This may
seem a straightforward operation, but it can quickly become challenging when it
involves shoring a 350,000-pound cooling tower on the roof of a high-rise designed
for a modest 20 pounds-per-square-foot live load. Although it may be tempting
to postpone these complicated repairs, the cooling system’s failure could make
the building uninhabitable – or worse, if the support structure collapses onto the
fully-occupied office space.

Case Study
Figure 1. Corrosion of steel beams below the cooling tower.
The case study involves a cooling tower on top of a 46-story commercial building
constructed in 1975. The building was well maintained, but care of the rooftop
structure was deferred. In 2018, Engineering Diagnostics was engaged to design
repairs for corrosion of the cooling tower support structure discovered after a change
of building maintenance staff.
The cooling tower serves over one million square feet of office space in a hot and
humid climate, which means that it had to remain operational during the repairs.
The approximately 2,400-square-foot cooling tower is a timber and fiberglass struc-
ture supported by steel wide flange beams and girders that bear on base isolators.
Some of the steel shapes used in 1975 are no longer produced, requiring research
into the American Institute of Steel Construction’s (AISC) archives of “historic”
shapes. The base isolator springs dampen the cooling tower’s mechanical vibration
before transferring the load to concrete pedestals that support the tower on the roof.
The existing structure’s assessment revealed that the steel girders had experienced up
to 50% section loss in some of the webs and flanges. In some locations, personnel
could poke their fingers through the web (Figure 1). The most severe corrosion was
observed directly over a central concrete pedestal. Each of the 12 concrete pedestals
was built with four encased steel pipes, which had also been damaged by corrosion.
Figure 2. The base isolator bearing plate was temporarily welded. The preliminary repair strategy consisted of (1) partial replacement of the corroded
girder, (2) reinforcement of less corroded beams with angles and stiffeners, and
(3) patching spalled concrete on the pedestals. Temporary shoring was installed
while Engineering Diagnostics worked on the development of the final repairs
and shoring plans.

Design Challenges
At first glance, the solution for reduced steel cross-section is simple: add more
steel. The challenges posed by the cooling tower’s location, its significant weight,
and minimal roof capacity required several iterations to the repair strategy. The
original design drawings were illegible; therefore, the as-built construction had
to be visually confirmed.
The building maintenance staff reported the tower was operating with 60%
more basin water than specified in the original design documents. The weight of
water was a particular concern for the performance of the base isolator springs
and the temporary shoring.
The steel support structure had been wetted by rain and continual leakage from
Figure 3. Post shores and horizontal shoring beam. the cooling tower basin. In addition to steel corrosion, the base isolator springs

STRUCTURE magazine
had bottomed out from age and overload. This resulted in vibration- The post shores operate
induced spalling in the concrete pedestals. based on a screw jack system.
The corrosion across the web and flanges of some sections was so Once the shores were each
significant that it would be necessary to cut out the deteriorated length snug-tight against the struc-
and to splice in new pieces. Adding steel plate reinforcing was also ture, the lifting team would
considered; however, several areas exhibited insufficient “healthy” advance all shores in a row
steel for suitable welding or composite shear flow through the beam. by half a turn, alternating
Further, the repair steel would have covered most of the existing steel, between rows. Lifting the
impeding the ability to monitor for future corrosion. wood 3⁄16 inch proved ade-
Substitution of the damaged beam section appeared more practical. quate to install the new steel
Shoring would need to redirect the cooling tower loads while the cor- beam sections.
roded steel was cut out, and a new section was spliced in. Unloading After stabilizing the shores,
the members nearest to one pedestal by shoring would result in a the contractor cut out the
change in the loading of the other pedestals. The roof framing was deteriorated beam section, Figure 4. Repair of the concrete pedestals
analyzed as a system to understand the unintended effects of shoring. and a new piece was spliced revealed the encased steel pipes.
Since the floor below was occupied, extending the shoring to lower with welded full-moment
floors was not a viable option. Congestion of pipes and air ducts connections. The placement of welded splices was designed around
below the tower further constrained the shoring options. RISA-3D the wood beam locations with appropriate fire watches. Bent splice
was used to develop a detailed three-dimensional model of the cooling plates were used to join the new and old steel. These plate bends were
tower support structure and roof framing. The model was used to necessary because of the mismatch between the historic steel shape
identify the shore positions such that the members of concern were heights and the new steel shapes.
completely unloaded, and the roof framing members and connections The remaining beams and girders were repaired by reinforcing with
would not experience a surcharge. Shoring beams were placed below bolted composite steel angles at the flanges and adding web stiffeners.
the cooling tower and on the roof deck to transfer the loads directly The cooling tower did not need to be lifted for the reinforcing repairs
to a strong roof beam rather than the slab spans. because the beams were not replaced. Shoring was used to unload
the steel sufficiently to allow the reinforcing to share the load of the
tower, as opposed to carrying incremental additional load.
Construction Challenges Because of the wet environment, it was essential to prevent water
The first stage was to remove the rust, and that is when construction from being trapped between the new and old steel. The perimeter
obstacles began. A sandblasting compressor could not be brought to of the steel joints was sealed, and the structure was epoxy coated to
the roof, so the rust had to be removed by grinding, which extended ensure the durability of the repairs.
the cleaning time. The roof hoist’s elevator dimensions and capacity The concrete pedestals also revealed more significant distress than
limited the weight, transportation, and assembly of tools, shoring, initially evident. The contractor removed loose concrete up to 8
temporary beams, and repair materials. Steel cleaning near the build- inches deep, revealing encased steel pipes (Figure 4 ). Ultrasonic
ing air-intakes required careful protection to ensure tenant safety. The testing was used to confirm that the pipe thickness was adequate to
cleaning process revealed additional steel damage and section loss, remain in place. The steel was cleaned, new mild steel reinforcement
which necessitated additional iterations of the repair design. was installed, and concrete patching was placed.
The structural evaluation of the roof framing indicated that only
portions of the cooling tower could be shored at one time to avoid
overstressing the framing with concentrated shoring loads. Partial
Conclusions and Recommendations
shoring increased the risk of differential movement and subsequent What initially appeared as a straightforward steel reinforcing project
seam leaks in the basin’s plywood decking. The cooling water leakage revealed several interesting challenges during the structural assess-
risk applied to potential machinery damage, water infiltration to the ment and the subsequent repairs. This project’s successful execution
commercial space below, and continued corrosion. was made possible by timely and clear communication between the
The cooling tower basin consists of plywood sheets supported on 4-inch property management team, contractors, and engineers.
square (4x4) wood beams supported by the steel beams and girders. The repair of rooftop cooling tower support structures can be risky
Unloading the steel beams required using post shores to lift the wood due to unique challenges. In the case study, these included building
beams just enough to remove the corroded steel beams while minimizing occupancy, the cooling tower assembly’s sensitivity to displacement,
the differential movement in any zone. It was essential to schedule hold large supported loads, low roof capacity, and lack of original design
points during the shoring process to monitor for new leaks. documentation (typical for older buildings). Consistent monitoring
Before the shoring process began, the as-built construction of the of the process by the engineers was critical to ensure that the design
roof framing was verified by accessing the roof ’s underside. Temporary intent was met, especially in rehearsing the shoring plan. This project
lateral braces were installed at shoring points and at locations where had easy access to visual monitoring of the health of the structure.
bracing members were disconnected. Although the lifting process In the end, monitoring and maintenance is the best course
was intended to unload the steel beams, it would also decompress the of action to prevent and mitigate the need for such repairs
isolator springs supporting them. This decompression would push and preserve the integrity of older buildings.■
the beams upwards and prevent the intended clearance gap between
the steel beams and the cooling tower. The base isolator’s top bearing Roya A. Abyaneh is a Senior Engineer in the Houston, Texas, office of
plate was temporarily welded to lock its position (Figure 2). Shoring Engineering Diagnostics, a d/b/a of Building Diagnostics, Inc.
beams placed on each side of the repair lifted the wood beams from
Edward S. Breeze is a Principal and Branch Manager of the Houston,
the top of the subject steel (Figure 3). A laser level was used to moni- Texas, office of Engineering Diagnostics.
tor the displacement progress.

NOVEMBER 2020
 INNOVATIVE
Design
Using Composite
Steel Joists
121 SEAPORT BOULEVARD
By Michael Martignetti, P.E.

Innovation is evident in the Boston skyline. A talented

group of architects and engineers have designed the
structures built in the last 30 years in Beantown. These
creative firms continue to incorporate new design concepts
that meet their client's needs. Clients get a great, sustain-
able structure that utilizes the best materials and the most
economical design. The public – well, they get to look
at and utilize the buildings. One engineering firm has
done its share of design in Boston: McNamara·Salvia
Structural Engineers.

O ne structure of particular note is the recently completed

121 Seaport Boulevard in the Seaport District of Boston.
The McNamara·Salvia (McSal) team, under the guidance of Principal
between the tension force in the bottom chord and the compression
force in the top chord increases. This reduces the required angle sizes
in the joist chords, which lightens the overall joist weight and cost.
John Matuszewski, P.E., worked with CBT Architects on this 17-story, Composite steel joists offer several advantages compared to composite
440,000 square foot, Class-A office building. Per McSal’s website, “121 beams. The open web steel joists can span long distances to create
Seaport’s unique design is carefully choreographed to promote inno- wide-open spaces. At the same time, they offer an excellent span-to-
vation and collaboration, and increase employee productivity in the weight ratio, which decreases the overall weight and cost of the steel
workplace.” The building features a three-story lobby, dedicated fitness structure. A maximum span-to-depth ratio of 30 is greater than the
center, views of the harbor and skyline, and wide-open office space to typical roof joist span-to-depth ratio of 24 and allows even shallower
meet the changing requirements for commercial office layouts. The joists to achieve the wide column spacing. A typical 22-inch-deep
structure’s elliptical shape avoided underground tunnels and zoning composite joist spanned anywhere between 30 feet and 48 feet on the
issues and reduced the lateral wind load on the aerodynamic structure. project, accomplishing the elliptical shape. The joists were spaced 10
This, in turn, reduced costs and allowed for a very open concept with feet part given their strength and were topped with 2-inch composite
minimal columns and floor-to-ceiling glass windows. The open con- deck, ¾-inch-diameter shear studs, and a 5¼-inch lightweight slab.
cept utilized plenty of natural light and helped the building achieve Camber in the joists was designed to offset construction dead load
LEED Platinum Certification. Top-down construction meant that deflection. The efficient design reduces the overall number of members
the superstructure was built while the underground parking garage required, speeding up the erection of the structure. Minimizing the
was simultaneously excavated. This added to the design challenge, but joist count also reduces the amount of spray fireproofing that must
ultimately saved millions of dollars and six months of schedule. be done to achieve the required fire rating for the floors. The open
At the core of this beautiful building are CJ-Series composite steel web construction of the joists allows MEP trades to run plumbing,
joists. McSal has used CJ-Series joists successfully in several mid- electrical, and mechanical equipment through the joists rather than
rise buildings throughout Boston. CJ-Series steel joists support the under the beams. This minimizes the overall floor depth, maximizes
composite steel deck and the concrete slab poured on top. Similar to ceiling heights, and/or reduces overall building height.
composite beams, shear studs are welded through the deck and to the The office tower’s wide-open spaces created a need for extensive
joist’s top chord to develop shear transfer from the joist to the concrete ductwork to heat and cool the spaces. Vierendeel openings were created
slab. The composite action between the joist and concrete allows the at the midspan of the joists to accommodate the ductwork. Vierendeel
concrete to act as the compression chord element of the joist. As the openings are designed by the joist manufacturer, eliminating joist
slab works compositely with the joist, the moment arm or distance webs for a section of the joist so that there is an unobstructed space

STRUCTURE magazine
between the top and bottom joist chords. behavior of the building with this shape,
The joist’s midspan is an ideal location as combined with varied member lengths,
the shear forces are significantly less at this made the analysis complex. Ultimately, a
point of the joist. The Vierendeel openings single minimum moment of inertia was
were strategically aligned from joist to joist provided for the joist designer to keep
to create a wide-open passage where all of the design simple while ensuring that the
the ductwork was concentrated, avoiding lightweight members met the vibration
putting anything below the joists. With requirements.
all of the MEP organized within the joist Cives Steel Company – New England
envelope, the structure afforded the fit-out Division, the structural steel fabricator,
that architects desired with the ability to and James F. Stearns Co, the steel erector,
leave the ceiling exposed to view. constructed the main steel superstructure
Given the goal to minimize the floor enve- Shear studs welded through the deck to the top chord create the over a period of six months. When asked
lope, McSal presented the concept of flush composite action. about the composite joist design, Brock
frame connection to attach the composite Bessey, Project Manager for Cives, stated,
joists to the girders. The joist engineer and “Composite joists worked great for this
steel connection designer then coordinated project due to the need for the design
to finalize this connection’s design details, team to pass the MEP trades through the
which offered several advantages. Typically, support members. Creating openings in
open web steel joists sit on top of the gird- a wide flange beam would require a good
ers with 5-inch-deep seats. By dropping the deal of shop reinforcing, especially for
joist between the girders, that 5-inch depth large web penetrations.” The joists were
was not added to each floor envelope. The connected directly to the concrete core
flush frame connection design allowed the at the center of the building and varied
erector to utilize a bolted connection, sig- in length at the perimeter to create the
nificantly reducing the amount of welding “football-shaped” structure. Soft shoring
in the field. Open web steel joists allow MEP to easily route through them to was placed at the edge of each side of
Additionally, the overall length of the minimize floor envelope. the opening to maximize the size of the
joists was shortened, making it easier to vierendeel opening while minimizing the
maneuver the joists into place. The flush frame connection meant joists’ weight. Soft shoring means that the shoring posts are set to a
some additional shop work for the production of the joists and girders, height that allows the joists to deflect to the elevation that results in
but this cost was controlled in the shop environment. Ultimately, the a level slab of consistent thickness due to the self-weight of the slab
ease of erection saved both time for the overall construction schedule before supporting the midspan of the floor until the concrete cures
and cost for the superstructure. and composite action ensues. For this project, the shoring was only
Bryan Hilton, P.E., Senior Project Manager for McSal, served as a needed for three days, allowing construction to move quickly.
key member of the design team throughout the project. When asked 121 Seaport Boulevard has left an imprint of innovation on the
about why composite joists were chosen for the project, Hilton com- Boston skyline with its curves and creative design. It offers its ten-
mented, “the selection of the composite steel joists with composite ants state-of-the-art open spaces full of natural light and flexibility by
beam girders was the optimum framing system for the project because utilizing composite steel joists rather than a typical composite beam
of its long-span capability, the economy of weight, enhanced flexibility design. This was all done while minimizing the structure’s weight and
with the building’s MEP system, reduced floor-to-floor height, and utilizing an innovative construction sequencing saving both time and
its successful performance in past projects.” The McSal team worked money for the project. Looking to the future, this project
hard to optimize the benefits that the composite joists offered for the sets a new bar that will challenge designers to continue to
structure. Hilton stated, “a design challenge was the incorporation of innovate in the years to come.■
a simplified and comprehensive approach to specifying the composite
Michael Martignetti is the Vice President of Sales for Canam Steel Corporation,
steel joist’s required moment of inertia to satisfy the building’s office
a Steel Joist Institute member company. ([email protected])
vibration criteria given the elliptical shape of the floor plate.” The

Bolted flush frame connections for joists to girder. Vierendeel openings at midspan allow for a large chase of ductwork.

NOVEMBER 2020
 structural SYSTEMS
Lightening the (Dead) Load on Floors
By Tim Liescheidt, P.E.

I nnovation can be a wonderful thing. For engineers, creating, innovating, or even just utilizing others’ new ideas
can benefit a client and a project. And many engineers would say that doing something new is almost always more
fun than repeatedly reusing old ideas or methods.

Figure 1. Comparison of typical composite joist section cut and typical CFS truss section cut.

For some engineers (the author included), construction using Cold- structures, with 10 stories being a widely accepted ‘maximum height.’
Formed Steel (CFS) materials fits into this idea of innovation. CFS is However, since CFS is non-combustible, that 10-story height limita-
a relatively new product line that continues to find more and better tion is not due to code; it is only limited by design.
applications in the world of construction. The use of CFS in floors In 2016, the Steel Framing Industry Association (SFIA) com-
is a perfect example. missioned a study to evaluate how high CFS framing could go.
Technically, CFS has been around for over a century. Since its first Patrick Ford, P.E., of Matsen Ford Design in Waukesha, WI, a very
use in basic structures and small homes in the 1850s, its use over the well-known and respected engineer in the CFS design community,
next 140 years seems to have been sporadic at best. developed the SFIA Matsen Tower, a 40-story CFS framed high-rise!
Despite the slow start, the use of CFS has grown exponentially The design was even considered ‘conservative,’ and 48 stories has been
over the last 30 years. There are probably very few, if any, architects, mentioned as a more accurate limitation.
engineers, or building officials left who are not at least somewhat So how did Patrick Ford develop a design four times taller than
familiar with its use. Since the late 1990s, a better understanding of the perceived limit? One significant factor was lightening the dead
CFS’s versatility and the development of design standards have allowed load supported by the walls. A residential structure, such as the
engineers to specify CFS on projects confidently. The American Iron theoretical ‘Matsen Tower,’ will need to be designed to support
and Steel Institute (AISI), along with countless engineers, designers, floor live loads of 40 psf. Subsequently, the load-bearing walls
and researchers, have developed and made available CFS standards for need to be capable of carrying this load to the foundation. If a
use in building design. Technical Notes have been written to address typical floor system, like one using structural steel and concrete,
common questions. A few examples of the topics addressed in these has a dead load of 45 psf, the amount of total cumulative load
Tech Notes include, but are not limited to, avoiding corrosion in carried down to the foundation is significant. It is easy to see why
CFS members, attachment of CFS to other materials, and design of
lateral load resisting elements.
Additionally, multiple software packages now exist to help engineers
design anything from the smallest building component to a full CFS
load-bearing structure. In short, design resources that were not avail-
able previously for CFS products are now readily accessible to assist
the design community.

Limitations of Cold-Formed Steel

Projects using CFS as the primary load-bearing material are prevalent
in midrise construction and most frequently seen in 5- to 10-story Figure 2. UL H524.

STRUCTURE magazine
CFS construction is limited to 10 stories using this example. The
Matsen Tower achieved 40+ stories by using lighter materials for
floors…specifically Cold-Formed Steel.
To be a more widely accepted alternative for floors, more versatile CFS
systems designed for this application needed to be developed that include
the substrate in addition to the support instead of using CFS products
as the support for existing substrates, such as poured concrete slabs.

The System
Structural concrete (SC) panels have gained popularity over the
past several years as a lightweight alternative to poured-in-place
concrete slabs. Depending on the brand of SC panel used, they
weigh approximately 5.3 psf and, by significantly reducing the dead
loads of the floor, increase the effectiveness of the CFS products
supporting them. Much like plywood that is used in wood fram-
ing, they come in 4- x 8-foot sheets and are usually ¾-inch-thick.
These panels have the strength of concrete, are lightweight, and Figure 3. CFS steel floor truss with a structural concrete panel.
are non-combustible. Like plywood, these panels may be cut with
a circular saw and are screwed to the supporting CFS members. supporting the non-combustible lightweight structural panel combine
Under standard residential floor load, structural concrete panels to create an assembly that can be used in place of structural steel and
require support at a maximum of 2 feet on-center., which cor- concrete. Spans are comparable to those of composite steel joists/concrete
responds well with the requirements of CFS Trusses and closely slabs and do not increase the overall depth of the floor system (Figure 1).
matches typical load-bearing CFS stud spacing. For a 26-foot Additionally, by saving over 35 psf in floor dead load versus composite
span, a CFS truss with a structural concrete panel floor will have joists with decking and concrete and 60 psf versus hollow-core plank,
a dead load of only 8.4 psf with an overall depth of 12.75 inches this lighter weight floor system may significantly reduce foundation
(not including the ceiling). requirements. The ability to design a lighter weight structure without
Used together, CFS framing and SC panels can result in an efficient and sacrificing floor depth, load-carrying capacity, or safety is something
cost-effective floor system and another portion of a structure that can be building engineers often strive for. Building contractors always appreci-
designed using efficient CFS construction. The lightweight CFS member ate systems that allow them to build lighter-cheaper-faster.
continued on next page
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 This system has been tested and awarded a 2-hour unrestrained fire steel and concrete alternatives. The large reduction in dead load using
rating by UL (Figure 2, page 24 ). In at least one instance, the test CFS Floor Trusses with a relatively light Structural Panel can conser-
only ended due to heat transfer through the floor covering; the trusses vatively cut story shear in half as it is collected through a structure.
remained intact, supporting the full design load. Additionally, it can be
installed by the same trades doing the load-bearing CFS wall framing,
reducing the potential for coordination issues due to multiple trades
Sound Attenuation
required for the framing system. Depth plays a critical role in the design of CFS Trusses. In general,
the deeper the truss, the lighter the members. It turns out depth
plays a significant role in sound reduction; the deeper the joist or
Designing truss member, the less sound transfers between floors. Since trusses
Like wood floor truss systems, designing with CFS Truss components can be fabricated deeper than standard joists, a truss may be a qui-
is specialized and not something that a building designer should be eter option. The spacing of supporting members will also have an
burdened with. Also, like wood floor trusses, specialized designers effect because sound may be lessened by ‘decoupling’ or creating a
and software packages make it very easy for truss manufacturing separation between the sound and mass in a floor. A wider cavity, or
companies to provide the design of the individual components that space between joists/trusses, results in a more significant ‘buffer’ or
make up the CFS Truss portion of the System. A building designer separation between sound transferring members. This is even more
can simply specify loading, spacing, and allowable truss depth, and advantageous if insulation fills the cavity between joists/trusses. Again,
a truss designer can determine member sizes within the truss com- this makes using CFS Trusses beneficial compared to CFS joists.
ponents to work for the given criteria. Span tables provided by truss Since trusses typically have more significant load-carrying capacity,
manufacturers can give a building designer basic guidelines for load they may be spaced further apart than the more shallow CFS joist,
capacities at specific spans and depths. increasing the decoupling in a floor system. Incidentally, this also
Structural Concrete panels attached to CFS Floor Trusses need to be results in fewer pieces to install and easier access for mechanicals.
fastened to provide adequate diaphragm strength (Figure 3, page 25). And finally, for improved sound attenuation, it is best to screw the
The major board manufacturers have done comprehensive testing on subfloor to the truss/joist support away from the truss/joist web, in
their products and have published diaphragm capacities for systems other words, as far out on the flange as possible. CFS Truss Chords
utilizing CFS Trusses and SC panels. designed for Floors have a distinct advantage over traditional CFS
From a design standpoint, it is important to note that CFS Trusses Trusses used in Roof Construction. The wide flange of these Floor
have been used for 30+ years and were initially developed for use in roof Truss members allows the subfloor to be attached farther from the
truss applications; CFS Trusses in floor applications are more effective web, further deadening sound.
and efficient when using CFS Truss Sections that are explicitly designed
for that purpose. For example, diaphragm capacities of SC panels are
commonly limited by the fastener edge spacing attaching the panel to
History Repeats Itself
the truss member. A traditional CFS Roof Truss product will not have It was the 1950s when drywall products were gaining broad acceptance
adequate flange width to allow required fastener edge distance. Several in wood-framed construction but still were not a good option to
Floor Specific CFS Truss products have recently come to market con- replace plaster over CMU walls in non-combustible structures. At the
sidering this limitation and account for this in the truss section’s design. time, the United States Gypsum Corporation (USG) had proven the
In seismic applications, the floor system’s required diaphragm capacity fire resistance of its wallboard products. However, to be successful in
can be significantly less with a CFS Floor Truss System versus structural non-combustible buildings, they needed a non-combustible substrate
to attach to. After researching possible
options, CFS proved to be the ideal mate-
rial, and the Cold-Formed Steel stud wall
U.S Patent No. 10,570,618 was born. Fast forward to 2020, and his-
tory is repeating, including some of the
same players. USG is one of just a few
companies that have developed a light-
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weight, non-combustible floor substrate

Eventually There is product. For this floorboard product
a BETTER idea... to be successful, it needs a lightweight,
non-combustible, strong, and versatile
INTRODUCING support. Once again, CFS is proving itself

ADVANT
to be the ideal material.
Finally, there is an option for the
design community to use Cold-Formed
 LIGHTER than traditional Steel in floors as part of a Cold-Formed
floor systems Steel structure. It was a long time in
 FASTER installation development and required collabo-
 LESS COST versus ration from many product
traditional bar joist/ manufacturers – but it will
concrete and existing Cold prove worth the wait!■
Formed Truss Systems www.advantsteel.com Tim Liescheidt is an Engineer for Advant
Steel LLC. ([email protected])

STRUCTURE magazine
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 community RESILIENCE
A New Challenge to the Practice
of Structural Engineering
By Bruce R. Ellingwood, Ph.D., P.E., N.A.E., F.SEI, Dist. M.ASCE, John W. van de Lindt, Ph.D., F.SEI, F.ASCE, and Therese P. McAllister, Ph.D., P.E., F.SEI, F.ASCE

D espite the progress that has been made in disaster-

related science and technology and the significant
financial investments made at the federal, state, and local levels
in risk mitigation, The National Academies continue to view
community resilience as a national imperative. Events such as
Hurricane Katrina in 2005, the Christchurch earthquake and
Joplin tornado in 2011, and Superstorm Sandy in 2012 high-
lighted the need to better understand community resilience
to mitigate the risks associated with severe natural hazards. Figure 1. Stages of community resilience.

Investigations of recent disasters have revealed the importance of any consideration of structural repairs or functional recovery when
resilience planning for integrated community performance and func- evaluating design options.
tionality following disruptive hazard events, including response and Codes, standards, and building regulations in the U.S. have been devel-
recovery, rather than merely addressing public safety and the “sunny oped by different professional organizations and agencies, with variable
day” functionality of utilities. Resilience is defined as the ability to performance objectives for life safety relating to hazard events, service
prepare for and adapt to changing conditions and withstand and periods, reliability, and recovery of function. A critical aspect of com-
recover rapidly from disruptions caused by natural and man-made munity resilience – a community’s social needs and objectives, especially
hazards. The spectrum of resilience modeling and assessment require- concerning post-disaster recovery – is not reflected in codes and standards
ments for community physical, social, and economic systems is and other regulatory documents that are used to design individual facilities.
summarized in Figure 1.
Achieving Community Resilience
Codes, Standards, and Building Regulations A community is defined as a place (such as towns, cities, or counties)
The performance of civil infrastructure, which is essential to commu- designated by geographic boundaries that functions under a governance
nity resilience, is, first and foremost, the responsibility of structural structure for decision making. A community has a built environment
and civil engineers. Codes and standards largely determine the perfor- and social and economic systems to provide essential community needs,
mance of civil infrastructure (e.g., International Building Code, ASCE such as shelter, transportation, power, potable water, sanitation, employ-
Standard 7, AASHTO Bridge Design Specification). These codes and ment, commerce, education, healthcare, and government.
standards for buildings and bridges apply to individual facilities. They Community resilience addresses the ability of a community’s buildings
are focused on life safety goals because of the nature of the building and infrastructure systems to deliver these essential community needs reli-
regulatory process. Except for structural systems assigned to ASCE 7 ably and at a reasonable cost, both before and within a specified timeframe
Risk Category IV, the role of individual buildings in fulfilling com- after a damaging event. The integrity of the built environment is central
munity resilience goals seldom is recognized by codes. Nor is there to the resilience of a community’s infrastructure and social and economic
institutions. Still, there is currently no common
Table of examples of community performance goals and resilience metrics. technical basis for linking community-level per-
formance goals with performance objectives of
Community Performance Goals Resilience Metrics
codes and standards for the design of individual
Population Stability Dislocation and migration; housing availability buildings, bridges, and lifeline systems.
Change in employment, taxes, and revenue
Economic Stability
(resources) and community budget (needs) Measuring
Social Services Stability Access to healthcare, education, retail, and banking
Community Resilience
Functionality of buildings, transportation, water,
Physical Services Stability A new, interdisciplinary approach is required
wastewater, electric power, gas, and communications
to achieve community resilience goals, one that
Access to police and fire protection; essential addresses the interdependencies among the phys-
Governance Stability
public governmental services ical, social, and economic systems on which a

STRUCTURE magazine
healthy and vibrant community depends. The Center of Excellence for
Risk-Based Community Resilience Planning (the Center), headquar-
tered at Colorado State University and involving 13 partner universities,
was established by the National Institute of Standards and Technology
(NIST) in 2015 to advance measurement science for community
resilience. This includes identifying key resilience factors and metrics,
assessing the likely impact of natural hazards on community functions,
and providing decision support through risk-informed options with
optimal strategies for improving resilience.
Community-level performance goals are often stated as long-term
aspirations for the functionality of physical, social, and economic
systems. Designers need quantitative performance objectives and
design criteria for the evaluation of individual facilities and systems
that can support community goals., The collective performance of
infrastructure systems and facilities must be quantified using metrics
related to functionality and recovery to link the response to community
resilience goals. The development of community metrics is a critical Figure 2. De-aggregation of community resilience goals for structural design.
aspect of the cooperative partnership between NIST and the Center
for addressing community resilience on a national scale. The Table The initial (December 2019) release is available at
gives a few examples of community performance goals and associated https://bit.ly/2UllQBe or https://bit.ly/3h9hV3V and has example
resilience metrics being used by the Center. case studies for communities subject to an earthquake, tsunami, and
tornado events. Technical support and user manuals are available, as
well as the opportunity to join user groups.
A Computational Toolbox Additional releases will be made as features are developed. Future
One of the Center’s significant accomplishments in its first five years IN-CORE releases will include a recovery module to capture the process
has been the development of a modular, open-source computational of community recovery to a specified state of functionality. Also included
environment, IN-CORE – Interdependent Networked Community will be a decision/optimization module, which will use selected character-
Resilience Modeling Environment. IN-CORE allows researchers, istics of physical, social, and economic infrastructure systems to identify
engineers, and community planners to simulate the impacts of natural optimized strategies for pre-hazard mitigation and post-hazard recovery.
hazard events on communities and the recovery of community-wide
functions to evaluate and optimize alternative resilience enhancement
strategies in support of community planning.
The Role of Structural Engineering
IN-CORE is a multidisciplinary computational environment, with Structural engineers and structural engineering technology have a
supporting databases, which models community systems through a set significant role in improving the resilience of a community to natural
of modules and algorithms. IN-CORE is structured so that users can hazards because the performance of the built environment is central to
utilize core modules or include their own analysis modules, depending the welfare of any community. Public safety aspects (such as stability
on their needs. The core IN-CORE algorithms for modeling inter- and life safety) are addressed by either conventional building codes or
dependent physical, social, and economic systems, that are included through novel performance-based engineering (PBE) approaches. In
in the initial release, include:
• The hazard module includes algo-
rithms for earthquakes, synoptic
windstorms, tornadoes, hurricanes,
wildfires, tsunamis, and floods.
• The physical infrastructure module
includes buildings, transportation,

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water, energy, and telecommunica-
tion systems. Fragilities (for discrete
elements) and repair rates (for line
elements within networks) predict
the physical damage, potential repair
rates, and recovery times for a given
hazard scenario.
• The social and economic mod-
ules currently predict population
dislocation, housing repair and
recovery, and business interruption
and recovery. Changes in the local
economy and demographics are
based on post-event functionality
of the physical infrastructure of the
community and a computable equi-
librium model of its economy.

NOVEMBER 2020
 contrast to building code approaches, PBE can enable risk-informed • PBE to support community resilience must acknowledge the
design and decision-making for innovative structures with perfor- reality of the U.S. building regulatory process, which is likely
mance objectives beyond code requirements. to change slowly.
In current PBE of buildings, the performance objectives are estab- • Reliability targets for individual buildings in current structural
lished for occupant needs and/or building functions (e.g., data centers, design practices (e.g., ASCE 7-16 Section 1.3) set minimum
specialty manufacturers, hospitals). The role that buildings play in the performance requirements at the component level for most design
resilience of the community seldom is considered. Many aspects of loads except earthquake loads. Target reliability and perfor-
resilience, including loss of functionality and recovery, require more mance criteria at the system level for all loads are needed to
comprehensive and standardized assessment methods. support community resilience goals.
To advance the current state of practice, the structural design process • Codes, standards, and regulations for infrastructure systems (e.g.,
should start with individualized community-level goals to inform per- buildings, bridges, lifelines) should be coordinated to support
formance objectives for individual projects, including recovery-based community resilience goals and to address the functionality and
performance objectives. Community performance goals and metrics must recovery of civil infrastructure as well as life safety.
be de-aggregated to the individual facility level. Then, goals and metrics • Planning and development of major projects will be increas-
can be used to develop risk-informed design standards and guidelines, code ingly performed by interdisciplinary teams, which must be able
approaches, or PBE criteria that can be used by structural engineers and to communicate aspirations, goals, metrics, and risks to one
other design professionals. This process is illustrated in Figure 2, page 29. another. This shift will require changes in university education,
especially in civil engineering, to ensure that these teams can
effectively work together.
A Path Forward
Best practices of design professionals and decisions by city planners
and regulatory authorities are likely to evolve in the coming decade to
Conclusions
support community resilience. However, buildings, bridges, and other The structural engineering profession has a central role to play in
civil infrastructure facilities will probably continue to be designed on enhancing community resilience because the built environment is
an individual rather than a community basis. fundamental to a resilient community. The Center recently has been
PBE provides a path forward for addressing this conflict and resolv- renewed for 2020-2025, with a focus on community engagement and
ing the inherent challenges that will arise in solving both facility and risk-informed decision-making with the ultimate goal of informing
community needs. These challenges will likely require a fundamental the development of efficient decision support algorithms that are
change in the way that code- and standard-writing groups approach useful and useable for community resilience planning. Future releases
their tasks to achieve shared community resilience goals. A few of of IN-CORE are planned at approximately 6-month intervals with
these challenges for structural engineers include: a critical focus on supporting decisions and implementation, as the
• A broadly based stakeholder group should identify common Center continues to advance the science of community resilience.
community resilience goals; traditional performance measures The structural engineering community is invited to participate in
are not sufficient to ensure community resilience. this exciting new endeavor by exploring the Center webpages for
• Methodologies are needed to guide the development of information at http://resilience.colostate.edu.■
community resilience goals and metrics and to derive perfor-
mance objectives and design criteria for individual projects.
Otherwise, there will be no consistent basis for national or
Acknowledgment
regional building practices because resilience goals and metrics Funding for this study was provided as part of Cooperative Agreement
for each community are unique. 70NANB15H044 (2015-2020) and 70NANB20H008 (2020-Present)
• Performance objectives for buildings by functional categories between the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
or groupings (e.g., residential buildings, commercial facilities, and Colorado State University. The authors acknowledge the numer-
government) or socioeconomic institutions (e.g., education, ous researchers and students working on behalf of the Center; a full
health care) should be expressed as requirements that are com- listing can be found at the above website. The content expressed in
patible with engineering practice and practical to implement this article are the views of the authors and do not necessarily represent
from an engineering perspective. the opinions or views of NIST or the U.S Department of Commerce.

References are included in the PDF version

of the article at STRUCTUREmag.org.
ADVERTISEMENT–For Advertiser Information, visit STRUCTUREmag.org

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Bruce R. Ellingwood is Professor and College of Engineering Eminent Scholar
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other loadings for all codes based on the IBC or ASCE7 in just minutes (see online Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado State
video). Also calculates wind loads on rooftop equipment, signs, walls, chimneys, University, Fort Collins, CO. ([email protected])
trussed towers, tanks and more. ($250.00).
CMU or Tilt-up Concrete Walls Analyze solid walls for out of plane loading and John W. van de Lindt is Harold H. Short Endowed Chair and Co-Director,
panel legs next to or between openings by automatically calculating loads to the wall Center for Risk-Based Community Resilience Planning, Department of Civil
leg from vertical and horizontal loads at the opening. ($75.00 ea) and Environmental Engineering, Colorado State University Fort Collins, CO.
Floor Vibration Program to analyze floors with steel beams and/or steel joist.
Therese P. McAllister is the Community Resilience Group Leader and
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STRUCTURE magazine
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 OUTSIDE the box
Utility-Scale Photovoltaic Power Plants
Analysis and Design
By Sumanth Cheruku, P.E., and Matthew T.L. Browne, M.Eng, P.Eng, M.ASCE

R enewable power generation nearly doubled in the past

decade, growing from 382 million MegaWatt hours
(MWh) in 2008 to 742 million MWh in 2018, contributing
approximately 18% of total power generated in the United
States in 2018. 13% (96 million MWh) of the total renew-
able power is solar from both small-scale and utility-scale
installations. Small-scale installations typically include solar
panels attached to buildings or other structures. Utility-scale
Figure 1. Illustration of a single-axis tracker system and its components.
installations are designed to supplement the power from
the electricity grid; therefore, they consist of several rows of Photovoltaic (PV) modules. With a forecasted increase in the
number of utility-scale installations and limited standardized design guidance for structural engineers to draw from, this
article reviews the load criteria and the lessons learned from failures observed with such installations in the past decade.

The growth in demand for rooftop solar installations resulted in the the tracker systems (fixed, SATs, or DATs) are, at any given point, at
development of the Structural Engineers Association of California’s an angle to the ground and, therefore, subjected to forces from the
(SEAOC) PV2-2012, Wind Design for Low-profile Solar Photovoltaic oncoming wind. Hence, the similarities to these equivalent structures
Arrays on Flat Roofs, followed by the inclusion of loading provisions in seemed reasonable on the surface. Unfortunately, this practice resulted
the American Society of Civil Engineers’ ASCE 7, Minimum Design in wind-induced failures of tracker systems exposed to winds that were
Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures, in substantially lower than ASCE 7-16 design wind speeds.
2016. SEAOC subsequently updated its report in 2017, referencing A better understanding of the assumptions used to develop the provi-
the provisions of the published ASCE 7-16 standard. These resources sions associated with monoslope roofs is needed to explain why the
provide guidance on the loading and behavior of small-scale rooftop behavior of SATs under wind loading is not the same as monoslope
solar units; however, limited guidance is available for the design of roofs. The various causes of wind-induced failures of solar trackers and
utility-scale PV solar structures. the lessons learned from multiple investigations are discussed below.

Utility-Scale PV Solar SATs Failures and Lessons Learned

Utility-scale PV solar installations consist of multiple rows, each hous- SATs consist of a tube section (called a torque tube), typically oriented
ing several PV modules mounted on a structural supporting frame. with its longitudinal axis in the North-South direction (Figure 1).
Depending on the nature of this support system, these installations This torque tube supports regularly spaced lateral frames or purlins
are classified as either Fixed-mount, Single-axis tracking (SAT), or designed to accommodate the PV modules. During operation, the
Dual-axis tracking (DAT) systems. Fixed-mount systems consist of torque tube rotates about its longitudinal axis, positioning the PV
a supporting frame that is static and fixed, usually at an angle to the modules to track the sun during the day. The rotation of the torque
horizontal. In such systems, the angle of the solar panels relative to tube is either provided by a motor mounted on the tracker torque
the ground stays constant in operation. In contrast, SATs and DATs tube itself or through multiple rows connected to a lever arm. In both
enable the modules to “track” the sun during the day for enhanced setups, the rotation of the trackers is controlled centrally (and associ-
efficiency. This improvement in efficiency is achieved by gradually ated with in-situ weather monitoring) to obtain uniform tracking of all
adjusting the inclination and orientation of the modules during the day rows within the PV field. Enabling rotation about the torque tube to
to achieve optimum sun exposure. SATs enable tracking in the East- track the sun unlocks the torsional degree of freedom not commonly
West direction only, while DATs enable tracking in other directions. considered. The interaction of this additional degree of freedom with
Given the lack of guidance for the design of the tracker systems, the oncoming wind has led to unexpected failures.
design engineers noticed the similarities between these support struc-
tures and other structures covered in ASCE 7. Engineers applied the
loading provisions of these other structures to the design of tracker
Aeroelastic Instability
systems, primarily for the wind load case. Most popular among these Aeroelasticity is the study of the interaction of aerodynamic, inertial,
equivalent structures are monoslope free roofs. The panels on any of and elastic effects on a body or a system. Instability resulting from

STRUCTURE magazine
this interaction is typically
characterized as an aeroelastic
instability. The elastic effects
(for the aeroelastic instability)
originate from the torsional
flexibility of the tracker sys-
tems. Increasing the stiffness
to avoid instability inadver-
tently results in increased
member sections that are not
fully utilized in the strength
limit state. The solution to
this instability is an optimiza-
tion problem, balancing the
need for structural stiffness Figure 2. Comparison of sample wind tunnel results with ASCE 7-16 coefficients for angle with wind less than 5°.
with underutilized strength.
Aerodynamics increases the available solutions to this problem. To designed is available, structural engineers tasked with the design of
reduce the effective area subjected to wind, and corresponding wind tracker systems should consult a wind engineer for appropriate load-
loads, tracker systems are usually “stowed” flat (0-degrees or parallel ing to minimize liability risk.
to the ground) at higher wind speeds while not in operation. One of
the aerodynamic solutions to the instability is to stow the PV modules
at larger angles for higher wind speeds. Several tracker manufacturers
Connections and Bolts
consulted with wind engineers to devise optimal solutions that work A typical solar field incorporates thousands of tracker elements and
best with their respective systems to resolve the instability. associated framing, and ease of installation is an essential factor in
Most of the commonly observed wind-induced failures of tracker the design of the modern tracker system. Hence, a typical tracker
systems exhibited evidence of an aeroelastic instability. Post-failure system includes pretensioned bolts that can be easily installed onsite.
investigations typically show evidence of rows either completely dis- A common observation in several failed (and some operating) solar
placed or a strong spatial concentration of displaced or damaged panels plants is a loss in pretension and loosening of bolts. Sometimes, poor
towards the rotationally free end of the torque tube. The aeroelastic installation during erection is the culprit for loose bolts. In-service
phenomena observed with trackers ranged from the most common vibrations due to wind response, albeit small, can also lead to a loss
torsional galloping to a rarer torsional divergence. The mechanics of in pretension and bolt loosening. Loose bolts allow for unintended
these phenomena are intricate and were partly introduced previously relative movements, which often compromise the stiffness of the
through the discussion of the failure of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge tracker structural system and lead to undesirable aeroelastic effects.
(Cheruka, 2018). Torsional modes of failure similar to the bridge, The designer can take some measures to better control the in-service
albeit lower mode numbers, are observed during field monitoring of vibrations and minimize the risk of bolt loosening. An understand-
SATs. These effects are beyond the scope of the ASCE 7 standard, ing of the buffeting response (response to a sudden random impulse)
and limited design guidance is available to resist them. of the trackers and the use of dampers successfully controlled these
vibrations and limited bolt loosening in the field.
Another common observation with the pretensioned bolts on these
Load Magnitude trackers is bolt slip. The use of galvanized bolts for corrosion protec-
In addition to the aeroelastic instability effects, the magnitude of the tion leads to an increased susceptibility for slippage of pretensioned
applied wind loading is considerably influenced by the aeroelastic bolts. Similar to loosening, bolt slip can lead to a host of issues rang-
effects of the tracker systems. These effects are one of the primary ing from relative movement at the splices to a deviation from the
reasons why applying loading provisions for equivalent structures design angle of stow.
from ASCE 7 to the design of SATs is not appropriate. The dynam-
ics of monoslope free roofs and freestanding signs, considered when
drafting the provisions in ASCE 7 standard, are not the same as the
Load Application
dynamics of SATs. The ASCE 7-16 monoslope free roof provisions Tracker systems are long and relatively flexible compared to commonly
assume that all edges of the monoslope roof are structurally supported. designed buildings, primarily in the torsional degree of freedom. This
In contrast, PV module systems are supported by a central support flexibility produces large rotations under load application, typically at
that allows rotation about a central axis. This fundamental difference the ends of the tracker torque tube. This rotation may occasionally be
in support conditions and associated movement under wind loads so large that the effective angle of attack (angle of the panels relative
leads to significant differences in the applied load magnitudes. Figure 2 to the wind) may vary. For example, if the load application (load
compares the pressure coefficient, GCp, in ASCE 7-16 with some magnitude at 0 degrees) results in a 15-degree rotation at the end
sample wind tunnel results. As evidenced, the present ASCE 7-16 of the tracker, then the magnitude of load applied must be adjusted
provisions for monoslope free roofs do not adequately represent the to accommodate the deviation from 0-degrees. In short, a nonlinear
observed loading on a tracker in a wind tunnel. load application due to relative movement along the length of the
Presently, there is a proposal under development, based on consensus tracker should be considered in the design. The extreme case of this
wind tunnel coefficients from several laboratories, to incorporate wind is the static instability of torsional divergence, where the system never
load provisions for ground-mount solar assemblies into ASCE 7. converges to a stable position. Even if stable, the applied loads may vary
However, until standardized design guidance for the system being considerably and should be accounted for. When loads are procured

NOVEMBER 2020
 the frequency of the system is reduced (or
the speed increased), the pressure-based
methods tend to under-predict the peak
torque indicating that stiffness is coupled
with the observed loading. Hence, to
accurately assess the wind load acting
on the system, the buffeting response of
the system must be evaluated using either
numerical buffeting response analysis or
aeroelastic model testing.
From a structural modeling standpoint,
the conservative approach of modeling
the support as a pin connection will
not work because the system would be
unstable (as the other end is torsionally
free). In contrast, modeling the support
as a fixed end may be unconservative and
Figure 3. Results of non-linearity on tracker loading. underestimates applied wind loads. It is
thus advised to understand the motor
from wind tunnel testing, the wind engineer must be consulted about system that is used to control the tracking. The connection between
this aspect of nonlinear load application to determine if this behavior the motor and the torque tube should be studied to develop a rea-
is already accounted for in the provided loads. sonable estimate of the torsional stiffness at the support. It is also
Figure 3 shows the increase in the applied load magnitude due to essential that the wind consultant is aware of the support stiffness
nonlinear effects. The figure is based on an HSS 4×4×1⁄8 torque tube conditions since there is a potential to affect the measured wind pres-
under a uniform torsion of 1 kip-in/ft along sures. In-situ dynamic testing of mock-ups or
the length of the torque tube. In this case, test setups for natural frequencies have been
the cumulative nonlinear torque at the fixed performed by some system manufacturers to
end of the tube and the rotation at the free accomplish this.
end of the torque tube is 1.8 times the values
calculated using linear analysis.
Another factor often missed in load
Summary
application is stow tolerance. The track- The rapid growth in the demand for utility-
ers are stowed while not in operation or scale solar power led to an increase in the
under stow conditions (typically high construction of the trackers across the U.S.
wind speed events) to ensure safety. For However, design standards have not kept up
example, a tracker stowed flat (or 0 degrees with this surge in demand, leading to multiple
to the ground) at high wind speeds has a failures. From lessons learned through inves-
less effective area and thus observes lower Figure 4. Schematic of aerodynamic loading as a tigation of failures, the designer can mitigate
function of reduced frequency.
wind loads. However, this stow position is the risk of failure by:
not always exact, and some systems associate a tolerance as high as • Understanding the aerodynamics and/or consulting a wind
±7.5 to 10 degrees. The structural engineer should verify the behavior engineer for potential instability, estimate of load magnitude,
(and safety) under stow conditions, including the stated tolerance. and load application procedure;
• Understanding the tracker system by learning the operational
stow tolerance and support fixity;
Support Fixity • Considering in-service wind-induced vibration of the tracker
As discussed previously, SATs primarily act as cantilevers in the tor- and its influence on various components; and,
sional degree of freedom. However, it should be noted that the “fixed” • Designing connections to ensure limited stiffness discontinui-
end of the cantilever is not always fixed. Often, they are connected to ties by minimizing bolt slip or loosening.■
a motor or a lever arm that is used to control rotations during the day.
The torsional restraint of these end connections is not sufficient to be References are included in the PDF version
deemed as a “fixed” support. The flexibility of the sole torsional support of the article at STRUCTUREmag.org.
leads to challenges in the design. Deviation from fixity at the torsional
support reduces the natural frequency of the system. Figure 4 shows
the peak torque as a function of reduced frequency estimated using
Sumanth Cheruku is a Project Engineer with Thornton Tomasetti in their
different methods. Reduced frequency is a non-dimensional number
Austin office. He is the Secretary of Chapter 29 of ASCE 7 for the 2022
to combine the effects of the stiffness of the system (frequency, f ),
code cycle and has investigated failures and peer-reviewed designs for
across wind dimension (L), and the wind speed (V). Since peak wind
utility-scale PV solar trackers from various manufacturers.
load magnitudes increase as natural frequency decreases, assuming
fixity is not conservative. Matthew T.L. Browne is a Principal and Technical Director in RWDI’s
Pressure-based methods use rigid models in the wind tunnel, and Wind Loading.
dynamic properties of the structure are mathematically modeled. As

STRUCTURE magazine
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 NCSEA NCSEA News
National Council of Structural Engineers Associations
Congratulations to the 2020 NCSEA Special Awards Honorees
The Special Awards honor individuals who have provided outstanding service and commitment to the association and to
the structural engineering field. These awards are bestowed on individuals who exemplify the volunteerism that has brought
NCSEA to where it stands today. Visit www.ncsea.com to learn more about the Special Awards and about this year’s recipients.

NCSEA Service Award Robert Cornforth Award

This award is presented to an individual who has worked for This award is presented to an individual for exceptional dedication
the betterment of NCSEA to a degree that is beyond the norm of and exemplary service to an NCSEA Member organization as well
volunteerism. It is given to someone who has made a clear and as to the structural engineering profession.
indisputable contribution to the organization and the profession.
Brian Dekker, P.E., S.E., is president Jerry Maly, P.E., is a civil/structural
of Sound Structures. He has served engineer and a Principal in the
in many leadership positions within Denver, Colorado office of Wiss,
NCSEA, including chair of the Janney, Elstner Associates, Inc.,
Advocacy Committee and positions where his practice is focused on the
as Director, Treasurer, Vice President, rehabilitation of existing buildings
President, and Past President of and the investigation and repair of
the Board of Directors. During his structural damage, deterioration,
presidency he was instrumental in and failures. Jerry served SEAC as an
many new initiatives, including the Member Organization Officer from 1996-1999 and as Chair of the Membership
Grant Program. Brian took on a new volunteer role this Committee for over twenty years, welcoming more than 500
year as the President of NCSEA Media, leading the business new members. For over fifteen years, he has served as chair of
operations of STRUCTURE magazine. Brian’s past and the SEAC Denver Building Department Liaison Committee,
current roles at NCSEA have benefited the association, our representing the structural engineering community in the
member organizations, and the entire field. Denver Code Adoption process.

Susan M. Frey NCSEA Educator Award James Delahay Award

This award, established to honor the memory of Sue Frey, one of This award is presented at the recommendation of NCSEA’s Code
NCSEA’s finest educators, is presented to an individual who has a Advisory Committee to recognize outstanding individual contributions
genuine interest in, and extraordinary talent for, effective instruction towards the development of building codes and standards. It is given
for practicing structural engineers. in the spirit of its namesake, a person who made a long and lasting
contribution to the code development process.

Duane K. Miller, ScD, P.E., is a Kevin Moore, P.E., S.E., SECB,

recognized authority on the design is a Senior Principal and Structural
of welded connections. He has Division Head of Simpson Gumpertz
received the American Institute of & Heger Inc. He has been active in
Steel Construction’s T. R. Higgins NCSEA since 2003, and is the current
Lectureship Award, the Lifetime Chair of the NCSEA Resilience
Achievement Award, the Robert Committee and Past Chair of the
P. Stupp Award for Leadership NCSEA Seismic Subcommittee to the
Excellence, and was the fi rst re- Code Advisory Committee. He is the
cipient of the Steel Conference Speaker Award. He has chair of the Structural Standards Committee of SEAOC and
authored and coauthored many texts, including the AISC is the Vice President of the SEAONC Board. Kevin represents
Design Guide on Welding and the Mark’s Handbook of NCSEA with the Building Seismic Safety Council and serves
Engineering, 10th Edition. on a number of standards development organizations.

STRUCTURE magazine
 News from the National Council of Structural Engineers Associations

2020 MO Public Outreach Challenge

NCSEA’s External Communications Committee is expanding last year’s MO Public Outreach
Challenge to allow members, delegates, and SEA leadership to submit their Member Organization’s
most effective program for achieving NCSEA’s goal that:
Practicing structural engineers are recognized by clients, media, policymakers, educators,
students, and the public for the value of their contributions to society.
The purpose of this competition is to give SEAs a platform to be recognized by the SE profession
for their work and dedication to the field. What do you consider your SEA’s biggest Public Outreach
accomplishment in the past year (November 2019 through December 2020)? Each SEA may
submit up to one entry for each of the following categories: public outreach; political advocacy
(influencing public policy, providing educational opportunities supporting political actions, etc.);
students and educators (forming partnerships with schools, offering scholarships or mentoring
programs, etc.); or other outreach programs related to current NCSEA initiatives, including col- Maria Mohammed accepting the first place
laboration with allied organizations and diversity, equity, and inclusion efforts. award for the 2019 Challenge on behalf of the
Submissions are due December 15, 2020. Visit www.ncsea.com for more information. Structural Engineers Association of California

2020 NCSEA SEA Grant Program Open for Applications

The NCSEA Grant Program was developed in 2015 to award SEAs funding for projects that grow and promote their SEA and the structural
engineering field in accordance with the NCSEA Mission Statement. This program is now funded by the NCSEA Foundation, which was
established early this year to further support the non-profit activities of NCSEA and its Member Organizations. The goal of the Foundation
and the Grant Program are to advance the structural engineering profession through technical development, education, and outreach.
The Recipients of the 2019 Grant Program were:
• Structural Engineers Association of Central California to • Structural Engineers Association of New York for a screening
enhance their new Structural Engineering, Engagement, and of the documentary Leaning Out with panel
Equity (SE3) Committee • Structural Engineers Association of Ohio for a Young
• Structural Engineers Association of San Diego to support the Members’ Track at SEAoO’s Annual Conference
EERI San Diego-Tijuana Regional Earthquake Scenario Study • Oklahoma Structural Engineers Association to assist
and a Special Wind Region Study OSEA’s efforts in the Engineering Fair E-week 2020 Bridge
• Structural Engineers Association of Illinois to host a Young Competition
Professionals Workshop • Structural Engineers Association of Texas to support a local
• Structural Engineers Association of Kansas/Missouri to launch SE3 Speed Mentoring event
an SE3 Committee Panel Discussion and Networking Event and • Structural Engineers Association of Washington to assist with
to assist with STEM classes for local elementary school students a Joint Special Regions Wind Study
• Structural Engineers Association of Massachusetts to launch
an SE3 Committee Interactive Seminar Series
Applications are due December 1, 2020. Application requests must be reviewed and approved by the Member Organization before being
submitted to NCSEA for consideration. Learn more about the Grant Program by visiting www.ncsea.com.

NCSEA Webinars Register by visiting www.ncsea.com.

November 12, 2020 December 3, 2020
Warning Flags For Structural Engineers – Structural Planning of Gravity and Lateral
Hidden Contractual Risk Load Resisting Systems
Rob Hughes, Esp Sudarshan Krishnan

November 19, 2020 December 10, 2020

Fundamentals of Structural Planning Retrofitting of Existing Buildings with Steel Joists
Sudarshan Krishnan Bruce Brothersen, P.E., S.E., and Walter Worthley, Jr., P.E.

Courses award 1.5 hours of Diamond Review-approved continuing education after the completion of a quiz.

NOVEMBER 2020
 SEI Update
Learning / Networking
SEI Virtual Events NEW in the
www.asce.org/SEI/virtual-events
ASCE Bookstore
and Library
• Join the discussion with leaders on Performance-Based Design
#SEILive on YouTube – Wednesday, December 2, 12:30 pm US ET
• Career Path Series: Insights with Glenn Bell and Guide to the Tsunami Design
SE Industry Leaders Provisions of ASCE 7-16
SEI/ASCE Members have free access to sessions and resources online. By Ian N. Robertson, Ph.D., S.E.
Available at www.asce.org

Significant Papers from SEI Journals

Check out editor-selected influential papers that have been instrumental in moving civil engineering forward or have changed the practice
of structural engineering from the Journal of Bridge Engineering, the Journal of Structural Engineering, and the Practice Periodical on Structural
Design and Construction. https://ascelibrary.org/influentialseipapers

Errata SEI Standards Supplements and Errata including ASCE 7. See www.asce.org/SEI-Errata.
If you would like to submit errata, contact Kelly Dooley at [email protected].

STRUCTURE magazine
 News of the Structural Engineering Institute of ASCE

Advancing the Profession

New SEI Committee Charges
At the September 28 SEI Board of Governors meeting, charges were approved for these two committees in line with SEI Strategic vision initiatives:
SEI Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) Committee
The DEI Committee shall support SEI ASCE goals, values, and principles by:
Seeking to measurably advance the profession of Structural Engineers by promoting DEI to Structural Engineers and SEI through the:
a. Education; b. Practice; and, c. Business of Structural Engineers and the profession, where advancement of the profession is achieved
by Structural Engineers including DEI in their practice of being the “stewards of the built environment, [in which] structural engineers
are widely recognized as making key contributions to the advancement of society on a national and global scale.” (CASE, NCSEA, SEI
joint statement.).
• Introduce DEI as a value of Structural Engineers and the profession of structural engineering.
• Collaborate with other organizations (e.g., CASE, NCSEA, other Society Institutes, educational and others) to create initiatives
based on DEI shared values relevant to Structural Engineers, and work to disseminate those initiatives through SEI’s community.
Staff contact Justin Blan at [email protected].
SEI Committee on Resilience
To direct, oversee, and coordinate SEI’s efforts to enhance resilience for buildings, bridges, and other structures by preparing recommenda-
tions for the SEI Board of Governors and SEI Divisions, Committees, and Members.
Staff contact Jennifer Goupil at [email protected].

Call for Members

New Loading Standard for Structures Supporting Overhead Power Lines & Telecommunications Infrastructure
Development of a new standard ASCE/SEI XX, Minimum Design Loads for Structures Supporting Overhead Power Lines & Wired Telecommunications
Infrastructure, will begin in 2021. The committee seeks new members thru the end of 2020 to begin work on the new edition of the standard.
Michael Miller, P.E., M.ASCE, Vice President of Engineering and Business Development at SAE Towers, Ltd., will chair the cycle. Practicing
engineers, researchers, building officials, contractors, and construction product representatives are needed and welcome. Apply to join the
committee by December 31, 2020, via https://bit.ly/30OqQRQ. Select SEI from the Institute drop-down and then “Minimum Design
Loads for Structures Supporting Overhead Power Lines & Wired Telecommunications Infrastructure.” Carefully indicate the Membership
Category for which you are applying. Associate members can be accepted until balloting begins. Eligible regulatory members can qualify for
travel reimbursement per ASCE Travel Policy when applicable. Contact Jennifer Goupil at [email protected] with questions.
Design of Steel Transmission Pole Structures Standard (ASCE 48)
The revision cycle for the Design of Steel Transmission Pole Structures (ASCE 48) will begin in 2021. The committee seeks new members to
begin work on the next edition of the standard. Nick Grossenbach, P.E., A.M.ASCE, Manager of Engineering at American Transmission
Co., will chair the next cycle. Practicing engineers, researchers, building officials, contractors, and construction product representatives are
all needed and welcome. Apply to join the committee by December 31, 2020, via https://bit.ly/3jH9SfG. Select “SEI” from the Institute
drop-down and then “Steel Transmission Pole Structure (ASCE/SEI 48).” Carefully indicate the Membership Category for which you are
applying. Associate members can be accepted until balloting begins. Eligible regulatory members can qualify for travel reimbursement per
ASCE Travel Policy when that occurs. Contact Jennifer Goupil at [email protected] with questions.

SEI Online
ASCE Failure to Act – Electricity Report
Check out the report and remarks by Otto Lynch, P.E., F.SEI, F.ASCE in the release event webinar at www.asce.org/electricity_report

CROSS-US
View the latest newsletter and reports www.cross-us.org.

SEI News Read the latest at www.asce.org/SEINews

SEI Standards Visit www.asce.org/SEIStandards to view ASCE 7 development cycle
N O V E M B E R 2 02 0
 CASE in Point
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engineers are learning at each level of experience, or need a sample contract document – CASE has the tools you need!
CASE has several tools available for firms to use for recruiting and retaining employees.
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Tool 3-2 Staffing and Revenue Projection
Tool 3-5 Staffing Schedule Suite
Tool 4-3 Sample Correspondence Guidelines
Tool 5-1 A Guide to the Practice of Structural Engineering
Tool 5-2 Milestone Checklist for Young Engineers

NEW CASE Publication Released!

CASE Tool 2-6: Structural Engineer Job Descriptions
When targeted to people outside the firm, well-written job descriptions entice the most qualified people to apply with your firm. To get the
most qualified candidates, list quantitative and qualitative requirements such as experience, education, and desired personality traits. These
types of qualifications help to eliminate undesirable candidates.
When targeted to people inside the firm, job descriptions can be utilized as a powerful management tool. The details contained in well-written
job descriptions form the basis for developing a clear understanding between the employee and the manager of the employee’s expectations.
Managers can also use the terms in the job description to determine how the employees performed when conducting performance apprais-
als. The criteria used for performance evaluations ideally would match the expectations listed in the employee’s job description. The job
description for the position above the employee’s current position can explain what is required for that person to earn a promotion.
The job descriptions in Tool 2-6 are intended to be used as a template for creating job descriptions for your firm. Word files are provided,
with detailed descriptions and a matrix with abbreviated descriptions when comparing engineering levels.

Popular CASE Guideline Updated!

CASE 962-D: A Guideline Addressing Coordination and Completeness of Structural Construction Documents
CASE has released a comprehensive update to its popular: Guideline Addressing Coordination and Completeness of Structural Construction
Documents. The guideline will assist the structural engineer of record (SER) and everyone involved with building design and construction in
improving the process by which the owner is provided with a successfully completed project. Their intent is to help the practicing structural
engineer understand the importance of preparing coordinated and complete construction documents and to provide guidance and direction
toward achieving that goal.
This guideline focuses on the degree of completeness required in the structural construction documents (“Documents”) to achieve a “suc-
cessfully completed project” and on the communication and coordination needed to reach that goal. They do not attempt to encompass the
details of engineering design; instead, they provide a framework for the SER to develop a quality management process.
Currently, the coordination and completeness of Documents vary substantially within the structural engineering profession and among the
various professional disciplines comprising the design team. The SER’s goal should be meeting both the owner’s and the contractor’s needs by
producing a complete and coordinated set of Documents. Owners and contractors generally understand that, for some Documents, changes
will occur because they realize that no set of Documents is perfect. The SER must focus on completeness, coordination, constructability,
and reducing errors to minimize potential changes.
An overall comprehensive update was done to the document to keep with best business practices and current industry standards.

You can purchase these and the other Risk Management Tools at www.acec.org/bookstore.

STRUCTURE magazine
 News of the Coalition of American Structural Engineers

And the Scholarship Winner Is….

The CASE scholarship, administered by the ACEC College of Fellows, is awarded every year
to a deserving student seeking a master’s degree in an ABET-accredited engineering program.
Since 2010, the CASE Scholarship program has given over $34,000 to engineering students to
help pave their way to a bright future in structural engineering. CASE strives to attract the best
and brightest to the structural engineering profession, and educational support is the best way
to ensure our profession’s future.
The 2020 winner, Amanda Kalab, will graduate May 2021 with a master’s degree in Civil
Engineering, with an emphasis in Structural Engineering, from Washington State University.

ACEC Coalition Virtual Education Series

The next education session will take place on Thursday, December 3rd, from 1:30 pm to 3:00 pm. Hear from legal expert Kent Holland of
ConstructionRisk, LLC, who will provide a year-end review of Construction Law.
To register for this session, go to www.acec.org/coalitions/upcoming-coalition-events. The series will continue in January and will cover
the insurance industry. Stay tuned for more information in next month’s edition.

NEW – Strategies for Developing a Respectful, Diverse, and

Inclusive Workplace Culture
Employers are under significant scrutiny for the environment that exists in their workplaces.
In recent years, #MeToo, systemic racism, gender inequality, generational differences,
and negative behaviors in the workplace have posed enormous challenges for managers
that, if ignored, can result in lack of engagement, attrition, and even lawsuits.
This course is designed to help those in management positions learn how to address
these challenges by developing a culture of respect and inclusion. When respect thrives
in the workplace, so does an engaged staff commited to excellence.
This four-module course combines the scheduling ease of video learning and the imme-
diacy and intensity of a live classroom.
• Access recorded lectures anytime via computer, tablet, or smartphone
• Attend weekly live discussions with an instructor via WebEx Meeting
• Work together on small group assignments
Participants will earn a minimum of 8 PDHs too!
The program begins on January 25, 2021. Only 40 seats – register today at
https://education.acec.org/diweb/catalog/item?id=6096116.

Follow ACEC Coalitions on Twitter – @ACECCoalitions.

NOVEMBER 2020
 SOFTWARE updates
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STRUCTURE
NOVEMBER 2020
Bonus Content
 business PRACTICES
Market Trends – Succeeding Into 2022
By Kacey Clagett, LEED AP BD+C

T he economic downturn caused by the

Covid-19 pandemic has affected design
and construction firms around the United
companies with offices
in 12 states around the
country. Compared
States, whether by stopping or slowing to the months imme-
projects, triggering overnight switches from diately before the
normal business operations to working from shelter-in-place mea-
home, or its tolls on personal, physical, and sures began, two-thirds
emotional health. As the pandemic wears of the respondents had
on, businesses are finding ways to overcome experienced some drop
these setbacks. Yet, most experts expect that off in their normal bill-
real recovery may not take place until 2022. ings and projections
This article points out strategies that can help as of late June 2020.
your firm be resilient over the near term and While 30% of respon-
positioned for continued financial success. dents had decreases in
billings of 20% or less,
10% of the respon-
Where We Are dents had their billings
Since the Covid-19 pandemic took hold in decrease by over 60%. August 2020 American Institute of Architects ABI Index.
March of this year, the national economy Firms experiencing
fell 31.7% (on an annualized basis) in the greater drop-offs were more likely to be located There are pockets of more robust markets.
second quarter of 2020, the worst drop in the Northeast. All survey respondents were The Federal Government can choose to self-
ever recorded by the U.S. Department of concerned about their pipeline projects, with fund its projects and assist state and local
Commerce’s Bureau of Economic Analysis. 67% of the companies facing decreasing governments. Generally, Federal agencies have
This was preceded by a 5% contraction in the projections, and an overall 42% projected continued work or are “kicking the tires” with
national gross domestic product in the first decreases of 20% or more. feasibility studies. Many are planning for future
quarter of 2020. Many engineering and archi- The respondents expressed uncertainty in work, particularly through IDIQs (Indefinite
tecture companies have experienced hardship. their pipelines just one or two months out, Delivery, Indefinite Quantity solicitations, also
The American Institute of Architects’ AIA in contrast to the more traditional reliability known as as-needed services contracts), which
Billings Index (ABI), considered an important of these numbers for three to six months into continue to be advertised. Grocery stores, drug-
economic indicator for all nonresidential con- the future. stores, warehouses, and distribution centers
struction activity, including multi-family, for are busy. Commercial and institutional real
the next nine to 12 months, plummeted from estate owners are looking at repurposing their
an overall score of 53.4 in February 2020 to
Outlook – Uneven Terrain holdings, although this work is often limited
29.5 in April 2020. The AIA Billings Index Geographic regions and market sectors to feasibility and pricing studies. New and
looks at a month’s performance against the continue to be unevenly affected by the pan- renovated housing is in demand, often out-
previous month, and a score of 50 indicates demic. The Southeast and West show some side of metropolitan centers. Owners across
no change. Anything below 50 indicates a improvements, primarily driven by the con- all markets are trying to use this time of
decreased outlook from the month before; tinued long-term population shift to those decreased occupancy for needed repairs like
over 50 shows growing demand. The August regions. Much of the Midwest is not densely deferred maintenance and seismic upgrades,
2020 ABI, released in late September 2020, populated, which has reduced the immedi- with the hope that construction prices will
had an overall score of 40.0. The ABI has ate effects of the pandemic. The Northeast, fall as the pandemic wears on. However, a cor-
stood at 40.0 since June 2020. whose economic indicators lagged behind rection in construction pricing is not likely to
Before implementing shelter-in-place mea- the West and Southeast before the spread take place until 2021, because most builders
sures, the majority of regions and market of Covid-19, was hardest hit in the early have contracts in place for materials and with
sectors were relatively healthy, with the stron- months of the pandemic and, compared to subcontractors. Any lowering of construction
gest outlooks in the Southeast and the West. other regions, is more built out. Commercial costs would happen once the subcontractor
Most market sectors were in reasonably good owners across the country are reassessing and vendor pipelines drop. In regions like the
shape, with some softness in higher education their real estate plans, especially in tourism, San Francisco Bay Area, many builders have
from the “baby bust,” the drop off in births hospitality, retail, and commercial office. solid pipelines into 2022.
during the 1990s, and its outsized inflation Many government agencies and institutions
relative to the overall economy. Industrial are also in flux, whether from reduced fund-
and multi-family were particularly strong. In ing and donations to capital campaigns or by
What You Can Do
July 2020, Appleseed Strategy released results the closure of in-person education and fears • Keep in touch with your current,
from its survey of 31 design and construction of exposure at healthcare facilities. past, and prospective clients. This is

STRUCTURE magazine
 fundamental at any time, but even more brief lulls in work may
critical now. Show interest in what they be time to address non-
are experiencing and find ways to offer billable projects that
help. Consider conducting surveys or have not received atten-
holding roundtables to provide them with tion, downturns merit
information they can use. a look at where the
• At the same time, take an objective look market is headed and,
at your client list, and evaluate your prof- consequently, strategic
itability by client, sector, service offering, adjustments. Recessions
and similar metrics. Pay special attention are often when new busi-
to where you have greater than 20% of nesses are launched, and
your revenue from a single client, market these new competitors
sector, or service. These are areas where are likely to offer more
companies are in most danger of experi- aggressive risk/reward
encing hardship if something unexpected propositions. This is the
happens. Diversify as much as you can. time to look objectively
• Reassess your business plan. A downturn at your business and
is a great period to test out new models. consider refocusing or
Necessity is the mother of invention. retraining staff, as well
Consider new service offerings and pric- as making strategic hires,
ing structures. It may be time to be even alliances, acquisitions, or
bolder, through strategic hires, alliances, mergers.
and acquisitions. • Your clients are also
• Watch your competitors. They are watch- evaluating what
ing you. There is an old adage in business they can do to keep
development: your best client is your rival’s themselves financially
best prospect. Beyond the need to keep successful. They are
on your toes, your competitors may be likely to be more open Appleseed Strategy Survey – Pipeline Predictions.
launching new business models or pric- to new ideas, espe-
ing structures. Talented staff will also be cially when looking to
coming on the market; keeping an eye on prove their worth to their own bosses.
Conclusions
your competitors may give you the chance For instance, while many well-known Whether you are experiencing little-to-no
to get new resources in areas that will make retail brands and shopping center owners change in your business, or are in hardship,
you more economically resilient. have been devastated by the pandemic, use this period to evaluate how you can make
• Business development accountability Amazon is buying former retail spaces to your company more resilient and set for
(and training) for everyone! A strong retrofit for local distribution. Across all future success. Research is essential. Look at
business nurtures its whole staff to partici- regions and markets, owners are evaluat- what has made you successful, or not, and
pate in business development on some ing how to make the best use of what how likely the future economy will support
level, whether by acting as a company they have as they respond to economic your business model. Do the math. Talk to
ambassador or by keeping an eye out for disruptions. Structural engineers may people – clients, prospects, allies, competi-
opportunities to cross- or up-sell services. find it advantageous to contact owners tors, and especially your staff. Your financial
Remember that your key contacts may directly about offering targeted consulta- success depends on an open mind and a
move on to new companies or retire, and tion bypassing the more expensive, full clear-eyed assessment of both your
your next client may be more receptive to team approach. company’s health and a range of
others on your team. • While most experts agree that people possible future market conditions.■
have short memories and that many
modifications wrought by the pandemic The online version of this article
Recommendations will fade away once we are past its prob- contains references. Please visit
• Take advantage of existing federal, state, lems, it is also likely to spur longer-term www.STRUCTUREmag.org.
and local government assistance pro- physical changes to building stock. An
grams, such as grants and low-interest obvious one many companies face: how
loans. Watch for new programs and much real estate do we need now that we Kacey Clagett is a Principal and Founder
changes to those already in place. Because are used to working from home at least of Appleseed Strategy.
2020 is an election year, more govern- part of the time? In Appleseed Strategy’s ([email protected])
ment assistance will be a top priority, Summer 2020 survey, 73% of respon-
whether through grants, loans, or tax dents were contemplating reducing their
relief. Existing programs have already office space and seeking rent reductions This article is based on findings from Appleseed
been modified to facilitate their use, and and forbearance. Anecdotal evidence Strategy’s Summer 2020 financial and
further changes are very possible. points to many companies maintaining economic outlook survey. It has been updated
• Like it or not, any recession opens the pro- work from home policies through the with new economic data from the AIA Billings
fession up to disruptive influences. While end of 2020 and beyond. Index and other sources.

NOVEMBER 2020 BONUS CONTENT

 Response to October 2020 STRUCTURE Article
By Jason B. Lloyd, Ph.D., P.E., Robert J. Connor, Ph.D., P.E., and Karl H. Frank, Ph.D., P.E.

T he October 2020 STRUCTURE article, Coating Preparations Reduce the Strength of Bridges, by Robert A. Leishear,
Ph.D., P.E., PMP, presents information and opinions on potential problems with the fatigue resistance of steel
bridges prepared for coatings using grit blast cleaning methods. Some of the information in this article is misleading with
unsubstantiated claims regarding the safety of existing and future steel bridges. These topics are addressed below.

Blast cleaning has been used in the coating process

of steel bridges for decades. Shot and grit blasting
techniques are approved cleaning methods used in
fabrication shops, as well as field painting for new
and existing bridges. The most common media used
is a shot/grit mixture. The blast cleaning processes
are regulated by state department of transportation
specifications for bridge design or rehabilitation proj-
ects. These generally are consistent with the AASHTO
LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications where it states
in article 13.2.3.1 that blast cleaning “shall leave all
surfaces with a dense and uniform anchor pattern of not
less than 1 mil or more than 3 mils, as measured with
an approved surface profile comparator” (AASHTO,
2017). The methods for removal of foreign material
for surface preparation for liquid coatings generally
also conforms to either the SSPC-SP 6 or SSPC-SP 10
preparation specifications with additional guidance pro-
vided by AASHTO/NSBA Steel Bridge Collaboration
S8.1 (2014). Surface preparations for thermal spray
coatings are performed in accordance with SSPC-CS
23.00/AWS C2.23/NASCE No.12, as well as additional Example large-scale fatigue test of steel bridge girders (Hebdon et al., 2017).
guidance provided by AASHTO/NSBA Steel Bridge
Collaboration S8.2 (2017), specifying a surface roughness between caused by the grit blasting relative to the polished surface is expected
2.5 and 5 mils. and an important consideration for machined components.
The opinions in the October 2020 article are based on the misapplica- The October 2020 article stated that grit blasting “significantly
tion of the work by Padilla, Velasquez, Berrios, and Puchi Cabrera of degrades the strength of steel bridges, endangering safe design.” This
the University of Venezuela, which was published in 2002. The cited statement is based upon the reduction in the rotating beam specimens
research is thorough and adept with an important field of application relative to a mirror-like surface observed by Padilla et al. However, the
listed as dynamic components of helicopters. We do not take issue mirror-like surface commonly used in rotating beams tests is vastly
with the research; however, we fully disagree with applying those different than the as-fabricated and as-rolled surface conditions of steel
results to steel bridge fatigue life design and safety. used in highway and railway bridges. The fatigue design requirements
The research by Padilla et al. (2002) included the comparison of in the AASHTO specifications are based upon full-scale girder tests
fatigue life of rotating-beam specimens having three different surface with as-received mill scale surfaces (see Figure), as well as bolted con-
conditions; mechanically polished (described as “mirror-like”), grit nection tests with blasted and blasted-then-coated surfaces (Fisher et
blasted, and grit blasted with hard facing thermal spray coating. The al., 1983; Fisher et al., 1974; Fisher et al., 1970; Brown et al., 2007;
specimens were made from SAE 4140 steel (which is not a structural Frank and Yura, 1981). The research is conclusive; fatigue resistance
steel used in bridges) with a measured yield strength reported as of all steel bridges is governed by welded or bolted connection details,
approximately 127 ksi. The specimens were tested in a rotating beam not by minor surface conditions. This is particularly true at the low
apparatus and were subjected to reversed bending at very high stress effective fatigue stress ranges experienced by in-service steel bridges,
levels. This type of fatigue testing is sensitive to surface condition which, based on extensive field testing experience of the authors, is
effects and yield strength. Thus, it would be sensible for a researcher typically only about 4 to 8% of the steel yield strength. Furthermore,
to choose these relatively quick and affordable tests when wanting to the fatigue life of the rotating beam tests, performed by Padilla et al.,
observe the influence of different surface conditions on fatigue life for greatly exceeded the fatigue life of steel bridge welded connection
a particular base material. The rotating beam tests were performed at details that are used throughout the United States.
high stress ranges, including approximately 69, 74, 79, and 84 ksi (54, Extensive fatigue studies of bolted connections with blasted and
58, 62, and 66% of the yield strength, respectively). The elevated stress blasted-then-painted surfaces have been performed (Brown et al.,
ranges accelerate the fatigue testing and help amplify the influence 2007; Frank and Yura, 1981). These studies showed that the coated
of minor surface condition parameters. The reduction in fatigue life specimens had a slightly higher fatigue resistance due to the reduction

STRUCTURE magazine
in fretting caused by slippage of the connection. The uncoated blasted large-scale test specimens having surface conditions, constraints,
surface fatigue life equaled or exceeded the Category B fatigue design residual stresses, random flaw distributions, and welding procedures
strength for bolted connections. These large-sized bolted connections, used for actual bridges. An extrapolation of rotating-beam fatigue test
which included both weathering and non-weathering steel and real- data for surface roughening to the fatigue behavior of some industries
istic surface preparations, confirmed the adequacy of the AASHTO may be acceptable, but it is inappropriate for fabricated steel bridges.
specifications. Likewise, a claim that bridge designs are “in jeopardy” due to fatigue
It must be kept in mind that the current AASHTO fatigue design is egregious. The claimed reduction in fatigue strength has not been
specifications are derived from experimental data representing the 95 found in large-scale fatigue tests of bridge components nor
percent confidence limit for an approximate 97.5 percent survival for in the observed excellent in-service fatigue performance of
each detail type. Extensive fatigue data was accumulated over many steel bridges over the past 45 years.■
years of testing to develop the AASHTO categories. The fatigue
design curves statistically correspond, therefore, to the shortest lives
experimentally observed for each category, which, of course, would Jason B. Lloyd is a Bridge Steel Specialist with the National Steel
have been governed by the most severe discontinuity. What resulted Bridge Alliance.
are AASHTO fatigue design curves representing the detail with the
Robert J. Connor is the Jack and Kay Hockema Professor in Civil
most severe discontinuity and predicting, with high statistical confi-
Engineering and the Director of the Center for Aging Infrastructure and
dence, that it will survive the desired service life. This also means that
S-BRITE Center at Purdue University.
a substantial majority of details in a given category will have longer
fatigue lives than predicted by a design curve. Karl H. Frank is a Professor Emeritus at The University of Texas at Austin,
There is an extensive experimental database that was used to develop the Chief Engineer at Hirschfeld Industries, Ret., and a Consultant.
the AASHTO fatigue design provisions, which are based upon

References
AASHTO (2017). LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications, 4th Edition. American Association of State Highway & Transportation
Officials. Washington, DC.

AASHTO/NSBA Steel Bridge Collaboration. (2017). S8.2 Specification for Application of Thermal Spray Coating Systems to Steel
Bridges. Available online: https://store.transportation.org/Item/PublicationDetail?ID=3910

AASHTO/NSBA Steel Bridge Collaboration. (2014). S8.1 Guide Specification for Application of Coating Systems. Available online:
https://store.transportation.org/item/publicationdetail/2355

Barsom, J. M. (1981). Fatigue Considerations for Steel Bridges. Fatigue Crack Growth Measurement and Data Analysis,
ASTM STP 738, S. J. Hudak, Jr., and R. J. Bucci, Eds., American Society for Testing and Materials, pp. 300-318.

Brown, J. D., Lubitz, D. J., Cekov, Y. C., and Frank, K. H. (2007). Evaluation of Influence of Hole Making Upon the Performance
of Structural Steel Plates and Connections. Report No. FHWA/TX-07/0-4624-1. University of Texas at Austin. Austin, TX.

Fisher, J. W., Mertz, D. R, and Zhong, A. (1983). Steel Bridge Members under Constant Amplitude Fatigue Loading. NCHRP
Report 267. Transportation Research Board. Washington, DC.

Fisher, J. W., Albrecht, P.A., Yen, B. T., Klingerman, D. J., and McNamee, B. M. (1974). Fatigue Strength of Steel Beam with
Welded Stiffeners and Attachments. NCHRP Report 147. Transportation Research Board. Washington, DC.

Fisher, J. W., Frank, K. H., Hirt, M. A., and McNamee, B. M. (1970). Effect of Weldments on the Fatigue Strength of Steel Beams.
NCHRP Report 102. Transportation Research Board. Washington, DC.

Frank, K.H., and Yura, J.A. (1981). An Experimental Study of Bolted Shear Connections, Report No. FHWA RD-81/148, University
of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX.

Hebdon, M. H, Bonachera Martin, F. J., Korkmas, C., and Connor, R. J. (2017). Load Redistribution and Remaining Fatigue Life
of Steel Built-up Members Subjected to Flexure Following a Component Failure. Journal of Bridge Engineering, ASCE.
DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)BE.1943-5592.0001087.

Padilla, K., Velasquez, A., Berrios, J. A., and Puchi Cabrera, E. S. (2002). Fatigue Behavior of a 4140 Steel Coated with A NiMoAl
Deposit Applied by HVOF Thermal Spray. Elsevier Press, Vol. 150, pp. 151-162. Amsterdam, Netherlands.

NOVEMBER 2020 BONUS CONTENT