Introduction:

In this session, we describe several methods used to compute the results of a quantitative
analysis. We begin by presenting the SI system of units and the distinction between mass and weight. We
then discuss the mole, a measure of the amount of a chemical substance. Next, we consider the various
ways that concentrations of solutions are expressed. Finally, we treat chemical stoichiometry.

a. SI Units - SI is the acronym for the French “Système International d’Unités.” This system is
based on the seven fundamental base units shown in table below. Numerous other useful units,
such as volts, hertz, coulombs, and joules, are derived from these base units.

 To express small or large measured quantities in terms of a few simple digits, prefixes are
used with these base units and other derived units.

The Distinction Between Mass and Weight

1. Mass (m) - an invariant measure of the quantity of matter. 
2. Weight (w) - the force of gravitational attraction between that matter and Earth.

Solutions and Their Concentrations

 1. Mole (abbreviated mol) - the SI unit for the amount of a chemical substance. It is always
associated with specific microscopic entities such as atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other
particles, or specified groups of such particles as represented by a chemical formula.
2. Molar mass (M) - is the mass in grams of 1 mole of that substance. We calculate molar masses
by summing the atomic masses of all the atoms appearing in a chemical formula.
3. Millimole - is 1/1000 of a mole, and the mass in grams of a millimole, the millimolar mass (mM),
is likewise 1/1000 of the molar mass.
4. Molar concentration - cx of a solution of a solute species X is the number of moles of that
species that is contained in 1 liter of the solution (not 1 L of the solvent). In terms of the number of
moles of solute, n, and the volume, V, of solution.

5. Molar analytical concentration – is the total number of moles of a solute, regardless of its
chemical state, in 1 L of solution. The molar analytical concentration describes how a solution of a
given concentration can be prepared.
5. Molar equilibrium concentration – is the molar concentration of a particular species in a
solution.
5. Percent Concentration - parts per hundred.
a. Weight percent - is often used to express the concentration of commercial aqueous
reagents.
b. Volume percent - is commonly used to specify the concentration of a solution prepared
by diluting a pure liquid compound with another liquid.
c. Weight or volume percent - is often used to indicate the composition of dilute aqueous
solutions of solid reagents.

d. Parts per million (ppm) -

d. Density - expresses the mass of a substance per unit volume. In SI units, density is
expressed in units of kg/L or alternatively g/mL.
d. Specific gravity - is the ratio of the mass of a substance to the mass of an equal volume
of water.

Chemical Stoichiometry
1. Stoichiometry - is the relationship among the number of moles of reactants and products as
represented by a balanced chemical equation.
2. Empirical formula - gives the simplest whole number ratio of atoms in a chemical compound. 
3. Molecular formula - specifies the number of atoms in a molecule.

Calculations
1. Replicates - samples of about the same size that are carried through an analysis in exactly the
same way.
2. Mean- also called the arithmetic mean or the average, is obtained by dividing the sum of replicate
measurements by the number of measurements in the set: 
3. Median - is the middle value in a set of data that has been arranged in numerical order. The
median is used
advantageously when a set of data contain an outlier, a result that differ significantly from others
in the set.
4. Outlier - can have a significant effect on the mean of the set but has no effect on the median.
4. Precision - is the closeness of results to others obtained in exactly the same way.
4. Accuracy - is the closeness of a measured value to the true or accepted value.
4. Absolute error - is the difference between the measured value and the true value.

8. Relative error - is often a more useful quantity than the absolute error, the absolute error divided
by the true value.

9. Random (or indeterminate) error - causes data to be scattered more or less symmetrically
around a mean value, it affects measurement precision.
a. Statistical Treatment of Random Errors
i. Population - is the collection of all measurements of interest to the
experimenter.
ii. Sample - is a subset of measurements selected from the population.
iii. Population standard deviation - is a measure of the precision of the population

b. Areas under a Gaussian Curve

 1.

2.

3.
ii. Sample standard deviation - a measure of precision
 d. Standard error of the mean - is inversely proportional to the square root of the number
of data points N used to calculate the mean. It is the standard deviation of a set of data
divided by the square root of the number of data points in the set.
d. Variance - is equal to the square of the standard deviation. It is an estimate of the
population variance
10. Systematic (or determinate) error - causes the mean of a data set to differ from the accepted
value, it affects the accuracy of results.
1. Sources of systematic errors
1. Instrumental errors are caused by nonideal instrument behavior, by faulty
calibrations, or by use under inappropriate conditions.
2. Method errors arise from nonideal chemical or physical behavior of analytical
systems.
3. Personal errors result from the carelessness, inattention, or personal limitations
of the experimenter.
ii. Effect of Systematic Errors on Analytical Results
1. Constant errors are independent of the size of the sample being analyzed.
2. Proportional errors decrease or increase in proportion to the size of the sample.
ii. Detection of Systematic Method Errors
1.Analysis of Standard Samples
 Standard reference materials (SRMs) are substances sold by the
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and certified to
contain specified concentrations of one or more analytes.
 Independent Analysis
 Blank Determinations
 Blank solution contains the solvent and all of the reagents in an
analysis. Whenever feasible, blanks may also contain added constituents
to simulate the sample matrix.
 Matrix - to the collection of all the constituents in the sample.
 Variation in Sample Size

11. Gross error - usually occur only occasionally, are often large, and may cause a result to be
either high or low, often the product of human errors.
11. Outlier - is an occasional result in replicate measurements that differs significantly from the other
results.
11. Bias - measures the systematic error associated with an analysis. It has a negative sign if it
causes the results to be low and a positive sign otherwise.
11. Gaussian or normal error curve – is a curve that shows the symmetrical distribution of data
around the mean of an infinite set of data

Reporting Computed Data

1. Significant Figure - are all of the certain digits plus the first uncertain digit.
1. Rules for determining the number of significant figures:
1. Disregard all initial zeros.
2. Disregard all final zeros unless they follow a decimal point.
3. All remaining digits including zeros between nonzero digits are significant.
ii. Significant Figures in Numerical Computations
1. Sums and Differences - for addition and subtraction, the result should have the
same number of decimal places as the number with the smallest number of
decimal places. Note that the result contains three significant digits even though
two of the numbers involved have only two significant figures.
 2. Products and Quotients - assume unit uncertainty in the last digit of each
number.
b. Rounding Data - To change a number into an approximation having fewer significant digits.

CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING (30 minutes)

The students will answer the given problem solving and show their computation. This will be recorded as
their quiz. One (1) point will be given to correct answer and another one (1) point for the correct
computation. Superimpositions or erasures in answer/ratio is not allowed. 

1. There are three different samples and each has examined five times. You have
each data from each of its trials

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5

Sodium  67 87 54 99 78
Potassiu 85 90 44 80 46
m
Calcium 32 101 65 88 55

1. What is the mean of trial 1?

2. What is the median trial 1?
3. What is the mean of trial 2?
4. What is the median trial 2?
5. What is the mean of trial 3?
6. What is the median trial 3?
7. What is the mean of trial 4?
8. What is the median trial 4?
9. What is the mean of trial 5?
10. What is the median trial 5?

II. Solve the following equations using the correct number of significant figures.
11. 34.683 + 58.930 + 68.35112 = 
11. 45001 - 56.355 - 78.44 = 
11. 98.1 x 0.03 = 
11. 8.578 / 4.33821 = 
11. How many significant figures does 02947.1 have?