The Nervous System

Functions of the Nervous System

1. Sensory input—gathering information

• Sensory receptors monitor changes, called stimuli, occurring inside and outside the body

2. Integration

• Nervous system processes and interprets sensory input and decides whether action is needed

3. Motor output

• A response, or effect, activates muscles or glands

Organization of the Nervous System

• Nervous system classifications are based on:

o Structures (structural classification)

o Activities (functional classification)

Structural Classification

Central nervous system (CNS)

• Organs

o Brain

o Spinal cord

Function

• Integration; command center

• Interprets incoming sensory information

• Issues outgoing instructions

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

• Nerves extending from the brain and spinal cord

o Spinal nerves—carry impulses to and from the spinal cord

o Cranial nerves—carry impulses to and from the brain

• Functions

o Serve as communication lines among sensory organs, the brain and spinal cord, and
glands or muscles

Functional Classification

Sensory (afferent) division

• Nerve fibers that carry information to the central nervous system

o Somatic sensory (afferent) fibers carry information from the skin, skeletal muscles, and
joints

o Visceral sensory (afferent) fibers carry information from visceral organs

• Motor (efferent) division

o Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from the central nervous system organs to
effector organs (muscles and glands)

Two subdivisions:

o Somatic nervous system = voluntary

▪ Consciously (voluntarily) controls skeletal muscles

o Autonomic nervous system = involuntary

▪ Automatically controls smooth and cardiac muscles and glands

▪ Further divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

 Nervous Tissue: Support Cells

• Support cells in the CNS are grouped together as neuroglia

• General functions

o Support

o Insulate

o Protect neurons
 Nervous Tissue: Structure and Function

• Nervous tissue is made up of two principal cell types

o Supporting cells (called neuroglia, or glial cells, or glia)

▪ Resemble neurons

▪ Unable to conduct nerve impulses

▪ Never lose the ability to divide

• Neurons

Nervous Tissue: Supporting Cells

CNS glial cells: astrocytes

• Abundant, star-shaped cells

• Brace and anchor neurons to blood capillaries

• Determine permeability and exchanges between blood capillaries and neurons

• Protect neurons from harmful substances in blood

• Control the chemical environment of the brain

CNS glial cells: microglia

• Spiderlike phagocytes

• Monitor health of nearby neurons

• Dispose of debris

CNS glial cells: ependymal cells

• Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord

• Cilia assist with circulation of cerebrospinal fluid

CNS glial cells: oligodendrocytes

• Wrap around nerve fibers in the central nervous system

• Produce myelin sheaths

PNS glial cells

• Schwann cells

o Form myelin sheath around nerve fibers in the PNS

• Satellite cells

o Protect and cushion neuron cell bodies

 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

Neurons = nerve cells

• Cells specialized to transmit messages (nerve impulses)

• Major regions of all neurons

o Cell body—nucleus and metabolic center of the cell

o Processes—fibers that extend from the cell body

Cell body is the metabolic center of the neuron

• Nucleus with large nucleolus

• Nissl bodies

o Rough endoplasmic reticulum

• Neurofibrils

o Intermediate filaments that maintain cell shape

Processes (fibers)

• Dendrites—conduct impulses toward the cell body

o Neurons may have hundreds of dendrites

• Axons—conduct impulses away from the cell body

o Neurons have only one axon arising from the cell body at the axon hillock

o End in axon terminals, which contain vesicles with neurotransmitters

o Axon terminals are separated from the next neuron by a gap

• Synaptic cleft—gap between axon terminals and the next neuron

• Synapse—functional junction between nerves where a nerve impulse is transmitted

Myelin

• White, fatty material covering axons

• Protects and insulates fibers

• Speeds nerve impulse transmission

Myelin sheaths

• Schwann cells—wrap axons in a jelly roll–like fashion (PNS) to form the myelin sheath

o Neurilemma—part of the Schwann cell external to the myelin sheath

o Nodes of Ranvier—gaps in myelin sheath along the axon

• Oligodendrocytes—produce myelin sheaths around axons of the CNS

o Lack a neurilemma
Terminology

• Nuclei—clusters of cell bodies in the CNS

• Ganglia—collections of cell bodies outside the CNS in the PNS

• Tracts—bundles of nerve fibers in the CNS

• Nerves—bundles of nerve fibers in the PNS

• White matter—collections of myelinated fibers (tracts)

• Gray matter—mostly unmyelinated fibers and cell bodies

Functional classification

• Sensory (afferent) neurons

o Carry impulses from the sensory receptors to the CNS

o Receptors include:

▪ Cutaneous sense organs in skin

▪ Proprioceptors in muscles and tendons

 o Motor (efferent) neurons

▪ Carry impulses from the central nervous system to viscera and/or muscles and
glands

• Interneurons (association neurons)

o Cell bodies located in the CNS

o Connect sensory and motor neurons

Structural classification

• Based on number of processes extending from the cell body

• Multipolar neurons—many extensions from the cell body

o All motor and interneurons are multipolar

o Most common structural type

 • Bipolar neurons—one axon and one dendrite

o Located in special sense organs, such as nose and eye

o Rare in adults

• Unipolar neurons—have a short single process leaving the cell body

o Sensory neurons found in PNS ganglia

o Conduct impulses both toward and away from the cell body

Functional properties of neurons

• Irritability

o Ability to respond to a stimulus and convert it to a nerve impulse

• Conductivity

o Ability to transmit the impulse to other neurons, muscles, or glands

Electrical conditions of a resting neuron’s membrane

• The plasma membrane at rest is inactive (polarized)

• Fewer positive ions are inside the neuron’s plasma membrane than outside

o K+ is the major positive ion inside the cell

o Na+ is the major positive ion outside the cell

• As long as the inside of the membrane is more negative (fewer positive ions) than the outside,
the cell remains inactive

Action potential initiation and generation

• A stimulus changes the permeability of the neuron’s membrane to sodium ions

• Sodium channels now open, and sodium (Na+) diffuses into the neuron

• The inward rush of sodium ions changes the polarity at that site and is called depolarization

• A graded potential (localized depolarization) exists where the inside of the membrane is more
positive and the outside is less positive
 • If the stimulus is strong enough and sodium influx great enough, local depolarization activates
the neuron to conduct an action potential (nerve impulse)

o Depolarization causes polarity to be reversed

Propagation of the action potential

• If enough sodium enters the cell, the action potential (nerve impulse) starts and is propagated
over the entire axon

• All-or-none response means the nerve impulse either is propagated or is not

• Fibers with myelin sheaths conduct nerve impulses more quickly

Repolarization

• Membrane permeability changes again—becoming impermeable to sodium ions and permeable

to potassium ions

• Potassium ions rapidly diffuse out of the neuron, repolarizing the membrane

• Repolarization involves restoring the inside of the membrane to a negative charge and the outer
surface to a positive charge
• Initial conditions of sodium and potassium ions are restored using the sodium-potassium pump

• This pump, using ATP, restores the original configuration

• Three sodium ions are ejected from the cell while two potassium ions are returned to the cell

• Until repolarization is complete, a neuron cannot conduct another nerve impulse

Transmission of the signal at synapses

Step 1: When the action potential reaches the axon terminal, the electrical charge opens calcium
channels

Step 2: Calcium, in turn, causes the tiny vesicles containing the neurotransmitter chemical to fuse with

the axonal membrane

Step 3: The entry of calcium into the axon terminal causes pore like openings to form, releasing the
neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft

Step 4: The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the

membrane of the next neuron

Step 5: If enough neurotransmitter is released, a graded potential will be generated

- Eventually an action potential (nerve impulse) will occur in the neuron beyond the synapse

Step 6: The electrical changes prompted by neurotransmitter binding are brief

- The neurotransmitter is quickly removed from the synapse either by reuptake or by enzymatic
activity

- Transmission of an impulse is electrochemical

o Transmission down neuron is electrical

o Transmission to next neuron is chemical

Side Notes:

Meissner’s corpuscle – touch receptor

Lamellar corpuscle – deep pressure receptor

Golgi tendon organ – proprioceptor detect the amount and stretch of skeletal muscle

Muscle spindle – proprioceptor

Motor efferent neurons – carry impulses from the central nervous system to viscera and or muscle and
glands

Interneurons – cell bodies in the CNS, connect sensory and motor neurons

Structural classification

Based on number of process extending from the cell body

Multipolar neurons – many extensions

Unipolar – short single process leaving the cell body

- Sensory neurons found in PNS ganglia

Bipolar neurons – one axon and one dendrite

Functions properties of neurons

Irritability

- Ability to respond to a stimulus and convert it to a nerve impulse

Conductivity

- Ability to transmit the impulse to other neurons, muscles, or organs

- Transferring or neurotransmitter to one part to another

Sodium potassium pump

Major electrolytes inside the cell – potassium

Major electrolytes outside the cell – sodium

Action potential initiation and generation

A stimulus changes the permeability or permits of the neuron’s membrane to sodium ions

Sodium channels now open, and sodium diffuses into the neuron

The inward rush of sodium ions changes the polarity

A graded potential exists where the inside of the membrane is more positive and outside is less positive

If the stimulus is strong enough and sodium influx is great enough local depolarization activate the
neuron to conduct and action potential or nerve impulse

- Depolarization causes the polarity to be reversed

Propagation of the action potential

If enough sodium enters the cell, the action potential starts and is propagated over the entire axon

All or none response means the nerve impulse either is propagated or not

- One straight line in order not to disrupt

- All positive is all part of action potential

- More positive charge inside the cell, outside the cell is more negative

- Negatively inside, positively outside

Repolarization

Membrane permeability changes again – becoming impermeable to sodium ions and permeable to
potassium ions

- Potassium ion diffuses out of the cell

- Occurs in the same direction as depolarization

- Going back to its original charge

Initial conditions of sodium and potassium are restored using the sodium potassium pump

Using ATP restores the original configuration

Three sodium ions ejected and two potassium ions returned to cell

Until repolarization is completed, neuron cannot conduct another nerve impulse

- Everything should be completed first before new impulse is generated

Transmission of the signal at synapses

- Calcium will have to initiate to the vesicle into the terminal end, it helps the vesicle to the
terminal end neurotransmitter to the synaptic cleft

- Once the neurotransmitter attached to the receptor cells, there will be opening in the sodium

Step 1: action potential arrives

Step 2: calcium, causes tiny vesicles

Step 3: entry of calcium into axon terminal causes open

Step 4: neurotransmitter molecule binds to receptor on receiving neuron’s membrane

Step 5: If enough neurotransmitter is released a graded potential will be released

Step 6: electrical changes prompted by neurotransmitter binding are brief

- Neurotransmitter is quickly removed

Transmission down neuron is electrical in origin

Transmission to next neuron is chemical in origin

- Neurotransmitter is broken down and released

Once sodium ions enter the cell – sodium positive and the potassium have to go out

Ratio 3/2 – 3 sodium is to 2 potassium

Sodium outside, potassium inside (resting face)

- Positive – outside

- Negative - inside
How Synapses Work

• Reflexes are rapid, predictable, and involuntary responses to stimuli

• Reflexes occur over neural pathways called reflex arcs

Two types of reflexes

o Somatic reflexes

o Autonomic reflexes

Somatic reflexes

• Reflexes that stimulate the skeletal muscles

• Involuntary, although skeletal muscle is normally under voluntary control

• Example: pulling your hand away from a hot object

Autonomic reflexes

• Regulate the activity of smooth muscles, the heart, and glands

• Example: regulation of smooth muscles, heart and blood pressure, glands, digestive system
Five elements of a reflex arc

1. Sensory receptor—reacts to a stimulus

2. Sensory neuron—carries message to the integration center

3. Integration center (CNS)—processes information and directs motor output

4. Motor neuron—carries message to an effector

5. Effector organ—is the muscle or gland to be stimulated

Two-neuron reflex arcs

• Simplest type

• Example: patellar (knee-jerk) reflex

Three-neuron reflex arcs

• Consists of five elements: receptor, sensory neuron, interneuron, motor neuron, and effector

• Example: flexor (withdrawal) reflex

Side Note:

• Reflexes are rapid, predictable, and involuntary to stimuli

• Reflexes occur over neural pathways called reflex arcs

Two types of reflexes

- Somatic

- Autonomic

Two neuron reflex arcs

- Sensory neuron

- Motor neuron

Three neuron reflex arcs

- Sensory neuron

- Sensory afferent

- Interneuron
 Central Nervous System (CNS)

Functional Anatomy of the Brain

• Brain regions

o Cerebral hemispheres

o Diencephalons

o Brain stem

o Cerebellum

Functional Anatomy of the Brain

Cerebral hemispheres are paired (left and right) superior parts of the brain

• Include more than half of the brain mass

• The surface is made of ridges (gyri) and grooves (sulci)

• Fissures are deeper grooves

• Lobes are named for the cranial bones that lie over them

Three main regions of cerebral hemisphere

1. Cortex is superficial gray matter - localizes and interprets sensory inputs, controls voluntary and
skilled skeletal muscle activity, acts in intellectual and emotional processing

2. White matter

3. Basal nuclei are deep pockets of gray matter – diencephalon

 Functions of Major Brain Regions

Region Function
Cerebral Hemispheres
Cortex: gray matter Localizes and interprets sensory inputs
Controls voluntary and skilled skeletal muscle activity
Acts in intellectual and emotional processing
Basal nuclei Subcortical motor centers help control skeletal muscle movements
Diencephalon
Thalamus Relays sensory impulses to cerebral cortex
Relays impulses between cerebral motor cortex and lower motor centers
Involved in memory
Hypothalamus Chief integration center of autonomic (involuntary) nervous system
Regulates body temperature, food intake, water balance, and thirst
Regulated hormonal output of anterior pituitary gland and acts as an
endocrine organ (producing ADH and oxytocin)
Limbic system Includes cerebral and diencephalon structures
Mediates emotional response; involved in memory processing
Cerebral hemispheres brain stem
Midbrain Contains visual and auditory reflex centers
Contains subcortical motor centers
Contains nuclei for cranial nerves III and IV; contains projection fibers
Pons Relays information from the cerebrum to the cerebellum
Cooperates with the medullary centers to control respiratory rate and
depth contains nuclei of cranial nerves V-VII; contains projection fibers
Medulla oblongata Relays ascending sensory pathway impulses from skin and proprioceptors
Contains nuclei controlling heart rate, blood vessel diameter, respiratory
rate, vomiting, etc.
Relays sensory information to the cerebellum
Contains nuclei of cranial nerves VIII-XII; contains projection fibers
Site of crossover of pyramids

Reticular formation Maintains cerebral cortical alertness; fibers out repetitive stimuli
Helps regulate skeletal and visceral muscle activity
Cerebellum
Cerebellum Processes information from cerebral motor cortex, proprioceptors, and
visual and equilibrium pathways
Provides “instructions” to cerebral motor cortex and subcortical motor
centers, resulting in smooth, coordinated skeletal muscle movements
Responsible for proper balance and posture
Cerebral Cortex

• Primary somatic sensory area

o Located in parietal lobe posterior to central sulcus

o Receives impulses from the body’s sensory receptors

o Pain, temperature, light touch (except for special senses)

o Sensory homunculus is a spatial map

o Left side of the primary somatic sensory area receives impulses from right side (and vice
versa)

• Broca – speech

• Wernicke – understanding, interpretation, comprehension

Cerebral areas involved in special senses

• Visual area (occipital lobe)

• Auditory area (temporal lobe)

• Olfactory area (temporal lobe)

Primary motor area

• Located anterior to the central sulcus in the frontal lobe

o Precentral gyrus- anterior side of the central sulcus, before

o Postcentral gyrus – back of central sulcus, after

o Parietal occipital – divides the partial and occipital

 Layers:

▪ Gyrus

▪ Sulcus

▪ Cerebral white matter

• Allows us to consciously move skeletal muscles

• Motor neurons form pyramidal (corticospinal) tract, which descends to spinal cord

• Motor homunculus is a spatial map

Broca’s area (motor speech area)

• Involved in our ability to speak

• Usually in left hemisphere

Other specialized areas

• Anterior association area (frontal lobe)

• Posterior association area (posterior cortex)

• Speech area (for sounding out words)

Cerebral white matter

• Composed of fiber tracts deep to the gray matter

o Corpus callosum connects hemispheres

o Tracts, such as the corpus callosum, are known as commissures

o Association fiber tracts connect areas within a hemisphere

o Projection fiber tracts connect the cerebrum with lower CNS centers
Basal nuclei

• “Islands” of gray matter buried deep within the white matter of the cerebrum

• Regulate voluntary motor activities by modifying instructions sent to skeletal muscles by the
primary motor cortex

Diencephalon

• Sits on top of the brain stem

• Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres

Made of three structures

o Thalamus

o Hypothalamus

o Epithalamus
Diencephalon: thalamus

• Encloses the third ventricle

• Relay station for sensory impulses passing upward to the cerebral cortex

• Transfers impulses to the correct part of the cortex for localization and interpretation

Diencephalon: hypothalamus

• Makes up the floor of the diencephalon

• Important autonomic nervous system center

o Regulates body temperature

o Regulates water balance

o Regulates metabolism

• Houses the limbic center for emotions

• Regulates the nearby pituitary gland

• Houses mammillary bodies for olfaction (smell)

Diencephalon: epithalamus

• Forms the roof of the third ventricle

• Houses the pineal body (an endocrine gland)

• Includes the choroid plexus—forms cerebrospinal fluid

Brain stem

• Attaches to the spinal cord

• Parts of the brain stem

1. Midbrain

2. Pons

3. Medulla oblongata
Brain stem: midbrain

• Extends from the mammillary bodies to the pons inferiorly

• Cerebral aqueduct (tiny canal) connects the third and fourth ventricles

• Two bulging fiber tracts, cerebral peduncles, convey ascending and descending impulses

• Four rounded protrusions, corpora quadrigemina, are visual and auditory reflex centers

Brain stem: pons

• The rounded structure protruding just below the midbrain

• Mostly composed of fiber tracts

• Includes nuclei involved in the control of breathing

Brain stem: medulla oblongata

• The most inferior part of the brain stem that merges into the spinal cord

• Includes important fiber tracts

• Contains important centers that control:

o Heart rate

o Blood pressure

o Breathing

o Swallowing

o Vomiting

• Fourth ventricle lies posterior to pons and medulla

Brain stem: reticular formation

• Diffuse mass of gray matter along the brain stem

• Involved in motor control of visceral organs

• Reticular activating system (RAS)

o Plays a role in awake/sleep cycles and consciousness

o Filter for incoming sensory information

Cerebrum

• Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces

• Outer cortex of gray matter and inner region of white matter

• Controls balance

• Provides precise timing for skeletal muscle activity and coordination of body movements

Protection of the Central Nervous System

Meninges

• Dura mater

o Outermost leathery layer

o Double-layered external covering

▪ Periosteum—attached to inner surface of the skull

▪ Meningeal layer—outer covering of the brain

o Folds inward in several areas

▪ Falx cerebri

▪ Tentorium cerebelli – divides the cerebellum and cortex

 • Arachnoid layer

o Middle layer

o Weblike extensions span the subarachnoid space to attach it to the pia mater

o Subarachnoid space is filled with cerebrospinal fluid

o Arachnoid granulations protrude through the dura mater and absorb cerebrospinal fluid
into venous blood

• Pia mater

o Internal layer

o Clings to the surface of the brain and spinal cord

Cerebrospinal fluid

• Similar to blood plasma in composition

• Formed continually by the choroid plexuses

o Choroid plexuses—capillaries in the ventricles of the brain

• CSF forms a watery cushion to protect the brain and spinal cord

• Circulated in the arachnoid space, ventricles, and central canal of the spinal cord

Cerebrospinal fluid circulation

1. CSF is produced by the choroid plexus of each ventricle

2. CSF flows through the ventricles and into the subarachnoid space via the median and lateral
apertures. Some CSF flows through the central canal of the spinal cord

3. CSF flows through the subarachnoid space

4. CSF is absorbed into the dural venous sinuses via the arachnoid villI
Blood-brain barrier

• Includes the least permeable capillaries of the body

• Allows water, glucose, and amino acids to pass through the capillary walls

• Excludes many potentially harmful substances from entering the brain, such as wastes

• Useless as a barrier against some substances

Brain Dysfunctions

Traumatic brain injuries

• Concussion

o Slight brain injury

o Typically, little permanent brain damage occurs

• Contusion

o Marked nervous tissue destruction occurs

o Coma may occur

• Death may occur after head blows due to:

o Intracranial hemorrhage

o Cerebral edema

Cerebrovascular accident (CVA), or stroke

• Results when blood circulation to a brain area is blocked and brain tissue dies

• Loss of some functions or death may result

o Hemiplegia—one-sided paralysis

o Aphasia—damage to speech center in left hemisphere

• Transient ischemic attack (TIA)

o Temporary brain ischemia (restriction of blood flow)

o Numbness, temporary paralysis, impaired speech

❖ Paraplegia – impairment in motor or sensory function of the lower extremities

❖ Hemiplegia – affects one side of the body

❖ Monoplegia - affects one limb only

❖ Quadriplegia - both arms and legs

Spinal Cord

• Extends from the foramen magnum of the skull to the first or second lumbar vertebra

• Cauda equina is a collection of spinal nerves at the inferior end

• Provides a two-way conduction pathway to and from the brain

• 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord

Gray matter of the spinal cord and spinal roots

• Internal gray matter is mostly cell bodies

• Dorsal (posterior) horns house interneurons

o Receive information from sensory neurons in the dorsal root; cell bodies housed in
dorsal root ganglion

• Anterior (ventral) horns house motor neurons of the somatic (voluntary) nervous system

o Send information out ventral root

• Gray matter surrounds the central canal, which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid

White matter of the spinal cord

• Composed of myelinated fiber tracts

• Three regions: dorsal, lateral, ventral columns

• Sensory (afferent) tracts conduct impulses toward brain

• Motor (efferent) tracts carry impulses from brain to skeletal muscles

 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

• PNS consists of nerves and ganglia outside the CNS

Structure of a Nerve

• Nerves are bundles of neurons found outside the CNS

• Endoneurium is a connective tissue sheath that surrounds each fiber

• Perineurium wraps groups of fibers bound into a fascicle

• Epineurium binds groups of fascicles

Mixed nerves

o Contain both sensory and motor fibers

Sensory (afferent) nerves

o Carry impulses toward the CNS

Motor (efferent) nerves

o Carry impulses away from the CNS

Cranial Nerves

• 12 pairs of nerves serve mostly the head and neck

• Only the pair of vagus nerves extends to thoracic and abdominal cavities

• Most are mixed nerves, but three are sensory only

1. Optic

2. Olfactory

3. Vestibulocochlear
 Cranial Nerves Mnemonic Device

• Oh – Olfactory

• Oh – Optic

• Oh – Oculomotor

• To – Trochlear

• Touch – Trigeminal

• And – Abducens

• Feel – Facial

• Very – Vestibulocochlear

• Green – Glossopharyngeal

• Vegetables – Vagus

• A – Accessory

• H – Hypoglossal
 The Cranial Nerves

Name/Number Origin/Course Function Test

I. Olfactory Fibers arise from Purely sensory; carries Subject is asked to sniff and
olfactory in the nasal impulses for the sense of identity aromatic
mucosa and synapse smell substances, such as oil of
with the olfactory cloves or vanilla
bulbs (which, in turn,
send fibers to the
olfactory cortex)
II. Optic Fibers arise from the Purely sensory; carries Vision and visual field are
retina of the eye and impulses for vision tested with an eye chart
form the optic nerve. and by testing the point at
The two optic nerves which the subject first sees
form the optic an object (finger) moving
chiasma by partial into the visual field; eye
crossover of fibers; interior is viewed with an
the fibers continue ophthalmoscope
to the optic cortex as
the optic tracts
II. Oculomotor Fibers run from the Supplies motor fibers to Pupils are examined for
midbrain to the eye four of the six muscles size, shape, and size
(superior, inferior, and equality; pupillary reflex is
medial rectus, and inferior tested with a penlight
oblique) that direct the (pupils should constrict
eyelid; and to the internal when illuminated); eye
eye muscles controlling convergence is tested, as is
lens shape and pupil size the ability to follow moving
objects
IV. Trochlear Fibers run from the Supplies motor fibers for Tested in common with
midbrain to the eye one external eye muscle cranial nerve III for the
(superior oblique) ability to follow moving
objects
V Trigeminal Fibers emerge from Conducts sensory impulses Sensations of pain, touch,
the pons and form from the skin of the face and temperature are
three divisions that and mucosa of the nose tested with a safety pin
run to the face and mouth; also contains and hot and cold objects;
motor fibers that activate corneal reflex tested with a
the chewing muscles wisp of cotton; motor
branch tested by asking the
subject to open mouth
against resistance and
move jaw from side to side
VI. Abducens Fibers leave the pons Supplies motor fibers to Tested in common with
and run to the eye the lateral rectus muscle; cranial nerve III for the
which rolls the eye laterally ability to move each eye
laterally
VII. Facial Fibers leave the pons Activates the muscles of Anterior two-thirds of
and run to the face facial expression and the tongue is tested for ability
lacrimal and salivary to taste sweet, salty, sour,
glands; carries sensory and bitter substances;
impulses from the taste subject is asked to close
buds of anterior tongue eyes, smile, whistle, etc.;
tearing of eyes is tested
with ammonia fumes
VII. Fibers run from the Purely sensory; vestibular Hearing is checked by air
Vestibulocochlear equilibrium and branch transmits impulses and bone conduction using
hearing receptors of for the sense of balance, a tuning fork
the inner ear to the and cochlear branch
brain stem transmits impulses for the
sense of hearing
IV. Fibers emerge from Supplies motor fibers to Gag and swallowing
Glossopharyngeal the medulla and run the pharynx (throat) that reflexes are checked;
to the throat promote swallowing and subject is asked to speak
saliva production; carries and cough; posterior
sensory impulses from tongue may be tested for
taste buds of the posterior taste
tongue and from pressure
receptors of the carotid
artery
X. Vagus Fibers emerge from Fibers carry sensory Tested in common with
the medulla and impulses from and motor cranial nerve IX because
descend into the impulses to the pharynx, they both serve muscles of
thorax and larynx, and the abdominal the throat
abdominal cavity and thoracic viscera; most
motor fibers are
parasympathetic fibers that
promote digestive activity
and help regulate heart
activity
VI. Accessory Fibers arise from the Mostly motor fibers that Sternocleidomastoid and
superior spinal cord activate the trapezius muscles are
(C1-C5) and travel to sternocleidomastoid and checked for strength by
muscles of the neck trapezius muscles asking the subject to rotate
and back head and shrug shoulders
against resistance
VII. Hypoglossal Fibers run from the Motor fibers control Subject is asked to stick out
medulla to the tongue movements; tongue, and any position
tongue sensory fibers carry abnormalities are noted
impulses from the tongue
 Spinal nerves

Spinal Nerves

• 31 pairs

• Formed by the combination of the ventral and dorsal roots of the spinal cord

• Named for the region of the spinal cord from which they arise
Spinal nerves divide soon after leaving the spinal cord into a dorsal ramus and a ventral ramus

• Ramus—branch of a spinal nerve; contains both motor and sensory fibers

• Dorsal rami—serve the skin and muscles of the posterior trunk

• Ventral rami (T1 –T12) —form the intercostal nerves that supply muscles and skin of the ribs and
trunk

• Ventral rami (except T1 –T12)—form a complex of networks (plexus) for the anterior

Plexus—networks of nerves serving motor and sensory needs of the limbs

Form from ventral rami of spinal nerves in the cervical, lumbar, and sacral regions

Four plexuses:

• Cervical

• Brachial

• Lumbar

• Sacral
 Spinal Nerve Plexuses

Plexus Origin Important Body Areas Served Result of damage to

Nerves plexus/nerves
Cervical C1-C5 Phrenic Diaphragm; skin and muscles Respiratory paralysis
of shoulder and neck
Brachial C5-C8 Axillary Deltoid muscle and skin of Paralysis and atrophy of
and T1 shoulder; muscles and skin of deltoid muscle
superior thorax
Brachial C5-C8 Radial Triceps and extensor muscles Wrist drop – inability to
and T1 of the forearm; skin of extend hand at wrist
posterior upper limb
Brachial C5-C8 Median Flexor muscles and skin of Decreased ability to flex and
and T1 forearm and some muscles of abduct hand and flex and
hand abduct thumb and index finger
– therefore, inability to pick up
small objects
Brachial C5-C8 Musculocu- Flexor muscles of arm; skin of Decreased ability to flex
and T1 taneous lateral forearm forearm at elbow

Brachial C5-C8 Ulnar Some flexor muscles of Claw hand – inability to spread
and T1 forearm; wrist and many hand fingers apart
muscles; skin of hand
 Plexus Origin Important Nerves Body Areas Served Result of damage
to plexus/nerves
Lumbar L1-L4 Femoral (include Lower abdomen, anterior Inability to extend
lateral & anterior and medial thigh muscles leg and flex hip;
cutaneous branches) (hip flexors and knee loss of cutaneous
extensors), and skin of sensation
anteromedial leg and thigh

Obturator Adductor muscles of medial Inability to adduct

thigh and small hip muscles; thigh
skin of medial thigh and hip
joint
Plexus Origin Important Nerves Body Areas Served Result of damage to
plexus/nerves
Sacral L4-L5 and Sciatic (largest nerve in Lower trunk and Inability to extend hip
S1-S4 body; splits to common posterior surface of and flex knee; sciatica
fibular and tibial nerves thigh (hip extensor
just above knee) and knee flexors)

• Common fibular Lateral aspect of leg Footdrop – inability to

(superficial and and foot dorsiflex foot
deep branches)

• Tibial (including Posterior aspect of leg Inability to plantar foot;

sural and plantar and foot shuffling gait
branches)

Superior and inferior Gluteal muscles of hip Inability to extend hip

gluteal (maximus) or abduct
and medially rotate
thigh (Medius)
 Autonomic Nervous System

Motor subdivision of the PNS

• Consists only of motor nerves

• Controls the body automatically (and is also known as the involuntary nervous system)

• Regulates cardiac and smooth muscles and glands

Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems Compared

Somatic nervous system

• Motor neuron cell bodies originate inside the CNS

• Axons extends to skeletal muscles that are served

Autonomic nervous system

• Chain of two motor neurons

o Preganglionic neuron is in the brain or spinal cord

o Postganglionic neuron extends to the organ

• Has two arms

o Sympathetic division

o Parasympathetic division
 Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division

• Parasympathetic division is also known as the craniosacral division

• Preganglionic neurons originate in:

o Cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X

o S2 through S4 regions of the spinal cord

• Preganglionic neurons synapse with terminal ganglia; from there, postganglionic axons extend
to organs that are served

Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division

• Sympathetic division is also known as the thoracolumbar division

• Preganglionic neurons originate from T1 through L2

• Axons pass through a ramus communicans to enter a sympathetic trunk ganglion

o Sympathetic trunk, or chain, lies near the spinal cord

o After synapsing at the ganglion, the axon may synapse with a second neuron at the
same or different level

• Or, the preganglionic neuron may pass through the ganglion without synapsing and form part of
the splanchnic nerves

o Splanchnic nerves travel to the collateral ganglion

o Collateral ganglia serve the abdominal and pelvic organs

 Autonomic Functioning

Body organs served by the autonomic nervous system receive fibers from both divisions

• Exceptions: blood vessels, structures of the skin, some glands, and the adrenal medulla

• These exceptions receive only sympathetic fibers

When body divisions serve the same organ, they cause antagonistic effects due to different
neurotransmitters

• Parasympathetic (cholinergic) fibers release acetylcholine

• Sympathetic postganglionic (adrenergic) fibers release norepinephrine

• Preganglionic axons of both divisions release acetylcholine

Sympathetic—“fight or flight” division

• Response to unusual stimulus when emotionally or physically stressed or threatened

• Takes over to increase activities

• Remember as the “E” division

o Exercise

o Excitement

o Emergency

o Embarrassment

Parasympathetic—“housekeeping” activites

• “Rest-and-digest” system

• Conserves energy

• Maintains daily necessary body functions

• Remember as the “D” division

o Digestion

o Defecation

o Diuresis
Effects of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions of the
Autonomic Nervous System

Target organ/system Parasympathetic effects Sympathetic effects

Digestive System Increases smooth muscle Decreases activity of digestive
mobility (peristalsis) and system and constricts digestive
amount of secretion by system sphincters (for example,
digestive system glands; relaxes anal sphincter)
sphincters
Liver No effect Causes glucose to be released
to blood
Lungs Constricts bronchioles Dilates bronchioles
Urinary Bladder or Urethra Relaxes sphincters (allows Constricts sphincters (prevents
voiding) voiding)
Kidneys No effect Constricts urine output
Heart Decreases rare; slows and Increases rate and force of
steadies heartbeat
Blood Vessels No effect on most blood vessels Constricts blood vessels in
viscera and skin (dilates those in
skeletal muscle and heart);
increases blood pressure
Glands–salivary, lacrimal, Stimulates; increase production Inhibits; result is dry mouth and
gastric of saliva, tears, and gastric juice dry eye
Eye (iris) Stimulates constrictor muscles; Stimulates dilator muscles;
constricts pupils dilates pupils
Eye (ciliary muscle) Stimulates to increase bulging Inhibits; decreases bulging of
of lens for close vision lens; prepares for distant vision
Adrenal medulla No effect Stimulates medulla cells to
secrete epinephrine and
norepinephrine

Sweat glands of skin No effect Stimulates to produce

perspiration
Arrector pili muscles attached No effect Stimulates; produces “goose
to hair follicles bumps”
Penis Cause erection due to Causes ejaculation (emission of
vasodilation semen)
Cellular Metabolism No effect Increases metabolic rate;
increases blood sugar levels;
stimulates fat breakdown
Adipose Tissue No effect Stimulates fat breakdown
 Developmental Aspects of the Nervous System

• The nervous system is formed during the first month of embryonic development

• Any maternal infection can have extremely harmful effects

• Oxygen deprivation destroys brain cells

• The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of the brain to develop

• Severe congenital brain diseases include:

o Cerebral palsy

o Anencephaly

o Hydrocephalus

o Spina bifida

• Premature babies have trouble regulating body temperature because the hypothalamus is one
of the last brain areas to mature prenatally Development of motor control indicates the
progressive myelination and maturation of a child’s nervous system

• Brain growth ends in young adulthood. Neurons die throughout life and are not replaced; thus,
brain mass declines with age Orthostatic hypotension is low blood pressure due to changes in
body position

• Healthy aged people maintain nearly optimal intellectual function

• Disease—particularly cardiovascular disease—is the major cause of declining mental function

with age

o Arteriosclerosis is decreased elasticity of blood vessels

Arterio – artery

Sclerosis – hardening

Athero – no artery or plaque formation