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ESS Unit 3

There are three main types of biodiversity: genetic, species, and habitat diversity. Biodiversity is highest in tropical rainforests, which are vulnerable locations due to deforestation and the upsetting of nutrient balances. Species originate through speciation, which can be driven by physical barriers separating populations or continental drift leading to new habitats. Biodiversity is threatened by loss of habitat, pollution, overexploitation, invasive species, and climate change. Conservation aims to preserve biodiversity due to its economic, ecological, social and ethical value for human health and well-being.

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67 views

ESS Unit 3

There are three main types of biodiversity: genetic, species, and habitat diversity. Biodiversity is highest in tropical rainforests, which are vulnerable locations due to deforestation and the upsetting of nutrient balances. Species originate through speciation, which can be driven by physical barriers separating populations or continental drift leading to new habitats. Biodiversity is threatened by loss of habitat, pollution, overexploitation, invasive species, and climate change. Conservation aims to preserve biodiversity due to its economic, ecological, social and ethical value for human health and well-being.

Uploaded by

Sachit
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Chapter 3.

1 - Biodiversity and Conservation


Biodiversity: ​quantifiable version of nature which helps policy-makers in suggesting them what
to do (helps make better science)
3 different types of biodiversity: ​Genetic diversity, species diversity and habitat diversity
Species diversity: ​communities is a product of two variables - no. of species and relative
proportions
Genetic diversity:​ range of genetic material present in a gene pool and the amount of variation
that exists between different individuals within different populations of a species. Therefore to
conserve the maximum amount of genetic diversity, different populations of species need to be
conserved
◦ Human can alter genetic diversity by artificially breeding or genetically engineering
populations
◦ Genetic variation = good thing, according to many conservationists
Habitat diversity: ​range of different habitats per unit area in a particular ecosystem or biome
Habitat with high biodiversity
Advantages Disadvantages

resilience and stability could be a result of fragmentation of habitat


genetic diversity managing grazing can be difficult - tolerance
some plants will have deep roots so they can is different between plant species
cycle nutrients
Hotspots: ​region with high level of biodiversity that is under threat from human activities
▪ include ten in tropical rainforests
▪ near to tropics - fewer limiting factors in lower latitudes
▪ cover only 2.3% land surface
▪ threatened areas where 70% of the habitat is lost
▪ tend to have large human habitations nearby
▪ contains more than 1,500 plant species that are already endemic
Examples: Hawaii, Iceland, yellowstone places, coral reefs, mangroves (hotspots of the ocean)
Tropical rainforests​ are vulnerable because:
▪ upsetting equilibrium due to deforestation
▪ flows of nutrients has imbalanced (very few nutrients are present in the soil, they’re mainly in
living material/biomass)
Ex: palm oil extraction in Indonesia
Tropical Rainforests are hotspots (something that has a small area but high biodiversity):
6% of land occupied (originally it was 14% 40 years ago, now it is at 6%)
- Lungs of Earth
- Traps water with roots from trees (adds to system energy)
- Controls the weather (Amazon Rainforest)
Case Study​: Eco-logging companies (FSCs - Forest Stewardship Council) → Northern region of
Congo
**Look at “Vulnerability of Tropical Rainforests” in ESS book → ​case study ​example
Chapter 3.2 - Origins of Biodiversity
How new species from: ​Charles Darwin - theory of evolution “The Origin of Species” (1859)
Speciation: ​gradual change of species over a long time
When the population of the same species are ​separated:
▪ cannot interbreed if inhabited environment changes
▪ humans can speed up speciation by artificial selection of animals

Physical barriers:
◦ ​Large flightless birds ​only occur on continents that made up “Gondwana” - Africa, Australia,
NewZealand, South America
◦ ​Marsupials ​- in Australia as they split from Antarctic
◦ ​Placental mammals ​prevailed in South America
◦ ​Cichlid fish - ​◦have been isolated from each other in the lakes of East Africa
Land bridges:
◦ Allow species to invade new areas
◦ May result from lowering of sea levels instead of continental drift
Influence of plate activity on biodiversity:
◦ ​Convergence ​- created Himalayas, Andes, etc.
◦ ​Diverge ​- mid-Atlantic ridge, cause physical separation of populations
◦ ​Slide ​past each other (eg. the San Andreas Fault Line, California)
Continental drift:
◦ resulted in new habitats
◦ Antarctica was once covered with tropical forests, but its southward movement has led
to snow and ice covered-landscape
Similar group of animals:
◦ Similarities between animals on different continents
Examples: Llama and Camel, Kangaroos play a role in Australia that cattle play in most of the
world (both are large herbivores, eat grass and convert it to meat)
Background and Mass extinctions
Background extinction rate​ - natural extinction rate of all species
▪ one species per million species per year
▪ There are about 5000 mammal species alive today
▪ 169 mammal species = critically endangered
Holocene extinction - 6th mass extinction
◦ Believed that we are in it right now
◦ Caused by ​anthropogenic ​influences
◦ Wiping out of animal species
◦ Pollution, overexploitation, etc.
Dinosaur extinction - 5th mass extinction (KT boundary)
Permian - Triassic (PT) boundary - 3rd mass extinction
◦ 251 million years ago
◦ Known as ‘The Great Dying’
◦ 95-96% of all species went extinct
Chapter 3.3 - Threats to Biodiversity
Estimate of species alive:
◦ 7 million, excluding bacteria
◦ 2/3’s are in the tropics
◦ 50% of tropical rainforests have been cleared by humans
◦ However, only 1.4-1.8 million species have been named (beetles are most identified - 25% of
all named species)
Factors maintaining biodiversity:
◦ Complexity of the ecosystem (more complex a food web is, the more resilient it is)
◦ Stage of succession (communities in young ecosystems that are undergoing succession may
be more vulnerable than older, more stable and resilient ones)
◦ Limiting factors (water in a desert, competition with other organisms, temperature, etc)
◦ Inertia: property of an ecosystem to resist change when subjected to destructive force
​Factors leading to a loss of biodiversity:
◦ Natural hazards (volcanoes, earthquakes, hurricanes, etc)
◦ Loss of habitat (due to anthropogenic activities → Deforestation, in Mediterranean, only 10%
of the original forest cover remains)
◦ Fragmentation of habitats: Large area is divided into smaller areas due to establishment of
factories, houses, cities, etc.
◦ Pollution (pesticides, oil spills, emissions - lead to acid deposition or photochemical smog,
run-off from fertilizers, climate change - alters weather patterns and shifts biomes away from
equator)
◦ Overexploitation (overfishing - use of technology to find hotspots of fish)
◦ Introducing exotic/non-native species → It can work sometimes - potatoes from Americas to
Europe or Sometimes not: Rhododendrons were introduced to Europe from Nepal escaped into
the wild, and outcompete native plants and are toxic, Rabbits in Australia
◦ Spread of diseases (ebola in 2014/15, Swine Flu in 2010 - endemic in pigs, bird flu)
◦ Modern agricultural practices (monocropping → less destructive)
What makes a species prone to extinction?
◦ Narrow geographical range
◦ Small population
◦ Declining population
◦ Low population density and large territory
◦ Few population of species
◦ A large body
◦ Low reproductive rate
◦ Seasonal migrates
◦ Poor dispersers
◦ Specialized feeders
◦ Hunted for food/sport
◦ Minimal viable population size
•​ International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)
Red List: ​determines conservation status of a species based on criteria - most are
stated above under “what makes a species prone to extinction”
Criteria of judgement include: ​Extinct ​(dodo bird & tasmanian tiger), ​Critically Endangered
(red panda, sea turtles, orangutan, sumatran rhinos),​ Endangered ​(rafflesia & sumatran/bengal
tiger, sea otters), ​Vulnerable, Least Concerned, Data Deficient, Not Evaluated
Know the story of the Dodo Bird ;)
1 species/1 million species/year = ​background role of extinction​ } 100 times above this rate

Chapter 3.4 - Conservation of Biodiversity


Why conserve biodiversity?
→ Economic, Ecological, Social, Aesthetic (PECe)
Value of biodiversity:
◦ Food sources (case studies: wheat rust disease, introduction of resistant genes from a wild
strain of wheat in Turkey
◦ Scientific and education value
◦ Biological control agents
◦ Gene Pool
◦ Recreational
◦ Ecotourism
◦ Ethical/intrinsic value
◦ environmental services
Natural products: ​Honey, oil palms, guano
If biodiversity is protected:
1st law of thermodynamics ​→ conservation of energy
▪ Energy in an isolated system can be transformed but not be created or
destroyed.
▪ Equilibrium is very important
▪ Balance isA required in the system
▪ Order to disorder
2nd law of thermodynamics ​→ Entropy (unavailability of a system’s thermal energy for
conversion into mechanical work)
▪ Amount of disorder in the system
▪ More entropy = less order
▪ Energy of the universe dispersed (order > disorder) energy spreader as
universe spreads infinitely
▪ Energy conversions are never 100% efficient
▪ Energy is always lost in the environment as heat
▪ Organisms reverse entropy
3rd law of thermodynamics ​→ entropy is at a constant level
Human health: ​Penicillin (first antibiotics) were from fungi
▪ Periwinkle is curing children from leukemia
• ​Gene/Seed banks: ​maintain genetic diversity for plants
Complexity and Stable equilibrium:
Most ecosystems are very complex:
▪ Can withstand stress better and also a more stable system
▪ Complex systems tend to fail
Monoculture farming is very simple
▪ Open to pests and diseases
▪ Increases vulnerability

Steady state equilibrium:


◦ Human body sweats to cool down and shivers to heat up to keep a steady body
temperature
◦ Non-living things are static

Approaches to conservation
◦ Human health
◦ Human rights
◦ Recreational
◦ Ecotourism
◦ Ethical/Intrinsic value

Keystone species: ​A keystone species is a species that has a disproportionately large effect
on its natural environment relative to its abundance
Examples: ​krill, beavers, bees, tuna, sea otters, elephants

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