PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Learning Module
 Lyceum of Alabang
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Tel. No. 856-9323 to 24
Molding the Youth Towards Excellence and Global competiveness
Basic Education Department
Señior High School

PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

This learning module is exclusively for Lyceum of Alabang students.

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Practical Research 2 Module
Quantitative Research
First Edition 2020
Patterned through MELC by DepEd

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Research and Written by: Kylyn Joy B. Albay
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© 2020

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Practical Research 2 Module
Quantitative Research
First Edition 2020
Patterned through MELC by DepEd

This page is intentionally left blank.

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Practical Research 2 Module
Quantitative Research
First Edition 2020
Patterned through MELC by DepEd

Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank all the writers and other sources of
knowledge and information, where the research ideas and examples in this
module came from.

Special thanks go to the experts who evaluated this book to make this
a worthy reading module material on research, specifically on quantitative research.

Likewise, I am grateful to the librarians of the Lyceum of Alabang

and other schools for assistance in the author’s search for varied
sources of knowledge and information to complete this reading material.

I would also like to extend my deepest gratitude to

Lyceum of Alabang – Basic education Department in making this
humble module possible and for the trust and opportunity
to write this material for the school.

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 PREFACE
Recent advancement of technologies has affected many areas of our lives. Along with
those advances necessitated to expansion of different fields such as education. That is your so-
called, Twenty-first Learning. Twenty-first century learning is about opportunities that can provide
the learners in solving problems through collaboration with peers and surroundings. It’s
discovering, improvising and interacting as well as innovation to expand the knowledge and
unleashing potentials and skills. Thus, researches are more recognized and expanding.

Apparently, research will always be done. No matter what discipline you are in, research
will always serve as your foundation in your actions. Basically, they are all done differently. Thus,
the outputs of each research enterprise are different from one another. However, we should
recognize the fact that there is no one way of doing research. Each type would have their
advantages and disadvantages. It is up to the researchers how they are going to execute these
research designs.

There are two different brands of research. These are quantitative research and qualitative
research. In this module, we will focus on the first one. Quantitative Research is a form of research
that uses statistical data as the main source of knowledge. Basically, this form of research would
like to operationalize reality into numbers that can be easily analyzed. The designs can be either
descriptive (subjects usually measured once) or experimental (subjects measured before and
after a treatment). The objective of the quantitaive research is to develop and employ
mathematical models, theories and hypothesis pertaining to phenomena. Hoping that these
numbers will yield to unbiased result that can be generalized to some larger populations.

It is our hope that this humble module on Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research will
provide and help you whether students or professionals alike in grasping the concept and nature
of research. With a general understanding of how to conduct practical quantitative research
possibly even encourage you to undertake a study that you may have been thinking out doing.
May this module provide the needed knowledge and skills needed for the improvement of the
research enterprise. With this, we hope that you will able to nurture your curiosity, answers the
questions within, be active, creative and collaborative researchers.

“Gumawa ng thesis at hindi sumuko”

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgement .......................................................................................... v
Preface .........................................................................................................vi
Pre-Test ...................................................................................................................................................... 1

Unit I: Nature of Inquiry and Quantitative Research ....................................................................... 7

Lesson 1: Inquiry and Research .......................................................................................................... 8
Lesson 2: Quantitative Research ....................................................................................................... 11
Lesson 3: The Nature of Variables .................................................................................................... 13

Unit II: Identifying the Inquiry and Stating the Problem .............................................................. 18
Lesson 1: Quantitative Research Problem ....................................................................................... 21
Lesson 2: Writing the Introduction ..................................................................................................... 23
Lesson 3: The Hypothesis .................................................................................................................. 27

Unit II: Learning from Others and Reviewing the Literature ..................................................... 34
Lesson 1: The Review of Related Literature .................................................................................... 35
Lesson 2: The Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................. 41

Unit IV: Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data .................................. 46
Lesson 1: Quantitative Research Designs ....................................................................................... 47
Lesson 2: Quantitative Data Collection Techniques ....................................................................... 51
Lesson 3: Sampling Method ............................................................................................................... 54

Unit V: Finding answers through Data Collection ......................................................................... 60

Lesson 1: Quantitative Data Analysis ............................................................................................... 61
Lesson 2: Statistical Methods ............................................................................................................. 64
Lesson 2: Quantitative Data Presentation ........................................................................................ 86

Unit VI: Drawing Conclusion and Reporting ................................................................................... 97

Lesson 1: Drawing Conclusion and Making Recommendations ................................................... 98
Lesson 2: Reference List ..................................................................................................................100
Lesson 2: Research Report Writing ................................................................................................103

Post Test ................................................................................................................................................109

Appendices ...........................................................................................................................................115
References .............................................................................................................................................. 11

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Hello Learners,
This module is for the applied track subject course, Practical Research 2. This course
develops critical thinking and problem-solving skills through quantitative research. Before
proceeding with the lessons, take the Pre-Test of this module to identify your prior knowledge
about the subject course. Note: No peeking of answers to the succeeding chapters. It violates
academic integrity and the results of your scores will not be reliable and valid.

Name: Date:
Section Rating:

PRE-TEST

I. IDENTIFICATION.

A. Classify each item as nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio level of data.

_____________ 1. Number of exams given in a statistics course.
_____________ 2. Ratings of word-processing programs as user-friendly.
_____________ 3. Temperatures of a sample of automobile tires tested at 55 miles per hour for six
minutes
_____________ 4. Weights of suitcase on a selected commercial airline flight.
_____________ 5. Classification of students according to major field.

B. Classify each variable as discrete or continuous.

_____________ 6. The time and speed it takes to drive to work.
_____________ 7. The amount of drug injected into a rat.
_____________ 8. The amount of sodium contained in a bag of potato chips.
_____________ 9. The number of cars stolen each week in a Metro Manila.
_____________ 10. Number of cable television companies.

C. Classify each variable as qualitative or quantitative.

_____________ 11. Colors of jackets in a men’s clothing store.
_____________ 12. Number of seats in classrooms.
_____________ 13. Classification of children in a day care center (infant, toddler, preschool)
_____________ 14. Length of fish caught in a certain stream.
_____________ 15. Number of students who fail their first statistic test.

D. Classify whether each statement is descriptive or inferential statistics were used.

_____________ 16. A recent study showed that eating garlic can lower blood pressure.
_____________ 17. The average number of students in a class at the University of the Philippines is 22.6.
_____________ 18. It is predicted that the average number of automobiles each households owns will
increase next year.
_____________ 19. Last year’s total attendance at Ateneo de Manila’s basketball games was 8,345.
_____________ 20. The chance that a person will be robbed in a certain city is 15%.

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II. MULTIPLE CHOICE. Encircle the letter of the correct answer.
21. Characteristics of research that is based on direct experience or observation by the researcher.
a. Analytical c. Empirical
b. Controlled d. Systematical

22. It is a characteristics of research that utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering the data, whether
historical, descriptive and experimental.
a. Analytical c. Empirical
b. Controlled d. Systematical

23. _____________ is defined as the scientific process of gathering, analyzing, organizing, presenting and
interpreting of data that lines an individual’s speculation with reality.
a. Inquiry c. Study
b. Investigation d. Research

24. _____________ generally is considered to deal with beliefs about what is right or wrong, proper or
improper, good or bad. It is to conform to accepted professional practice.
a. Ethics c. Principles
b. Moral d. Value

25. Mike together with his group mates is a senior high school student where he conducts his research
study carefully, wisely, practically at the right time and place efficiently, effectively and economically. What
is the characteristic of researcher does they employ?
a. Intellectual Creativity c. Intellectual Honesty
b. Intellectual Curiosity d. Prudence

26. A group of grade 11 students is conducting their research in gathering data honestly in order to arrive
at honest and valid results. What is the characteristic of researcher does they show?
a. Intellectual Creativity c. Intellectual Honesty
b. Intellectual Curiosity d. Prudence

27. The word research is derived from the old French word ______________, which means to “seek or to
search.”
a. Ceircheir c. Cercheir
b. Ceirchier d. Cerchier

28. The students of a grade 11 class is able to communicate with their peers and their teacher and able to
present new understandings. What process of inquiry model they are demonstrating?
a. Creating c. Evaluating
b. Planning d. Sharing

29. An analogy, Research: Search as for Inquiry: ________________.

a. Analysis c. Investigation
b. Examination d. Study

30. What is another name for the ogive?

a. Histogram c. Cumulative frequency polygon
b. Frequency polygon d. Pareto Chart

31. What graph should be used to show the relationship between the parts and the whole?
a. Histogram c. Pictograph
b. Pie Chart d. Ogive

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32. When arranging data into classes, it is suggested that you have
a. Fewer than 5 classes c. More than 20 classes
b. Between 5 and 20 classes d. Between 10 and 40 classes

33. The class midpoint is the ____________________.

a. Number of observations in a class c. Upper limit of the class
b. Center of the class d. Width of the class

For numbers 34 – 36. The following frequency distribution record the numbers of empty seats on the flights
from Manila to Cebu:
Number of empty Seats Frequency
0 up to 5 3
5 up to 10 8
10 up to 15 15
15 up to 20 18
20 up to 25 12
25 up to 30 6

34. The midpoint of the 0 up to 5 class is _____________.

a. 2 c. 2.5
b. 4 d. 0

35. The lower limit of the 0 up to 5 class is ______________.

a. 0 c. 2.0
b. -0.5 d. 0

36. The size of the class is _________.

a. 5 c. 4.5
b. 4 d. 3

37. Among the following, the most reliable method of obtaining a simple random is with _______.
a. Random digits c. A telephone book
b. Physical mixing in a bowl d. A convenience sample

38. Every 100th hamburger manufactured is checked to determine its fat content. The sampling technique
used is ______________.
a. Cluster Sampling c. Systematic Sampling
b. Simple Random Sampling d. Stratified Sampling

39. Barangay officials of Metro Manila are divided into four groups according to gender (male or female)
and according to whether they prefer day or night duties. Then 30 are selected from each group and
interviewed to determine whether they have encountered robbers in the last year. What sampling
technique did the officials employs?
a. Cluster Sampling c. Systematic Sampling
b. Simple Random Sampling d. Stratified Sampling

40. The value that occurs most often in a set of data is called the ________.
a. Mode c. Median
b. Arithmetic Mean d. All of the above

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41. A sample of 10 students is obtained. The students are weighed and ranked according to their weight.
The media weight is the ______________.
a. Weight of the fifth student c. The median does not exist
b. Weight of the sixth student d. Average weight of the fifth and sixth

42. Which of the following is not a property of the mean?

a. At least the interval scale of measurement is required.
b. All the data values are used in the calculation.
c. A set of data has only one mean that is unique.
d. The sum of the deviations from the mean equals 0.

43. Which of the following does not characterize the median?

a. At least the ordinal scale of measurement is required.
b. It is not influenced by extreme values.
c. Fifty percent of the observations are greater than the median.
d. It is a unique value for a set of data.

44. Which of the following does not characterized the mode?

a. It is the value that occurs most often in a set of data.
b. It can be found in all levels of data.
c. A set of data can have 2 or 3 modes.
d. Fifty percent of the observations are always larger than the mean.

45. A quantitative research design that is equated with qualitative design is _______________.
a. True experimental c. Non-experimental
b. Descriptive d. Quasi-experimental

46. These two are the leading indicators of the occurrence of true experimental design :
a. Pre-test and Post-test c. Treatment and Condition
b. Randomization and Variable Control d. Experimental and Control Group

47. Group D conducts a research study that is applied to their field. They are now in data collection phase,
now the group used to ask questions to a respondent using paper questionnaires. What type of
descriptive research designs does this group employs?
a. Observation Research c. Comparative research
b. Correlational Research d. Survey research

48. What type of data in research that is collected by the researcher himself?
a. Primary c. Tertiary
b. Secondary d. Meta-analysis

49. Interview is a data-collection technique wherein the researcher ask question orally. Which of the
following is not part of the set order of interview question?
a. Opening Question c. Discussion Question
b. Generative Question d. Ending Question

50. Observation is a data-collection technique wherein it has two types: Direct observation and Non-direct
observation. What is the other name for direct observation?
a. Participatory c. Partake
b. Participate d. Preside

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51. It arise from the factual data you encountered and analyzed. What section of research-report writing
you can find this?
a. Summary of Findings c. Recommendations
b. Conclusion d. Discussions

52. This is where the researcher finally has the opportunity to present and discuss the actions that future
researchers should take as a result of the study. What section of research-report writing you can find
this?
a. Summary of Findings c. Recommendations
b. Conclusion d. Discussions

53. It is a science deals with the collection, organization, presentation, analysis and interpretation of data.
What is this?
a. Geometry c. Algebra
b. Calculus d. Statistics

54. A statistical formula that measures the strength and direction of the linear relationship of two variables
and of the association between interval and ordinal variables. What is this?
a. Pearson’s r correlation c. t-test
b. Chi-square d. f-test

55. What is the name of this statistical formula shown below:

(𝑂−𝐸 2 )
X2 = Σ 𝐸
a. Pearson’s r correlation c. t-test
b. Chi-square d. f-test

56. Which of the following is not a type of research questions?

a. Descriptive Questions c. Relations Questions
b. Deductive Questions d. Causal Questions

57. Which of the following is that needs to identifies as a specific element of a quantitative research problem?
a. Type of Research Design
b. The Variables and the Relationship among them
c. Subjects involved in the study
d. All of the Above

58. In formulating hypothesis, alternative hypothesis: researcher wishes to support as to null hypothesis:
___________________.
a. Positive statement like alternative hypothesis
b. Researcher wishes also to support
c. Contradiction to alternative hypothesis
d. Exist for the benefit of alternative hypothesis

59. IMRaD is a format that usually used when you write an academic research journal. IMRaD stands for
Introduction, Methods and ____________.
a. Results and Direction c. Results and Discussion
b. Results and Discourse d. Results and Details

60. IPO model in conceptual framework stands for Input, Process and _______________.
a. Output c. Outside
b. Outcome d. Objective

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61. A graphical presentation of your concepts on the basic structure or components of your research as
well as relationships of the elements with one another is called ___________.
a. Concept Map c. Research Paradigm
b. Conceptual Framework d. Concept Chart

III. REFERENCE. For numbers 62-65 (2pts for each format), create a bibliographic entry using the format
given below:

Title: Practical Research 1: Qualitative Research

Author: Paul Micah S. Francisco, Virlyn S. Francisco, Aisa P. Arlos
Date of Publication: 2016
Publishing Company: Mindshapers Co., Inc.
Publishing Place: Manila

APA
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

MLA
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

IV. Problem Solving. For numbers 66 – 100 (35 pts). Read the question carefully and answer the
questions that follows.

A. In randomly selecting computers and checking their parts for defective functioning, the following
numbers of the computer parts were formed to be defective:
15, 4, 1, 13, 8, 2, 9, 6, 3, 10, 12, 3 ,3 ,7, 5
a. Find the mean, median and mode of these ungrouped data.

B. The heights of 40 students in a senior class are shown below.

Heights of Señior Class
N = 40
Height (cm) Frequency
170 – 174 1
165 – 169 3
160 – 164 8
155 – 159 15
150 – 154 10
145 – 149 3
a. Make a frequency distribution table.
b. Calculate the mean, median and mode of this grouped data.
c. Find the median class. Encircle it.
d. Calculate the range, variance and standard deviation.
e. Show your solution

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 Nature of Inquiry and Quantitative
UNIT I:
Research
Introduction
Research is significant in our everyday activities. It is the result of a thinking process that involves
researchers in questioning techniques or models. In order for you to have a grasp of the
techniques/models of inquiry. You have to know the process involved in inquiry and research –
simply called inquiry-based learning.
Research is important when we know how to make sense of it. With this, we need to check the
learner’s prior knowledge of how research is used in daily life. Through this we can answer the
question, how does inquiry and research facilitate in finding solutions to real-life problems and
develop critical thing skills and lifelong learning.
One type of research is quantitative research. Quantitative research is the focus of this module.
Here you will learn the difference of qualitative and quantitative research. The question about
what is a quantitative research, what are the methods/approaches used, the data analysis and
the related concepts behind this kind of research.
In this unit, you will learn to appreciate the importance of research and the basics of quantitative
research. As well as the values of appreciation and camaraderie are developed among the
learners through collaborative work.
Content Standard:
The learner demonstrates understanding of:
 The characteristics, strengths, weaknesses, and kinds of quantitative research;
 The importance of quantitative research across fields;
 The nature of variables.

Performance Standard
The learner is able to:
 Decide on suitable quantitative research in different areas of interest.

Most Essential Learning Competencies:

 Describes the characteristics, strengths, weaknesses and kinds of quantitative research;
 Illustrates the importance of quantitative research across fields;
 Differentiates kinds of variables and their uses.

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Lesson 1: Inquiry and Research
Research is significant in our everyday activities. It is the result of a thinking process that involves
students questioning techniques or models. The following stated are the concepts of inquiry-
based learning.
According to Drayton & Falk (2001), the following are the characteristics of classrooms where
teachers emphasized inquiry-based learning:
 Inquiry is in the form of authentic (real-life) problems within the context of the curriculum
and/or community.
 The inquiry capitalizes on student curiosity.
 Data and information are actively used, interpreted, refined, digested and discussed.
 Teachers, students and teacher-librarian collaborate.
 Community and society are connected with the inquiry.
 The teacher models the behaviors of inquirer.
 The teacher uses the language of inquiry on an ongoing basis.
 Students take ownership of their learning.
 The teacher facilitates the process of gathering and presenting information.
 The teacher and students use technology to advance inquiry.
 The teacher embraces inquiry as both content and pedagogy.
 The teacher and students interact more frequently and more actively than during
traditional teaching.
 There is an identifiable time for inquiry-based learning.

Thus, Inquiry is a learning process that motivates you to obtain knowledge or information about
people, things, places or events. (Baraceros, 2016)

Figure 1: Inquiry Model

Source: Focus on Inquiry: A Teacher’s Guide to Implementing Inquiry-based Learning.

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Acquisition of knowledge is one goal of research for deeper understanding of the world thus
inquiry is important which almost synonymous to the word investigation. As you continually
seek, create, constructs things for to answers different queries that would lead to a study which
has factual-evident facts that will conclude one phenomena.
Inquiry requires you to collect data, meaning, facts, and information about the object of your
inquiry, and examine such data carefully. On other hand, in your analysis, you execute varied
thinking strategies that range from lower-order to higher-order thinking skills such as inferential,
critical, integrative, creative thinking. (Biay & Cortez, 2017., p.1)
This inquiry model helps you to process how inquiry is related to research. Knowing the ins and
outs of inquiry based-learnings leads us to different learning method and hone our higher order
thinking skills (HOTS) that leads to higher level of learning which is research. Knowing the
important of research is when we know how to make sense of it. With this, let’s identify the nature
of research.

Research is defined as a purposive and scientific process of gathering, analyzing, organizing,

presenting and interpreting data. The word research is derived from the old French word,
“cerchier” which means to “seek or search”. Search meaning is to investigate. The prefix “re”
means again and signifies of the search. Literally, research means, “to investigate again”.
Functions of Research
 Research corrects perceptions.
 Research gathers information on subjects or phenomena we lack or have a little
knowledge about.
 Research also develops and evaluates concepts, practices and theories.
 Research obtains knowledge for practical purposes like solving problems on population
explosion, drug addiction, juvenile delinquency and the like.

Characteristics of Research
1. Empirical. Research is based on direct experience or observation by the researcher.
2. Logical. Research is based on valid procedures and principles.
3. Cyclical. Research is a cyclical process because it starts with a problem and ends with a
problem.
4. Analytical. Research utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering the data, whether
historical, descriptive, and experimental and case study.
5. Critical. Research exhibits careful and precise judgment.
6. Methodical. Research is conducted in a methodical manner without bias using systematic
method and procedures.
7. Replicability. The research design and procedures are replicated or repeated to enable
the researcher to arrive at valid and conclusive results

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The Researcher: Characteristics of the researcher
 Intellectual Curiosity – an investigator assumes deep Qualities of a Good
thinking and investigation of the things, situation and Researcher
problems around him.
R – Research Oriented
 Prudence – the researcher is prudent if he conducts his
E – Efficient
research study carefully, wisely, practically at the right time S – Scientific
and place efficiently, effectively and economically. E – Effective
 Intellectual Honesty – an intelligent researcher is honest in A – Active
gathering data or facts in order to arrive at honest and valid R –Resourceful
results. C – Creative
H – Honest
 Intellectual Creativity – a creative and intelligent researcher
E – Economical
must invent new, unique and original researches which are R – Religious
patentable to have return of investment.

The Scientific Method of Research

1. Determining the Problem
2. Forming Hypothesis
3. Doing the Library Research
4. Designing the Study
5. Developing the instruments for collecting data
6. Collecting the Data
7. Analyzing the Data
8. Determining the implication and conclusions from findings
9. Making recommendations for future research
As discussed above, inquiry and research is a very important human endeavor. It helps us to find
answers and for knowledge production. Relevant researches helps us to live in comfort and
convenient today thus it precedes progress and make the world better.

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Lesson 2: Quantitative Research
Quantitative research is a form of research that uses statistical data as the main source of
knowledge. Basically, this form of research would like to operationalize reality into numbers that
can be easily analyzed. (Francisco et. al., 2016).
This form of research is often done in the physical and natural sciences because there is a need
for a higher degree of control that can be done in laboratories. It can establish causal relationships
among different variables (dependent and independent) it studies.
When doing a quantitative research study, the goal is to determine the relationship between
variables within a population. Quantitative Research designs can be either descriptive (subjects
usually measured once) or experimental (subjects measured before and after a treatment).
The objective of the quantitaive research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories
and hypothesis pertaining to phenomena. (Ricarto, n.d.) Hoping that these numbers will yield to
unbiased result that can be generalized to some larger populations.
Characteristics of Quantitative Research (as cited in Spalding Universitz, 2020)
1. The data is usually gathered using structured research instruments.
2. The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population.
3. The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability.
4. Researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective answers are sought.
5. All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected.
6. Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often arranged in tables, charts, figures, or
other non-textual forms.
7. Project can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future results, or
investigate causal relationships.
8. Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or computer software, to collect numerical
data.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Quantitative Research

Strength Weakness
Findings can be generalized if selection Related secondary data is sometimes not
process is well-designed and sample is available or accessing available data is
representative of study population difficult/impossible
Relatively easy to analyze Difficult to understand context of a
phenomenon
Data can be very consistent, precise and Data may not be robust enough to explain
reliable complex issues
Research can be replicated and then analyzed Results provide less detail on behavior,
and compared with similar studies attitudes and motivations
Summarize vast source of information and Uses a static and rigid approach and so
make comparisons across categories and employs an inflexible process of discovery
over time
Personal bias can be avoided by keeping a Quantitative data is more efficient and able to
distance from participating subjects and using test hypothesis, but may miss contextual detail
accepted computational techniques resulting to less elaborate accounts of human
perception
Table 1: Strengths and Weaknesses of Quantitative Research

18
Importance of Quantitative Research (as cited in Biay & Cortez, 2017., p.4)
1. More reliable and objective
2. Can use statistics to generalize a finding
3. Often reduces and restructures a complex problem to a limited number of variables
4. Looks at relationships between variables and can establish cause and effect in highly
controlled circumstances
5. Tests theories or hypotheses
6. Assumes sample is representative of the population
7. Subjectivity of researcher in methodology is recognized less
8. Less detailed than qualitative data and may miss a desired response from the participant

Quantitative Research across the Fields

Quantitative research is widely used in both natural and social sciences, from physics, biology to
sociology and journalism. Virtually all research in physics is quantitative whereas research in other
scientific disciplines, such as taxonomy and anatomy may involve a combination of quantitative
and other analytic approaches and method. In psychology, approaches in quantitative psychology
were first modeled on quantitative approaches in the physical sciences by Gustav Frechner in his
work of psychophysics which built on the work of Ernst Heinrich Weber.

This form of research uses statistical methods typically begins with the collection of data based
on a theory or hypothesis, followed by application of descriptive or inferential statistical methods.
In the field of health, for example, researchers might measure and study relationship between
dietary intake and measurable physiological effects such as weight loss, controlling for other key
variables such as exercise.

Quantitatively based opinion surveys ate widely used in the media, with statistics such as
proportion of respondents in favor or position commonly reported. In opinion surveys, respondents
are asked a set of structured questions and their responses are tabulated. In the field of climate
science, researchers compile and compare statistics such as temperature or atmospheric
concentrations of CO2.

Although quantitative investigation of the world has existed since people first began to record
events or objects had been counted, the modern idea of quantitative processes has their roots in
Auguste Comtes positivist framework – which brings quantitative research across the fields.

19
Lesson 3: The Nature of Variables
Statistical data or information can be gathered through different ways such as interviewing people,
observing or inspecting items, using questionnaire and checklists. The characteristics that is being
studied is called a variable. A variable is a characteristic that takes two or more values which
varies across individuals. (Ymas, 2013, p.7). It is not something we only measures but we can
also manipulate and control this variable. It can be either qualitatively or quantitatively.
There are two main types of variables and data. Variables can be qualitative or quantitative.
1. Qualitative Variable – represents differences in quality, character or kind but not in amount.
It is used in interval or ratio scale of measurement.
Examples: sex, birthplace or geographic locations, religious preferences, marital status,
eye color.
2. Quantitative Variable – numerical in nature and can be ordered or ranked. It has two types
(a) discrete variable and (b) continuous variable.
Examples: weight, height, age, test scores, speed, body temperature
There are times that a variable can be expressed both qualitative and quantitative. For example,
the grades in the school. It can be expressed in percent such as 90%, 85% or 75% making it
quantitative variable, if in letters such as A, A-, B+ the grades are qualitative.
Types of Quantitative Variable
1. Continuous Variable – these are variables that can take the form of decimals.
Examples: weight, length, height, school grades
2. Discrete or Discontinuous Variable – these are variables that can’t take the form of
decimals.
Examples: number of students, number of houses, size of a family

Types of Variable According to Functional Relationship

1. Independent Variable – This is sometimes termed as predictor variable. It is anything,
condition or process which controlled and manipulated by the researcher and applied on
another thing, condition or process (usually dependent variables) intended to have or
produce a change in or reaction from the letter.
2. Dependent Variable – This is sometimes called criterion variable. It is anything, a condition
or process exposed to or upon which treatment or actions from the independent variables
are applied.
Example: Academic achievement is dependent on IQ. IQ is independent variable and
academic achievement is the dependent variable.

According to Russell & Babbie 2013 as cited in Baraceros (2016, p.31),

There are other types of variables which are as follows:
1. Constant – do not undergo any changes during an experiment
2. Attribute – characteristics of people: intelligence, creativity, anxiety, learning styles,
etc.
3. Covariate – included in the research study to create interactions with the
independent and dependent variables
4. Dichotomous – has only two possible results: one or zero
5. Latent – cannot be directly observed like personality traits
6. Manifest – can be directly observed to give proofs to latent variables

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 7. Exogenous – found outside an identified model
8. Endogenous – found inside; as a part of identified model
9. Extraneous – extra variable that create an impact on the relationship between
independent and dependent variable
10. Control Variable – a variable controlled by the researcher in which the effect can be
neutralized by eliminating or removing the variables
11. Intervening Variable – this variable intrudes or interferes with the independent
variables and dependent variables but its effect can either reinforce or weaken the
independent and dependent variables

Variable

Qualitattive Quantitative Others

Continuity of Functional
Attribute
Values Relationship

Discrete Independnet Dichotomous

Continuous Dependent Covariate

Latent

Manifest

Exogeneous

Endogeneous

Extraneous

Constant

Control

Intervening

Figure 2: Types of Variable

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Lookback: Review
The main ideas found in this unit are the following:
1. Research is an important human activity. It is a systematic process of finding answers to
questions.
2. Research produces knowledge, makes the life of human beings convenient, finds answers
to difficult questions, results into progress and makes the world better.
3. Research should follow certain step-by-step process. However, the different forms of
research would entail a different way of doing it. Hence, there is a possibility to not follow
the general outline given above.
4. Research has ethics. There are certain rules that must be followed in the conduct of
research. However, the rules may change depending on the way research is done.
5. Quantitative research refers to systematic empirical investigation that collects quantifiable
data from participants that asks specific and narrow questions that analyzes numbers
using different statistical methods. It conducts the inquiry in an unbiased (uses probability
sampling method) and objective manner.
6. Quantitative research is widely used in both natural and social sciences, from physics,
biology to sociology and journalism.
7. A variable is a characteristic that takes two or more values which varies across individuals.
There are two main types of variable namely qualitative and quantitative. Though, there
are times that a variable can be expressed both qualitative and quantitative. There are
other types of variable which has a specific function. You may refer to lesson 3 or see the
diagram to overview the concepts of the nature of different variables.

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 UNIT Exercise
IDENTIFICATION.
A. Identify whether each item is qualitative or quantitative.
_____________ 1. Number of years of service in teaching profession
_____________ 2. Employee identification number
_____________ 3. Speed of Train
_____________ 4. Tossing coin
_____________ 5. Monthly Salary of Faculty

B. Identify whether each item is discrete or continuous.

_____________ 1. Student enrollment in a university
_____________ 2. Cube root of three
_____________ 3. Outcomes in tossing a die
_____________ 4. Rational numbers
_____________ 5. Outcomes in tossing a coin

C. Identify if the following stamen is correct. Write C if the sentence is correct, otherwise write
INC.
_______ 1. Extraneous variables are nuisance variables.
_______ 2. Dichotomous variable has only two possible results: one or zero.
_______ 3. Latent variable can be directly observed like personality traits.
_______ 4. Constant variable does not undergo any changes during an experiment.
_______ 5. Exogenous variable found inside an identified model.

REFLECT. Write a simple reflection or explanation on the space provided to the phrase
given below.
“To be a researcher is to be a scientist”
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ANALYZE. Look for a quantitative research study and read the study carefully. Analyze it and
write a reflection paper about the importance of research in our daily life based on the research
you’ve read. Here are the following guide questions:
 What appears to be the main objective of the research?
 Does the research have conclusion and recommendation?
 Why is the research conducted?
 How does the research study help you in your daily life?
 What are the processes used in the research study?
 Did the researcher consider the ethics in conducting research?
Note: Please include the source (APA format) of the research study you’ve used in your reflection

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 Identifying the Inquiry and Stating the
UNIT II:
Problem
Introduction
Research starts when the researcher has a problem to work on. As the researcher inquires and
identify to find answers to a question that’s where research problem is created. Narrowing the
research problem through generating specific question and formulating hypothesis.
In this unit, the learners are expected to demonstrate understanding of the range of research
topics in the area of inquiry, the value of research in the area of interest and the specificity and
feasibility of the problem posed. Specifically, the learners should be able to design a research
project related to daily life, write a research title, describe the justifications/reasons for conducting
the research, state research questions, indicate scope and delimitation of research, cite benefits
and beneficiaries of research and present written statement of the problem.
Content Standard:
The learner demonstrates understanding of:
 The range of research topics in the area of inquiry;
 The value of research in the area of interest;
 The specificity and feasibility of the problem posed.

Performance Standard
The learner is able to:
 Formulate clearly the statement of research problem.
 Formulate research hypotheses (if appropriate),

Most Essential Learning Competencies:

 Designs a research used in daily life;
 Writes a research title;
 Describes background of research;
 States research questions;
 Indicates scope and delimitation of study;
 Lists research hypothesis (if appropriate);
 Defines terms used in study;
 Presents written statement of the problem.

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Lesson 1: Quantitative Research Problem
The researcher begins their research work with a problem to work on. This is where research title
can be made. Considering over a topic for the researcher work drives them to perform HOTS or
Higher Order Thinking Skills strategies such as inferential, critical, creative and resourceful
thinking. There may be several choices but the researcher chooses one among them. All research
studies begin with a research problem, research questions and hypothesis.

As the researcher identify their topic, it is time to state the research problem. Research Problem
is an issue or concern that an investigator presents and justifies in a research study. A problems
involve areas of concerns to researchers, for condition they want to improve, difficulties they want
to eliminate, questions for which they want to seek answers.

A research problem is something that nurtures in your mind a difficulty or uncertainty, enough to
push you to do an empirical investigation whereby you search for answers to a problem by
collecting and analyzing data or information through which you can find the right answer or
solution. (Baraceros, 2016). How does a research problem become quantitative? It became
quantitative when your problem is researchable, on the other hand qualitative problem is because
of its subjective nature (explaining and describing people’s views and values).

Quantitative research problem identifies three specific elements: (1) the type of research design;
(2) the variables of interest and the relationships between or among these variables; and (3) the
subjects involved in the study.

Why is the research problem important? Characteristics of

 Establishes importance of topic Research Problem
 Creates reader interest
 Focuses reader’s attention on how study will add to S – Specific
literature M – Measurable
Factors to consider in selecting a Research Problem A – Attainable
1. Researchers are of interest R – Realistic
2. Availability of funds T – Time-bound
3. Investigator’s ability and training

Having a research problem is the beginning act in your research. The second step is generating
specific questions or the sub-problems of your research problems. The research problem enables
the researchers to generate a set of research questions. However, the researcher ability to identify
your research problem and to formulate the questions depends on the background knowledge
you have about the topic.

To give your study a clear direction, you have to break this big, overreaching, general question
into several smaller or specific research questions. The specific questions, also called sub-
problems, identify or direct you to the exact aspect of the problem that your study has to focus on.
Beset by many factors, the general question or research problem is prone to reducing itself to
several specific questions, seeking conclusive answers to the problem. (Baraceros, 2016)

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The following shows you the link among the following: research problem, research topic, research
question, and the construction of one general question and specific questions in a research paper.

Research Problem
Interrogative statement: What percentage of Manila private universities consider the use of grammar
textbooks as the most effective way to help college students attain communicative competence?

Declarative statement: The main objective of this study is to find out the percentage of Manila private
universities considering the use of grammar text books as the most effective way to help college students
attain communicative competence.

Research Questions
Interrogative statements:
Specifically, it aims to answers the following questions:
1. What is an English grammar textbook?
2. What is communicative competence?
3. What components of the grammar textbook work for communicative competence development?
4. How many Manila private universities require the use of grammar textbooks?
5. How many Manila private universities use grammar textbooks as references only?
6. To what extent do Manila private universities find grammar textbooks effective in helping college
students attain communicative competence?

Declarative statements:
Likewise, this study aims at finding answers to the following specific objectives:
1. To define a grammar textbook
2. To explain the meaning of communicative competence
3. To identify the components of the grammar book that work for communicative-competence
development
4. To determine the number of Manila private universities requiring the use of grammar textbooks
5. To determine the number of Manila private universities using grammar textbooks as references only
6. To determine the extent of Manila private universities considering grammar textbooks as the means
by which they can help the college students attain communicative competence
Source: Baraceros, E. (2016). Practical Research 2

Types of Quantitative Research Questions (as cited by Baraceros, 2016)

A quantitative research problem can generate a set of research questions or sub-problems that
fall under any of these types of research questions:
1. Descriptive research questions – ask questions on the kind, qualifications, and categories
of the subjects or participants.
2. Relation questions – are questions about the nature and manner of connection between
or among variables.
3. Causal questions – reasons behind the effects of the independent variable on the
dependent variable is the focus of these types of research questions.

Approaches to Quantitative Research Questions

1. Deductive Approach – it goes from bigger ideas such as theories and concepts to
smaller ideas. Operational definition tends in this approach because of the meaning of a
variable is explained based on its involvement or role in the research process,
particularly, in the measurement, manipulation, or control of the concept application.
2. Inductive Approach – starts from smaller and simpler ideas to bigger or more complex
ones. Inductively formulated research questions focus on description of things to prove
an idea or a system.

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Pragmatically, the researcher may search for wrong, irrelevant, or unnecessary information
without a well-developed research question, thus a well-developed research question is
significant. Remember that research questions are used to guide all types of research studies
that makes a research studies an evident-based practice. Look at the diagram below on how the
research question is develop:

Figure 3: The Development of Research Question

Source: Haber, J. (n.d.) Research Questions, Hypotheses and Clinical Questions

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When a researcher decides to do research, the researcher begin with a problem that will lead to
a specific topic to focus on. Thus, writing the title and guidelines in choosing topic must be
considered.

Guidelines in Writing the Title

1. Generally, the title is formulated before the start of the research work. It may be revised
and refined later if there is a need.
2. The title must contain the subject matter of the study, the locale of the study, the
population involved and the period when the data were gathered or will be gathered.
3. It must be broad enough to include all aspect of the subject matter studied or to be
studied. Hence, the title indicates what is expected to be found inside the thesis report.
4. It must be as brief and concise as possible.
5. Avoid using the terms “An Analysis of”, “A Study of”, “An Investigation of” and the like. All
these things are understood to have been done or to be done when the research is
conducted.
6. If the title more than one line, it must be written like inverted pyramid, all words in capital
letter.

Guidelines in Choosing a Research Topic Sources of Research Topics

1. Interest in the Subject Matter The following can be a source of the
2. Availability of Information researcher topic:
1. Specialization
3. Timeliness and Relevance of the Topic
2. Mass Media Communication
4. Limitations on the Subject (Newspaper, TVs, Radio, Films)
5. Personal Resources 3. Periodicals and Journals
4. Work Experience (OJT, Fieldwork)
5. Thesis and Dissertation
6. Creative ideas of a researches

Avoid the following topics:

a. Controversial issues (e.g., political scandals, court matters, etc.)
b. Very new topics (references may not yet be available)
c. Personal bias and discriminating topics (e.g., racism, sexism, etc.)
d. Supernatural and paranormal topics (e.g., fortune-telling, astral projection, telepathy, etc.)
e. Political conflicts (e.g., graft and corruption, wiretapping, war on drugs, etc.)
f. How to commit crimes

Things to consider in selecting a topic:

a. Time frame for completion (Research should be feasible)
b. Benefit to the community. Topics that improve human life is the ultimate goal of research.
(Research is ethical)
c. Focus on a specific area of knowledge; i.e., it should be concentrated on a specific subject
area.
d. Topics should be interesting; that is, pertinent to the readers’ interests.
e. Topics should be measurable and observable for it must be results oriented.

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Lesson 2: Writing the Introduction
Chapter I of the research paper is called the, The Problem and Its Background (sometimes also
called the Introduction), which is composed of the following sections (generally): 1) Background
of the Study, 2) Statement of the Problem, 3) Scope and Limitation, and 4) Significance of the
Study. (Other thesis have sections such as Objectives of the Study, Hypotheses, and Definition
of Terms)

No study can begin without a topic or a problem to be solved. When the researcher decides a
problem to worked on, it is essential step to start a topic that the researcher will focus on.
Identifying the elements of the introductory part of the research reporting is a must to be able to
evaluate and stated relevant factual data that will support your thesis statement or hypothesis.

Elements of a Research Title. The research title is not meant to be entertaining or “catchy” like
the titles of television programs or movies, but informative. The parts of a research title contain
the following information:
1. The subject matter or topic to be investigated. (“What?”)
2. The place or locale where the research is to be conducted. (“Where?”)
3. The population or universe from who the data are to be collected, i.e., the respondents or
interviewees. (“Who”?)
4. The time period of the study during which the data are to be collected. (“When”?)

Example:
Subject matter: The teaching of Science
Place or locale: in the high schools of Province A
Time period: during the school year 1989-1990
Population: as perceived by teachers and students
It could be written as:
The Effectiveness of Teaching of Science in the High School as Perceived by Teachers and
Students of Province A for the school year 1989-1990

Subject matter: The effects of the use of cell phones on the academic performance
Population: to señior high school students
Place or locale: at Philippine Christian University
Time period: during the first semester, school year 2016-2017
It could be written as:
The Effects of the Use of Cell Phones on the Academic Performance to Señior Highs School
Students at Philippine Christian University for the First Semester School Year 2016-2017

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY (according to Bordo, et al.)

This section serves the following purposes: 1) to provide readers with the background and general
direction of the research paper, 2) to bring about a smooth transition into the major discussion of
the paper, and 3) to arouse curiosity among the readers thereby getting their attention.

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The following are some elements that should or might be included in this section:
1. Presentation of the problem – Describe the existence of an unsatisfactory condition or a
problem that needs a solution.
2. Historical background of the problem - Give the historical background of the problem, if
applicable.
3. Geographical conditions of the study locale - If applicable, describe the geographical
location of the study.
4. Rationale of the study - Give the reason(s) why the study should be conducted.

Example:
In 2004, the researcher migrated to the Philippines to accompany her spouse who was at the time
studying at the Adventist Institute for International Advanced Studies (AIIAS) in Silang, Cavite.
They discovered the study opportunities and were motivated by the quality of education and low
school fees being offered. They visited several colleges and universities to collect pamphlets and
sent them back to Vanuatu for educational awareness. The Ni-Vanuatus became aware and
decided to send students to study in the Philippines. The first two schools to receive Vanuatu
students were AMA Computer College in Dasmariñas, Cavite and Air Link Aviation College in
Parañaque City. The researcher came to know Cavite State University (CvSU) in 2009 and
transferred from AMA. (Ngwele, March 2011)

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The statement of the problem (also called “purpose statement and research questions”) is a
statement of the purpose of the study and a series of questions that will help in researching the
topic. It is composed of 1) the general statement of the problem (the purpose statement) and 2)
the specific sub-problems or sub-questions (or research questions). (It may help to think that the
specific sub-questions/research questions are an outline in question form.)

Guidelines in Writing the Statement of the Problem (according to Calderon & Gonzales)
1. The general statement of the problem (or the purpose statement) and the specific sub-
problems (or the research questions) should be formulated first before conducting the
research.
2. It is customary to state specific sub-problems in the interrogative form; hence, sub-
problems are also called “specific questions”.
3. Each specific research question should be clear and unequivocal (should only have one
meaning) in order to avoid confusion.
4. Each research question should be researchable apart from the other questions (i.e.,
separable).
5. Each research question must be based upon known facts and phenomena. Furthermore,
data from such facts and phenomena should be accessible to the researcher.
6. Answers to each research question can be interpreted apart from the answers to the other
specific questions.
7. Answers to each research question must contribute to the development of the whole
research study.

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 8. Summing up the answers to all the specific questions will give a complete development of
the entire study.
9. The number of research questions should be enough to cover the development of the
whole research study.
Example:
This research aims to develop an evaluation model of a web-based tool used in test administration
for Grade 11 and 12 students.
Specifically, it aims to answer the following questions:
1. What are the commonly used web-based tools used in test administration?
2. How are these web-based test tools evaluated?
3. How could evaluation model be designed for web-based test administration?
(Leanillo, 2016)

SCOPE AND LIMITATION

This section is a description of what is included in the study and what is not included. The
population under study and the locale of the study should be described. It is important to narrow
down the research topic and limit the scope of the study. As Biay & Cortez (2017) asserts, “The
scope identifies the boundaries of the study in term of subjects, objectives, facilities, area, time
frame and the issues to which the research is focused.” On the other hand, the limitation is
delimiting a study by geographic location, age, sex, population traits and size, and the other similar
considerations. It is to make the study more feasible and identifies the limits of the study.

Sample phrases that help express the scope of the study:

The coverage of this study……….
The study consists of ……...
The study covers the ……….
This study is focus on…….

Sample phrases that expressed the limitations of the study

The study does not cover the……
The researcher limited this research to……
This study is limited to………

Example:
The study shall only include children studying at the Sunday school of Beth Yaacov synagogue
in Makati City. This will include only children from ages five (5) to twelve (12), being the age when
Jewish children begin their religious education, and ending at the age when they become bar
mitzvah and bat mitzvah. Children from other Jewish communities in the country, like the “Bagel
Boys” in Pampanga or the recently established Chabad House also in Makati, are not included.
Children below the age of religious instruction (five years old) and beyond (twelve years old) are
not included. Attendees of the various adult classes held at the synagogue, are likewise not
included. (Guerrero, October 2011)

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SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This is a list of the people or institutions who will benefit from the study and how they will benefit
from the study. It encompasses the aims and objectives of the researcher hopes to achieve with
the research. The presentation of the significance of the study either in the inductive and deductive
perspective.

Example:
The study will provide some insights and information on the effect of watching Korean dramas on
housewives’ perception on marriage. Also, the useful and relevant information acquired from this
study will stimulate awareness on housewives on the possible effects the message weight after
their beliefs and attitudes.
Married couples. The study would be beneficial to them since they are married and they would
be able to understand each other more and be more aware of each other’s feelings toward a
certain topic.
Future researchers. The study would serve as their reference in their research study which could
be beneficial and similar to this.
Housewives. Since they are the participants, this would help them to know more and be aware
in Korean dramas’ effects in their lives as well as their perception on marriage and family life.
(Arcibal, April 2011)

DEFINITION OF TERMS
The definition of terms must be listed alphabetically. Defining important terms is essential to
ensure a common understanding of key concepts and terminology is shared between the
dissertation author and his or her audience, particularly if the term is unusual or not widely known.
There are two ways of defining the key terms in the study:
a. Conceptual Definition – the definition of terms is based on concepts of hypothetic ones
which are usually taken from dictionary, encyclopedia, published journals or books.
b. Operational Definition – the definition of terms is based on observable characteristics and
how it is used in the study. It is preferable when defining technical terms.

Guidelines in defining terms:

1. Only terms, words, or phrase which have special unique meaning in the study are defined.
2. Terms should be defined operationally, that is, how they are used in the study.
3. The researcher may develop his own definition from the characteristics of the term
defined.
4. Definitions may be taken from encyclopedias, books, magazines, newspaper articles,
dictionaries and other publications but researcher must acknowledge his sources.
5. Definitions should as brief, clear and unequivocal as possible.
6. Acronyms should always be spelled out fully especially if it is not commonly known or if it
is used for the first time.

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Lesson 3: The Hypothesis
Hypothesis is a tentative conclusion or answer to specific question raised at the beginning of the
investigation. As Haber (nd.) asserts, “Hypothesis is a statement about relationship between two
or more variables that suggest an answer to the research questions.” It is usually described as an
educated guess to the research questions and in a form of declarative statements. It is important
because it tells the researcher what to and how to go about solving the research problem.

In some disciplines, the hypothesis is called, “thesis statement”, “hypothesized” or “proposed”. In

hypothesis, predicting the relationship between variables and insights gained in research process
makes to prove the hypothesis.

Before formulating your hypothesis, read related literature about your topic that will help you to
narrow down and express it as a research questions. Then the research question that is stated
as one sentence makes your research hypothesis.

Purposes of Hypotheses (as cited in Baraceros, 2016)

Some researchers find hypotheses essential because of the following reasons:
1. They guide you on which aspect of the research to focus on.
2. They provide opportunities to prove the relationship between variables.
3. They give the right direction of the research.
4. They outline your thoughts on your manner of summarizing the results and of explaining
the conclusions.
5. They push for an empirical study to prove the existence of relationship of variables and
the effects of independent variable on the dependent variable.

Forms of Hypothesis
1. Null Hypothesis (Ho) - states the absence of relationship or no difference between the
independent and dependent variables. It is therefore a statement to disprove the fact that
the independent variable (treatment, intervention, or condition) has an effect on the
dependent variable. It is stated in negative form.
2. Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) - states the relationship between the independent and the
dependent variables and the fact that the first affects the second one. It is always stated
in positive form.

Example:
Research Question:
 Is there a significant difference on the mean weight increment of mudcrab (Scylla serrata)
cultured in the fishpond using pellets and bread meal as supplemental feeds?
Null Hypothesis:
 There is no significant difference on the mean weight increment of mudcrab (Scylla serrata)
cultured in the fishpond using pellets and bread meal as supplement feeds.
Alternative Hypothesis:
 There is significant difference on the mean weight increment of mudcrab (Scylla serrata)
cultured in the fishpond using pellets and bread meal as supplement feeds.

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Types of Hypothesis (as cited in Baraceros, 2016)
1. Theory-driven vs. Data-driven hypotheses - A hypothesis that is based on existing theory
to explain the relationship of variables and the effects of one variable on the other variables
is theory-driven. But if it is based on the findings of previous research studies, it is a data-
driven hypothesis.
2. Directional (one-tailed) vs. Non-directional (two-tailed) hypotheses - Directional
hypotheses state the relationship of two variables as well as of the relationship of these
variables. Non-directional hypotheses, on the other hand, state the relationship of
variables but not on the direction of the relationship.
3. Descriptive vs. Causal hypotheses - A statement specifying the relationship between two
variables due to the influence of something is a descriptive hypothesis; due to cause-effect
relationship, it is a causal hypothesis. True experimental or quasi-experimental research
such as a correlation study uses causal hypotheses; non-experimental research uses
descriptive hypotheses.

Guidelines in Formulating Hypotheses

1. It should be written in declarative sentence.
2. Hypothesis should show relation between variables supported by ideas based on
theories, known facts, previous studies that will arrive at conclusion.
3. Remember that your hypothesis what you propose to prove by that’s why established
logical relationship between hypothesis and research problem.
4. Be sure that each term in your hypothesis is clear and concise to be understood and
defined. Do not dwell in generalities.
Test of Statistical Hypothesis
In field of applied scientific research, statistics play vital role. Statistics offers varied tools and
techniques that help the researcher draw valid and reliable inferences or generalizations about
the population on the basis of the sample – also known as inferential statistics. The most important
part of inferential statistics is the test of hypothesis.

A statistical hypothesis is an assumption or statement, which may or may not be true, concerning
one or more populations whereas hypothesis testing enables researcher to generalize population
from relatively small samples. (Ymas, 2013).
To illustrate statistical test of hypothesis, let’s take a pharmaceutical problem situation in a court
trial:
In trying a person for theft, the court must decide between innocent and guilt. As the trial
begins, the accused person is assumed to be innocent (let’s take this as a null hypothesis).
The prosecution collects and presents all available evidence in an attempt to contradict the
innocent hypothesis and hence obtain a conviction. If there is enough evidence against
innocence, the court will reject the innocence hypothesis and declare the defendant guilty (this
will be the alternative hypothesis). If the prosecution does not present enough evidence to
prove the defendant guilty, the court will find him not guilty. Notice that this does not prove
that the defendant is innocent, but merely that there was not enough evidence to conclude
that the defendant was guilty.

A statistical test of hypothesis consists of five parts:

1. The null hypothesis, denoted by Ho
2. The alternative hypothesis, denoted by Ha
3. The test statistics and its p-value
4. The rejection region

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 5. The conclusion

Note: The two competing hypotheses are the alternative hypothesis (Ha), generally the hypothesis
that the researcher wishes to support, and the null hypothesis (Ho), a contradiction of alternative
hypothesis.

Steps in Hypothesis Testing (as cited in Ymas, 2013)

Step 1: Formulate the null hypothesis, H0.
Step 2: Choose an appropriate alternative hypothesis, Ha.
Step 3: Specify the level of significance to be used.
Step 4: Select an appropriate test statistic and determine the critical value of the test statistic.

It is easier to show support for the alternative hypothesis by proving that the null hypothesis is
false. Hence, the statistical researcher always begins by assuming that the null hypothesis is true.
The researcher then uses the sample data to decide whether the evidence favors alternative
rather than the null, and draws one of these two conclusions:
 Reject Ho and conclude that Ha is true.
 Accept (do not reject) Ho as true.

Example:

1. You wish to show that the average hourly wage of carpenters in the state of California is
different from $14, which is the national average. This is the alternative hypothesis, written
as Ha: µ = 14. The null hypothesis is, Ho: µ = 14. You would like to reject the null hypothesis,
thus concluding that the Californian mean is not equal to $14.
2. A milling process currently produces an average of 3% defectives. You are interested in
showing that a simple adjustment on machine will decrease p, the proportion of defectives
produced in the milling process. Thus, the alternative hypothesis is Ha: p<0.3 and the null
hypothesis is Ho: p = .03. If you can reject Ho, you can conclude that the adjusted process
procedures fewer than 3% defectives.

If your prediction specifies a direction, and the null therefore is the no difference prediction and
the prediction of the opposite direction, we call this a one-tailed hypothesis. The critical region
is located at only one extreme of distribution or range of value for the test statistic. When your
prediction does not specify a direction, we say you have a two-tailed hypothesis. The critical
region is located at on both sides of the distribution or range of values for the test statistics Look
at the example above, there is a difference in the forms of the alternative hypothesis given in
examples 1 and 2. In example 1, no directional difference is suggested for the value of µ; that is,
µ might be either larger or smaller than $14 if Ha is true. This type of test is called two-tailed test
of hypothesis. In example 2, however, you are specifically interested in detecting a directional
difference in the value of p; that is, if Ha is true, the value of p is less than .03. This type of test is
called a one-tailed test of hypothesis. The decision to reject or accept the null hypothesis is based
on information contained in a sample drawn from the population of interest.
 Test Statistic; a single number calculated from the sample data
 p-value: a probability calculated using the test statistic
Either or both of these measures act as decision makers for the researcher in deciding whether
to reject or accept Ho.

36
Other terms used in Hypothesis Testing
 Rejection of a Hypothesis – conclude that the hypothesis is false
 Acceptance of a Hypothesis – implies that there is no sufficient statistical evidence to
believe
 Critical Region – set of values of the test statistic that is chosen before the experiment to
define the conditions under which the null hypothesis will be rejected
 Type I Error – reject the null hypothesis when it is true
 Type II Error – accept or fail to reject the null hypothesis when the alternative hypothesis is
true
 Normal Distribution – represented by a normal curve which is a bell-shaped figure. It
means the mean is equal to median, which is also equal to mode.
 Parameter – numerical characteristics of the population mean, population standard
deviation, population variance, etc.
 Population – complete set of all possible observations, values, elements or objects under
consideration
 Sample – representative part of the population
 Standard Deviation – special form of average deviation from the mean. It is used in
measure of dispersion in given distribution
 Variance – mean of the sum of squares of the deviations from the arithmetic mean. It simply
means the square of the standard deviation.

37
Lookback: Review
The main ideas found in this unit are the following:
1. Research Problem is an issue or concern that an investigator presents and justifies in a
research study.
2. Quantitative research problem identifies three specific elements: (1) the type of
research design; (2) the variables of interest and the relationships between or among
these variables; and (3) the subjects involved in the study.
3. Chapter I of the research paper is called the, The Problem and Its
Background (sometimes also called the Introduction), which is composed of the following
sections: 1) Background of the Study, 2) Statement of the Problem, 3) Scope and
Limitation, and 4) Significance of the Study. (Other thesis have sections such as
Objectives of the Study, Hypotheses, and Definition of Terms).
4. A research hypothesis is a statement of expectation or prediction that will be tested
by research. Hypothesis testing enables a researcher to generalize population
from relatively small samples. In many instances, a researcher can only rely on the
information provided by part of the population.
5. The goal of hypothesis testing is not to question the computed value of the sample
statistic but to make a judgement about the difference between the sample
statistics and a hypothesized population parameter.
6. A research study must consist of research topic, research problem, specific questions and
hypothesis that furthermore describe and give clear direction of your study.

38
 UNIT Exercise
IDENTIFICATION.

A. Write OD if the sentence marks as operational definition and TD if it’s mark as theoretical
definition. Write your answers on the space provided below.
_______ 1. A sentence is a word or group of words that expresses a complete idea.
_______ 2. A sentence is made up of a subject, consisting of a name word, and a predicate,
made up of an action word, to express a complete thought.
_______ 3. A bug is a fault or an error in a computer program.
_______ 4. A bug is an error in a computer program that is characterized by high-speed telegraph
key.
_______ 5. Strangury is less than 20-minute slow and bloody way of urinating.
_______ 6. Strangury is a person’s abnormal way of urinating.
_______ 7. Sterilization is any procedure such as the use of a steam-pressure cooker to destroy
microorganisms.
_______ 8. Sterilization is a complete destruction of all microorganisms.
_______ 9. Analog is the representation of values through the use of physical variables.
_______ 10. Cycle is a set of operations.

B. Write Ho on the line if the statement is a null hypothesis for the given research problem,
otherwise Ha, if it is an alternative hypothesis. Write your answers on the space provided.
_______ 1. There are significant differences in self-reported cancer pain, symptoms
accompanying pain and functional status according to self-reported ethnic identity.
_______ 2. There will be no difference in anesthetic complication rates between hospitals that
rely primarily on certified registered nurse anesthetist (CRNA) obstetrical anesthesia
versus those that rely primarily on anesthesiologists.
_______ 3. Individuals who participate in usual care (UC) plus blood pressure (BP) telemonitoring
(TM) will have a greater reduction in BP from baseline to 12-month follow-up than
would individuals who receive UC only.
_______ 4. There will be no significant difference in the duration of patency of a 24-gauge
intraveneous lock in a neonatal patient when flushed with 0.5ml of heparinized saline
(2 u/ml), standard practice, compared with 0.5 ml of 0.9% normal saline.
_______ 5. Nurses with high social support from co-workers have low perceived job stress.

C. Check the column that speaks of the quality of the given quantitative research problem.

Non-
Quantitative Research Problem Researchable REASON
researchable
1. What are the viewers thoughts
and feelings about the ending of the
movie?
2. What are the effects of
Koreanovelas on the Filipino value
system?
3. How many find the movie
unrealistic?

39
 4. Does the movie reflect Philippine
culture?
5. What corrupt practices trigger off
one’s resignation?
6. In what way does collaborative
learning
increase communicative
competence?
7. To what extent does texting
decrease students’ grammatical
competence?
8. How does logical thinking develop
critical thinking?
9. How many causes are attributed
to globalization?
10. What value system of the
director did the movie reflect?

APPLICATION. Write a research problem and formulate hypothesis for the following given
research topic below.
1. Topic: The Role of Quarantine in Current Epidemiological Practices
Research Problem:
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________.

Hypothesis:
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________.

2. Topic: The Role of Labor-Protective Institutions in Gender Gap

Research Problem:
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________.

Hypothesis:
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________.

40
 Learning from Others and Reviewing
UNIT III:
the Literature
Introduction
In this unit, learners will be able to describe the written component of a research plan that
discusses the reviewed documents. These documents can include articles, journals, abstracts,
reviews, monographs, research reports and findings, and electronic media. Furthermore, learners
will understand that reviewing the related literature involves the systematic identification, location,
and analysis of documents containing information related to the research problem. Reading
extensively about your subject matter enables you to obtain a rich background knowledge that
will help you establish a good foundation or direction of your research work

Ethical standards in writing is a must to. Properly cited works will help the research study valid
and more reliable. For a literature review may consist simply of a summary of key sources. It
usually has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis, often within
conceptual categories.

Moreover, learners will also learn how to create a conceptual framework that will give an overview
of the overall research study from stating the problem down to the drawing conclusion which
results to the final output and outcome of the study.

Content Standard:
The learner demonstrates understanding of:
 The criteria in selecting, citing, and synthesizing related literature;
 The ethical standards in writing related literature;
 The formulation of conceptual framework;
 The research hypotheses (if appropriate);
 The definition of terms as used in the study.

Performance Standard
The learner is able to:
 Select, cite, and synthesize judiciously related literature and use sources according to
ethical standards;
 Formulate clearly conceptual framework and define terms used in study;
 Present objectively written review of related literature and conceptual framework.

Most Essential Learning Competencies:

 Illustrates and explain the conceptual framework;
 Presents written review of related literature and conceptual framework.

41
Lesson 1: The Review of Related Literature
Literature is an oral or written record of man’s significant experiences that are artistically
conveyed in a prosaic manner. Embodied in any literary work like essay, novel, journal, story,
biography, etc. are man’s best thoughts and feelings about the world. These recorded or
preserved world perceptions of man are expressed directly and indirectly.

Simply, literature is defined as “written works” collectively, especially those enduring importance,
exhibiting creative imagination and artistic skill are written in a particular period, language and
subject. (Funk & Wagnalls Dictionary, 1976).

Related Literature gives the researcher a complete understanding of what is known about a
given topic. It also provides him with many ideas about ways the researcher can design and carry
out the research more effectively. It is also essential because effective research must be based
upon past knowledge. If a researcher shall come to know what is already known and what is still
unknown about a problem, it is likely that the researcher will know where to start and what to do.
Related literature is partnered with related studies. Related Studies are studies, inquiries or
investigations already conducted to which the present proposed study is related or has some
bearing or similarity. They are usually unpublished materials such as manuscripts, thesis and
dissertations. Related literature and studies can be classified as (1) Local, if the inquiry was
conducted and printed in the Philippines, (2) Foreign, if conducted and printed in foreign lands.

Purposes of Review of Related Literature (as cited in Baraceros, 2016)

1. To obtain background knowledge of your research
2. To relate your study to the current condition or situation of the world
3. To show the capacity of your research work to introduce new knowledge
4. To expand, prove, or disprove the findings of previous research studies
5. To increase your understanding of the underlying theories, principles, or concepts of
your research
6. To explain technical terms involved in your research study
7. To highlight the significance of your work with the kind of evidence it gathered to support
the conclusion of your research
8. To avoid repeating previous research studies
9. To recommend the necessity of further research on a certain topic

Types of Sources of RRL and RRS

There are three types of sources for information:
 Primary Source – articles or reports written by those who actually conducted the research
or the literature itself such as research journals that are published monthly, quarterly or
yearly.
 Secondary Source – are the reports of a person who relates the testimony of an actual
witness or participants. Simply, it is a publication where authors cite the works of others
such as books, reviews, yearbooks and encyclopedia.
 Tertiary Source – are those compelled from, or based on secondary source material such
as thesis and dissertations.

42
List of Sources of RRL and RRS
 Books, Encyclopedia, Almanac and other similar references.
 Articles published in professional journals, magazines, periodicals, newspapers and other
publications.
 Manuscript, monographs, memoirs, speeches, letters and diaries.
 Unpublished thesis and dissertations
 The constitution and laws and statues of the land.
 Bulletins, circulars and orders emanating from government offices and departments,
especially from the Office of the President of the Philippines and Dep Ed.
 Records of schools, public and private, especially reports of their activities.
 Reports from seminars, educational or otherwise.
 Official reports of all kinds, educational, social, scientific, technological, political, etc. from
the government and other entities.
 Movies and films.

Parts of Literature Review

 Introduction - Briefly describes the nature of the research problem and explain the
researcher’s thoughts on what led the researcher study the topic.
 Body – Shares the ideas of other researchers and experts about the problem.
 Summary/Synthesis – Points out similar results and conflicting findings. It ties together the
major findings of the studies reviewed. It presents a general picture of the problem to date.
 Conclusion – Presents the course of action suggested by the literature.

Standards Styles in RRL, Citation and References

As Baraceros (2016) asserts, “The following are the three terms used to express your
appreciation for or recognition of people’s ownership of borrowed ideas.” (as cited in Sharp
2012):
1. Acknowledgment – the beginning portion of the work that identifies individuals who have
contributed something for the production of the paper
2. References or Bibliography – a complete list of all reading materials, including books,
journals, periodicals, etc. from where the borrowed ideas came from. (It will be discussed
furthermore in last unit lesson).
3. Citation or In-text Citation – references within the main body of the text, specifically in
Review of Related Literature The third one, citation, is the focus of this lesson. Citation,
also called in-text citation, has many purposes and style, which are as follows (Badke
2012):

43
Patterns of Citations
The following are the patterns of citations. It is also called the “Mechanics of Note Taking”. Best
(1981) cited by Aquino, classifies reading – reference notes under four principal categories:

1. Summary. The citation in this case is a shortened version of the original text that is
expressed in your own language. Making the text short, you have to pick out only the
most important ideas or aspects of the text.
Example:
Outlines
Outlines are the framework upon which long written works are constructed. There
are two ways in which to develop a subject, either logically or chronologically.

Source: Gatner, E. S. M. & Cordasco, F. (1960). Research and Report Writing. New
York: Barnes & Noble, pp.37-39

2. Paraphrase. This is the antithesis of the first one because, here, instead of shortening
the form of the text, you explain what the text means to you using your own words. In
doing so, it is possible that your explanations may decrease or exceed the number of
words of the original text.
Example:
Aims Lead to a Fruitful Life
A man who has no aim in life may become a social liability. Aims guide the
individual to a fruitful life.

Source: Naval, M. & Aquino, G. (1967). Administration and Supervison for Philippine
Schools. Quezon City: Phoenix Publishing House, Inc. p.39

3. Evaluation. This citation is determining the value, nature, character or quality of topic.
Example:
The Computer
One important implication that may be drawn from the statement by Best is that
there is a compelling need for program writers to exercise utmost care and precision in
order that the results of computer operation would not become invalid.

Source: Reaction by G. V. Aquino on “The Computer” in John W. Best, Research in

education, 4th ed. Englewood cliffs, N. J.: Prentice – Hall. 1981, p.29

4. Quotation. This citation is a passage referred to or repeated. It has two type:

a. Short or Direct Quotation. Only a part of the author’s sentence, the whole sentence,
or several sentences, not exceeding 40 words, is what you can quote or repeat in writing
through this citation pattern. Since this makes you copy the exact words of the writer, it is
necessary that you give the number of the page where the readers can find the copied
words.
Example:

44
 “DepEd respects your decision because these are your children. You entrust them to us,
but the final analysis, the decision is yours. (Briones, 2020)

b. Long Direct or Block Quotation. Named in many ways, this citation pattern makes
you copy the author’s exact words numbering from 40 up to 100 words. Under APA, the
limit is eight lines. Placed at the center of the page with no indentation, the copied lines
look like they compose a stanza of a poem.
Example:
a. This example also demonstrates a block quote. Some introductory sentences end
abruptly in a colon or a period:
In those cases, you are more likely to capitalize the beginning word of the block
quotation. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Sed nisi mi,
pharetra sit amet mi vitae, commodo accumsan dui. Donec non scelerisque quam.
Pellentesque ut est sed neque. (Calrissian, 2013, para. 3)
b. This is another example of a block quotation. Sometimes, the author(s) being cited will
be included in the introduction. In that case, according to Skywalker and Solo,
because the author names are in the introduction of this quote, the parentheses
that follow it will include only the year and the page number. Lorem ipsum dolor sit
amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Sed nisi mi, pharetra sit amet mi vitae, commodo
accumsan dui. Donec non scelerisque quam. Pellentesque ut est sed neque.
(2013, p. 103)

Citations from secondary source

Example: As Hall (1997) asserts, “culture also defines boundaries of different groups” (as cited in
Samovar & Porter, 1997, p.14)

Styles of In-Text Citation (as cited in Baraceros, 2016)

1. Integral Citation
This is one way of citing or referring to the author whose ideas appear in your work. You do
this by using active verbs like claim, assert, state, etc. to report the author’s ideas. Using these
types of verbs somehow expresses the author’s mental position, attitude, stand, or opinion in
relation to the information referred to. This is the reason integral citation is often used in social
sciences or any subjects belonging to the soft sciences.
Examples:
APA MLA
One study by Manalo (2015) reveals... One study by (Manalo 70)
The latest work by (Lee, 2015) asserts... The latest work by (Lee 123)
According to Abad et al. (2015) context is... According to (Abad et al.: 54)
Table 2: Integral Citation of APA and MLA

2. Non-integral Citation
In contrast to integral citation that reflects the author’s personal inclinations to a certain extent,
this second citation style downplays any strength of the writer’s personal characteristics. The
stress is given to the piece of information rather than to the owner of the ideas.
Examples:
a. The Code of Ethics for Intercultural Competence give four ways by which people from
different cultural background can harmoniously relate themselves with one another. (De la Cruz,
2015)

45
b. The other components of Intercultural Competence which are also present in SFG are:
context (Harold, 2015), appropriateness (Villar, Marcos, Atienza, 2016; Santos, and Daez,
2016), and emotions (Flores, 2016)

RRL ABBREVIATIONS
Format Meaning Example
et al. This means ‘and others’ It is used in in- 3 to 5 authors
text citations where there are 3 or more Alberto, Jacobi & Keating, 1993
authors. Alberto et al., 1993

6 or more authors
Szerman et al., 2005
Comp. Compiled or custom textbooks are Jones, T. S. (2012). Over the rainbow. In
created to support specific units. B. Smith (Comp.), Readings for ABC1001
(pp 10-20)
ed. For the edition of a book Ibn Abdulaziz, T. (2004). Drugs and life
(4th ed.).
Ed. or Eds. When a book includes editors rather than Robinson, D. N. (Ed.). (1992)
authors.
n.d. For sources that do not have a date of In-text citation
publication, substitute ‘n.d.’ (no date) (Southey, n.d.)
after the name of the author.
End-text reference
Southey, R. (n.d.). The life of Nelson.
London, England: Blackie
n.p. No page numbers Matthews’ use of… (2010, n.p.).

Note: For electronic sources without The ABS (2004, p. 1 of 4) defines

page numbers use: residents as ‘economic entities (persons,
organizations or enterprises) which have
 Approximate page number (p. 3 of 9); a closer association with the territory of
or Australia than with any other territory.’
 Paragraph number for short text OR
(para. 2); or Flitton (2012, para.1) reports ‘Australia is
 The heading given in the source for about to confront the biting reality of US
the particular section. military decline’.

No Use in your end text referencing when Australian national accounts: National
the resource incorporates a number that income, expenditure and product (Cat.
represents the accession, order, No. 5206.0).
catalogue, number, etc.
Dissertation Abstracts International.
(University Microfilms No. 82-06,181).
p. or pp. These are included in the in-text citation. (Ezzy, 2002, p.30)
If one page number is being referred to,
use the abbreviation p. for page. If there According to Gibbs (2009, pp. 34-35)
are multiple pages use pp. to present
pages.
para. For electronic sources that do not (Clarkson, 2001, para. 2)
provide page numbers, use the
paragraph number and, if available,
preceded by the abbreviation ‘para.’
Rev. ed. Used in end-text referencing when item Referring guide (14th Rev. ed.).
is identified as being a revised edition.

46
 Trans. Name the translator or editor only in the In-text Citation
end-text reference, immediately (Genet, 1966, p.61)
following the title. In the case of
translated works, cite the title in its End-text Reference
translated form, not in its original form. Genet, J. (1966). The balcony. (B.
Frechtman, Trans.). London, England:
Faber.
Vol or Vols. Include in end-test referencing if books Robinson, A. (1994). The principals of
include volume information. genetics and heredity. In The new
encyclopedia Britannica (Vol. 19, pp.699-
740). Chicago, IL: Encyclopedia
Britannica.
Table 3: RRL Abbreviations

Meta-analysis in Quantitative Research

Meta-analysis is a kind of review of related literature in which you re-examine and combine the
results of two or more statistical studies for coming out with a grand total to indicate stronger
effects of the research outcome. Putting the results together and making them appear as one
result work to strengthen whatever impact the independent variable has on the dependent
variable. (Baraceros, 2016) Mainly, you use this if the approach of writing rrl is systematic review
of literature and studies.

However, the merging of statistical results is not applicable to all quantitative research studies.
Resorting to meta-analysis is when the statistics you aim to combine come from the similar studies
like similarities and comparable to research question, research designs, technique, measurement
and the likes.

Ethical Standards in Writing RRL and RRS

Ethical issues, conflicting values, and ambiguity in decision-making, are recurrently emerging
from literature review on research. This is to avoid plagiarism. Plagiarism is an act of quoting or
copying the exact words of the writer and passing the quoted words off as your own words. Taking
ownership of what do not belong to you is a criminal act that is punishable by imprisonment and
indemnity or payment of money to compensate for any losses incurred by the owners of
expressions that you copied without their permission.

In order to avoid plagiarizing, citing the source is the answer. It is not only helpful in making the
paper appear scientific and valid but also shows the readers that the writer had read sources and
has done research in order to support the premise he or she is espousing. If you want these words
to appear in your paper, you must reveal the name of the author in your paper, including the
pieces of information (title, date, place of publication, publisher, etc.) about the book from where
you copied the words. This also shows that the writer respects the other writers and the ideas
they have contributed to the world of knowledge. As the famous idiom says, “give the credit to
whom credit is due.”

Quick Tip:
If you are having a hard time finding RRL. You may visit the following websites where you can
find information: Eric Institute of Education Sciences (eric.ed.gov), Directory of Open Access
Journals, Google Scholar, Mendeley, Research Gate, Microsoft Academic
(academic.microsoft.com), Google Books,

47
Lesson 2: The Conceptual Framework
In order for you to fully grasps the concept your research study, conceptual framework helps the
you to see the overview of the research study. Conceptual framework is a graphical presentation
of your concepts or ideas on the basic structure or components of your research as well as on
the relationships of these elements with one another.

Conceptual Framework shows the organization, order and direction of the study by means of
schematic diagram that enable the readers to obtain general understanding of the research study.
It serves the purpose of clarifying concepts, elements of research, objectives of the study and
their relationships with one another in a study – basically, a research paradigm. In other words,
the conceptual framework is the researcher’s understanding of how the particular variables in his
study connect with each other. Thus, it identifies the variables required in the research
investigation. It is the researcher’s ―map in pursuing the investigation.

Importance of Conceptual Framework

 It assists the researcher in constructing the worldview phenomenon;
 Simplest way to presents the overview of the entire process of the research study;
 It highlights the reason why a research topic is worth studying.

Conceptual framework may differ one field after another. This applies also to the research format
of one’s institution. Please seek the guidance of your research adviser on what format you will
use.

The IPO Model

A functional graph that identifies the inputs, outputs and required processing tasks to transform
inputs into outputs. The inputs represent the flow of data and materials into the process from the
outside. The processing step includes all tasks required to effect a transformation of the inputs.
The outputs are the data and materials flowing out of the transformation process. (Six Sigma,
2012). If the IPO model is used correctly, it will give you an efficient way to analyze and document
the critical aspects of a transformation process to produce the outputs. Take a look at the
example below (Game Development IPO Model for the field of ICT):
INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

Figure 4: IPO Model Conceptual Framework

48
 In this diagram, it explained how the Sky Shooter flows by following some requirements and those are
knowledge requirements for the program that is needed to develop this game. The software used are,
Adobe Illustrator for modelling the characters, sprites and textures; Mono Develop for coding the program;
The main operating system in developing the game is Windows OS; Unity3D for scripting and compiling all
the objects we made. On the process phase, spiral methodology is being used for analysis and design of
the project. The output is the Third-person Shooting Game: Sky Shooter. This will be evaluated according
to the criteria of the ISO/IEC 25010:2011

Some research studies use theoretical framework besides using conceptual framework.
Theoretical Framework can be described as a framework based on an existing theory in a field
of inquiry that is related and or reflect on the hypothesis of the study. (Adom et. al., 2018).
Basically, a blueprint that guides the researcher is which he borrowed to build his own research
inquiry. One of the importance of using this framework, it gives structure to your research that
assists the you in contextualizing theories into your own study.

Example of Theoretical Framework –Concept Satisfaction: (as cited in Vinz, 2018):

2.1 Customer Satisfaction
Thomassen (2003, p.69) defines customer satisfaction as “the perception of the customer as a result of
consciously or unconsciously comparing their experiences with their expectations.” Kotler & Keller (2008,
p.80) build on this definition, stating that customer satisfaction is determined by “the degree to which
someone is happy or disappointed with the observed performance of a product in relation to his or her
expectations.” Performance that is below expectations leads to a dissatisfied customer, while performance
that satisfies expectations produces satisfied customers. Expectations being exceeded leads to a “very
satisfied or even pleasantly surprised customer” (Kotler &Keller, 2003, p.80)

Theoretical Framework Conceptual Framework

It provides a general or broader set of ideas within It refers to specific or narrower ideas a researcher
which a study belongs. utilizes in his/her study.
It is based on existing theory/theories in the It is based on the concepts which are the main
literature which has been tested and validated by variables in a study.
other scholars.
It is in the form of a model that pivots a study, with It is a researcher’s own constructed model that s/he
its exponents and the results of their studies. uses to explain the relationship that exists between
the main variables in his/her study.

It can also be an adaptation of a model in an

existing theory which a researcher adapts to suit
his/her research purpose.
It is well-developed, designed and accepted. Its design is not accepted, but it’s a proposal of the
researcher’s answer to the research problem s/he
has defined.
It offers a focal point for approaching the unknown It is the framework that shows logically how the
research in a specific field of inquiry. research inquiry is to be undertaken.
It consists of theories that seem interrelated with It consists of concepts interconnected to explain
their propositions deduced. the relationships between them and how the
researcher asserts to answer the research the
research problem defined.
It is used to test theories, to predict and control the It is aimed at encouraging the development of a
situations within the context of a research inquiry. theory that would be useful to practitioners in the
field.
Table 4: The Differences between Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
Source: Adom, D., Hussein, E. K. & Agyem, J. A. (2018). Theoretical and Conceptual Framework: Mandatory
Ingredients of a Quality Research

49
Lookback: Review
The main ideas found in this unit are the following:
1. A literature review surveys books, scholarly articles, and any other sources relevant to a
particular issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, provides a description,
summary, and critical evaluation of these works in relation to the research problem being
investigated. Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of sources you have
explored while researching a particular topic and to demonstrate to your readers how your
research fits within a larger field of study.
2. There are four ways of proper citation. These includes summary, evaluation, quotation
and paraphrasing.
3. There are two styles of in-text citation and this includes integral and non-integral.
4. Plagiarism is an act of quoting or copying the exact words of the writer and passing the
quoted words off as your own words. You must consider ethical standard in writing RRL
and RRS so that you cannot violate academic writing and avoid copyright infringement.
5. A Review of the Related Literature provides a concise summary of information and data
findings that describe current knowledge and facts. It offers a rationale for conducting
future researches. An important area of a literature review is an understanding of a gap.
It is an important research question relevant to a given domain that has not been answered
adequately or at all in existing peer-reviewed scholarship. A gap will hopefully ensure that
the research will likely have valuable practical and/or theoretical implications. Synthesis
and generalization as the last important area of literature lead to the identification and
purpose of the proposed study. In all reviews, some recommendations or implications for
practice, education and research should be included.
6. Conceptual Framework is a graphical presentation of your concepts on the basic structure
or components of your research as well as relationships of the elements with one another
It serves the purpose of clarifying concepts, elements of research, objectives of the study
and their relationships with one another in a study – basically, a research paradigm.
7. Conceptual Framework usually illustrates using IPO model. It stands for Input (you put
instruments and requirements needed in research); Process (you put the process that you
use in collecting data’s that are related to objects of the research); and Output (where you
put the objective of your research).

50
 UNIT Exercise
IDENTIFICATION.
A. Identify if the following is a Primary Source or Secondary Source. Write your answer on the
space provided.
______________1. Books ______________6. Manuscript
______________2. Diaries ______________7. Thesis
______________3. Newspaper ______________8. Dissertation
______________4. Interviews ______________9. Magazine
______________5. Film ______________10. Broadcast

B. Check the right column for each referencing item.

True only for True only for For APA and
Referencing Item
APA style MLA style MLA styles
1. (Francisco, 2016, p.50)
2. Date after the author
3. Date after the publisher
4. (Francisco 50)
5. Italicized title of the book
6. No punctuation mark is used
in parenthetical reference
7. Page number is enclosed in
the parentheses
8.Paragraph number is
preceded by “par” which is also
enclosed in the parenthesis
9. Colon after publication place
10. Capitalized initial word and
proper nouns in the title

APPLICATION
A. Draw a conceptual framework using the IPO Model for the sample research topic below:
Research Topic: The Effectiveness of Magnetized Water in the Growth of Kangkong, Camote Taps and
Tomato
Statement of the Problem: This study aims to examine the effectiveness of magnetized water in the
growth of the plants. Specifically, this study aims to answer the following question:
1. Is magnetized water effective in the faster growth of the plants (Kangkong, Camote Tops and
Tomato) in terms of the following:
a) number of leaves b) length of stem
2. Which of the two set-ups in each plant (A - plants with magnetized water and B – plants with tap
water) is more effective in the faster growth of the plants?
Hypothesis: Based on the problems, the researchers came up with the following hypotheses:
1. Magnetized water is effective in growth of the plants (Kangkong, Camote Tops and Tomato) in
terms of the following:
a) number of leaves b) length of stem
2. There is no significant difference in Set-up A (plants with magnetized water) and Set-up B (plants
with tap water) in the growth of plants.
Source: Albay, K. J. B., Dangoy, M., Girao, J. A., Malenab, M. A. A. & Ramada, A. M. (2010). The Effectiveness of
Magnetized Water in the Growth of Kangkong, Camote Taps and Tomato. Basic Ed. Parañaque National High
School-Main:Philippines

51
B. Read and paraphrase the following paragraph. Write your answer on the space provided.
1. In the 17th century, the Gobernadorcillo was chosen by the representative of the king out
of the nominated three people from the election held during January 1 until February 28
every year and only the adult male in each pueblo could nominate a candidate. And
because they wanted to attain the position, the nominees will try to get the support of the
people in the town thru organizing fiestas, gaining the support of the priest in cebecera
and sponsoring the wine for the social gatherings. The chosen gobernadiccillo will stay in
his position for one year and do the responsibility of tax collection and the execution of
laws formulated by the Consejo de Indias. The Gobernadicillo had no power to create law
but he can delay the implementation of the law. However, the gobernadorcillo needs to
prepare his residencia or the list of his accomplishments and activities to check the abuses.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________.

2. The treaty of Paris was signed in December 10, 1898. According to the treaty the Spanish
government ceded the Philippines, Guam, Puerto Rico and Cuba to US government, the
US government will pay 20,000,000 dollars to Spanish government as payment for the
permanent structures that the Spaniards built in four countries, the Spanish will maintain
their free trade in the four countries until the tenth year of the existence of the treaty and
the friars and the religious orders will remain in the country and their properties will remain
to them. However, the content of the treaty will not be implemented without the ratification
of the US congress and the majority of the members of the American legislature is not
favor of the colonization until the incident of the between Americans and the Filipinos
happened in February 4, 1899 wherein the Filipinos are blamed as the one who started
the war. The hostilities of the Filipinos against the Americans according to the report of
Commodore George Dewey made the American legislature to sign for the ratification of
the treaty of Paris.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

52
 Understanding Data and Ways to
UNIT IV:
Systematically Collect Data
Introduction
The researcher should starts understanding type of data he should collects and how he will
systematically collect it. Knowing the research design of your research will help you on the
methodologies and various approaches that will suit your study.

In this unit, learners will be able to choose appropriate quantitative research design, sampling
procedure, data collection procedures, present written research methodology as well as utilize
materials and techniques to produce creative work.

With this, the learners will be at ease even they may encounter voluminous amount of data as
long as they adopt principled methods of collecting data, they will come up with understandable
or question-free research findings.

Content Standard:
The learner demonstrates understanding of:
 Quantitative research designs;
 Description of sample;
 Instrument development;
 Description of intervention (if applicable);
 Data collection and analysis procedures such as survey, interview, and observation;
 Guidelines in writing research methodology

Performance Standard
The learner is able to:
 Describe adequately quantitative research designs, sample, instrument used, intervention
(if applicable), data collection, and analysis procedures.

Most Essential Learning Competencies:

 Chooses appropriate quantitative research design;
 Describes sampling procedure and sample;
 Constructs an instruments and establishes its validity and reliability;
 Describes intervention (if applicable);
 Plans data collection procedure;
 Plans data analysis using statistics and hypothesis testing (if appropriate);
 Presents written research methodology.

53
Lesson 1: Quantitative Research Designs
Coming out with the design of your research is one act of your study. After pulling out some work
to your research topic, research problem, research question, hypothesis, obtaining rich
background of the study and other related concepts, preparing the resign designs takes place.
Research design is a plan to answer your research question. On the other hand, research method
is a strategy used to implement that plan. This is where the researcher puts strategy on how to
collect data. Research design and methods are different but closely related, because good
research design ensures that the data you obtain will help you answer your research question
more effectively. In this lesson, we will focus first on research designs.
As Hegde (2003) asserts, Research designs are a structure of temporal-spatial arrangements
within which the selected variables are controlled, manipulated and measured. (as cited in Koul,
2013). It helps also reveal relationship between among variables.
Types of Quantitative Research Design
1. Experimental Research Design. It is often called true experimentation in which a test or
examination of a thing under manipulated or controlled environment. It uses the scientific
method to establish cause-effect relationship among a group of variables in a research
study. Researchers make an effort to control for all variables except the one being
manipulated (the independent variable). The effects of the independent variable on the
dependent variable are collected and analyzed for a relationship. This design includes two
groups of subjects: (a) the experimental group (condition, treatment, intervention is applied)
and (b) the control group (no treatment or condition).

Experimental Research Design Features

 Observations are done under controlled conditions
 Gathering of valid facts is rigorous
 Experimentation can be conducted in the laboratory, in the classroom or in the field.
 Experimentation leads itself to easier manipulation because of quantitative entities.

Example of Experimental Research

 The effect of a new treatment plan on breast cancer

 The effect of positive reinforcement on attitude toward school
 The effect of teaching with a cooperative group strategy or a traditional lecture approach
on students’ achievement
 A comparison of the effect of personalized instruction vs traditional instruction on
computational skill
 The effect of a systematic preparation and support system on children who were
scheduled for surgery on the amount of psychological upset and cooperation

54
Two Main Types of Experimental Research Design
a. True Experimental. It uses random selection in determining who among the participants
should compose the experimental group or the control group.
b. Quasi-experimental. It adopts a comparative technique in choosing the subjects. It seeks
to establish a cause effect relationship between two or more variables. The independent
variable is not manipulated and control groups are identified and exposed to the variable.
Results are compared with results from groups not exposed to the variable. The following
are types of quasi-experimental research:
 Matched comparison – choosing a treatment group and another group that has
similarities with the treatment group
 Time-series quasi-experimental research – giving them series of pre-tests and
post-tests
 Single-subject quasi-experimental research – controls treatment and condition
applied to just one individual or a group
Other types of Experimental Research

 Single Group Design. This involves one treatment with two or more levels.
Example: Suppose the researchers wishes to determine the effect of using shrimp meal
as supplemental feed of different levels upon the yield of grouper cultured in fish cages.
*Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) one factor is used.
 Two Group Design. This design has two comparable groups employed as control and
experimental groups or two groups are both experimental groups.
Example: Suppose the researches wants to conduct a study on the acceptability of the
flavor of banana muffins and seaweed muffins. The banana muffins are the control group
because it is already commercialized and the seaweed muffins are the experimental group
due to first time to study on seaweed muffin.
*Mean and t-test are appropriate statistical tool
 Two-pair Group Design. This design is an extension of two – group design wherein there
is one-pair of control group and one – pair of experimental group.
Example: Suppose the researchers wishes to conduct a study on the general acceptability
of pork and chicken siopao and milkfish bone meal siopao and goatfish bone meal siopao.
Pork and chicken siopao are the pair control groups and milkfish bone meal and goatfish
bone meal siopao are the pair experimental groups.
*Mean and ANOVA: two factor are employed
 Parallel Group Design. It consists of three or more groups wherein one group is control
group with two or more experimental groups. The control group or parallel group serves
as basis of the experimental groups which is manipulated or changed, but the
experimental groups vary.
Example: Suppose the researchers wishes to conduct a study on the effectiveness of
culturing milkfish in fish cages using lab-lab, bread meal, shrimp meal, and fish meal as
supplemental feeds. Lab-lab is the control group or parallel group and the experimental
groups are the bread meal, shrimp meal, and fish meal as supplemental feeds.
*Mean and ANOVA: two-factor

55
 2. Non-Experimental Research Design. It describes the collected data abput such subject
and determining the relationships with one another. A type of research design that is
capable of giving qualitative and quantitative data, but more on qualitative data. It does
not allow manipulation or control on variable. The desire to discover people’s thoughts,
views, feelings and attitudes about a certain societal issue, object, place, or event causes
you to use non-experimental research.

Types of Non-Experimental Research Design

a. Descriptive Research. It seeks to describe the current status of a variable or
phenomenon. The researcher does not begin with a hypothesis, but typically develops
one after the data is collected. Data collection is mostly observational in nature that depicts
an image or picture of an individual or a group. There are three types of descriptive
research:
 Observation Studies - Observation studies are involved in both quantitative and
qualitative research methods. However, in quantitative methods, the focus of
observation studies is on a particular factor of behavior and it is quantified. In this
type of design, a researcher will try to maintain objectivity in assessing the
behavior being studied.
 Correlational Research – to determine the relationship between variables it uses
statistical analysis. However, it does not look for cause and effect and therefore,
is also mostly observational in terms of data collection. A correlation exists when
one variable increases or decreases correspondingly with the other variable. Here,
the variables are not also manipulated
 Survey Research – It is used to ask questions to a sample of respondents, using
various types such as online polls, online surveys, paper questionnaires, etc. This
type of research can be conducted with a specific target group and across multiple
groups along with comparative analysis. The ultimate goal of survey research is
to learn about a large population by surveying a sample of the population; thus
we may also call it descriptive survey or normative survey. In this method, a
researcher poses a series of questions to the respondents, summarizes their
responses in percentages, frequency distribution and some other statistical
approaches Survey research typically employs face-to-face interviews, telephone
interviews or the common approach using questionnaires. It has two types: (a) In
cross-sectional survey, a researcher collects information from a sample drawn
population. It involves collecting data at one point at a time while (b) in longitudinal
survey, data collection is done at different points of time to observe the changes.
b. Comparative Research. It states the differences or similarities between or among
people, things, objects, etc.
c. Ex Post Facto. According to Baraceros (2016 p.42), It translates itself into these English
words, “that which is done afterwards” and has the purpose of deriving data from things
that are by nature taking place, so as to obtain explanations about past events (as cited
in Litchman 2013)

56
What is the basic methodology for a quantitative research design?
The overall structure for a quantitative design is based in the scientific method. It uses deductive
reasoning, where the researcher forms an hypothesis, collects data in an investigation of the
problem, and then uses the data from the investigation, after analysis is made and conclusions
are shared, to prove the hypotheses not false or false. The basic procedure of a quantitative
design is:
1. Make your observations about something that is unknown, unexplained, or new.
Investigate current theory surrounding your problem or issue.
2. Hypothesize an explanation for those observations.
3. Make a prediction of outcomes based on your hypotheses. Formulate a plan to test your
prediction.
4. Collect and process your data. If your prediction was correct, go to step 5. If not, the
hypothesis has been proven false. Return to step 2 to form a new hypothesis based on
your new knowledge.
5. Verify your findings. Make your final conclusions. Present your findings in an appropriate
form for your audience.

Quanitative
Research Design

Experimental Non-Experimental

Comparative
True Experimental Quasi-experimental Descriptive Ex-post Facto
Research

Matched Observation Correlational

Survey Research
Comparison Studies Research

Time-series Quasi-
Cross-sectional
experimental
Survey
Research

Single-subject
Quasi-experimental Longitudinal Survey
Research

Figure 5: Quantitative Research Designs

57
Lesson 2: Quantitative Data Collection Techniques
Data are the raw material which the statistician works. Data can be found through surveys,
experiments, numerical records and other modes of research. (Ymas, 2013). When a data is
measurable, numerical and related to metrical system this make a data quantitative.
Collecting data is an important component of any type of research. Neglecting it will only result to
inaccurate data and making insufficient results to your study. Thus, using appropriate data-
gathering technique and having right instrument makes you find relevant data that will suitable
and help you to your study.
Basically there are two types of data: (a) Primary data – collected by the researcher himself such
as observations, interview, mail of recording or reporting forms, experimentation and registration
that is governed by laws and (b) secondary data – information taken from published or
unpublished materials that is gathered by other researchers such as books, newspaper,
magazines, journals, published and unpublished thesis and dissertations.
Techniques in Collecting Quantitative Data
1. Observation. This is the process of using your senses to collect empirical data. Usually,
when the observation is done, the researcher aims to observe the subjects in natural
setting. These sensory experiences, you record them with the use of numbers.
Let’s say, watching the students lining up at admission office, try to put your attention on
the number of students, weight, height, sex and age of every students lining up. With this,
you try to collect quantitative data through observation. There are two types of observation:
(a) direct observation – the researcher is directly involved and engage; (b) indirect
observation – the opposite of the previous one, the researcher may observe them through
technology such as audiotapes, video records and the likes.
2. Survey. This is a technique that makes you obtain facts or information about your study
through interview and questionnaire. It can be either a paper based or online. Two types
of survey: (a) interview – asking a set of questions orally. The approach can be either
individual, group or mediated interview. It has four sets of question (order of interview
questions), opening questions, generative questions, directive questions and ending
questions; (b) questionnaire – a paper containing series of formulated questions that is
answered by respondents to obtain statistical information. A paper survey questionnaire
is the traditional way of survey but in today’s world, you can conduct survey online.
Questions can be in the form of multiple response (likert scale) or opinionated answers
depending on what the research study suggest or data needed.
3. Experiment. The scientific method of collecting data especially when it comes to
experimental research. In this technique, Baraceros (2016) asserts, “you give the subjects
a sort of treatment or condition then evaluate the results to find out the manner by which
the treatment affected the subjects and to discover the reasons behind the effects of such
treatment on the subject.
4. Content Analysis. Content analysis is another quantitative data-collection technique that
makes you search through several oral or written forms of communication to find answers
to your research questions. (Baraceros, 2016). The focus of this study is a single subject
or on two entities to determine their comparative features.

58
Developing a Research Instruments
In order for a researcher to collect data from the respondents, the researcher needs to develop and design
a research instruments that is validated or other adapt a research tool that is already used by other
researcher. If the researcher wishes to adapt a research tool or instruments from the previous studies, the
researcher must have a consent letter given to the researcher (especially if the researchers wants to revised
the research instruments) who developed and designed the tool so that there will be no copy right
infringement that will happen.
When you develop and design a research instruments ensure that:
 Start with a statement about the focus and aims of the research study;
 Confidentiality of the respondent’s data to ensure their privacy;
 Duration of the interview or survey will take to complete;
 Usage of appropriate language;
 Make sure every question must be clear, brief and concise;
 Use appropriate scales in the questionnaire;
 In general, consider the following characteristics in creating the research instruments: (a) usability;
(b) validity and (c) reliability.
Characteristics of Research Instruments (as cited in Biay & Cortez, 2017)
1. Usability. It refers to ease with which an instrument can be administered. It is interpreted by the
participant and score and interpreted by the researcher.
2. Validity. Validity is the extent to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to
measure and performs as it is designed to perform. It is rare, if nearly impossible, that an
instrument be 100% valid, so validity is generally measured in degrees. As a process,
validation involves collecting and analyzing data to assess the accuracy of an instrument.
There are two factors concerning validity: (a) external validity - helps obtain population
generalizability, or the degree to which a sample represents the population; (b) content
validity – refers to the appropriateness of the content of an instrument. In other words, do
the measures (questions, observation logs, etc.) accurately assess what you want to know?
3. Reliability. It can be thought of as consistency. Does the instrument consistently measure what
it is intended to measure? It is not possible to calculate reliability; however, there are four
general estimators that you may encounter in reading research: (a) Inter-Rater/Observer
Reliability - the degree to which different raters/observers give consistent answers or
estimates; (b) Test-Retest Reliability - the consistency of a measure evaluated over time;
(c) Parallel-Forms Reliability - the reliability of two tests constructed the same way, from
the same content; and (d) Internal Consistency Reliability - the consistency of results
across items, often measured with Cronbach‘s Alpha.
Scales of Measurement of Data
In quantitative research, assigning a numerical value to a variable is a process called
measurement. A scale or level of measurement relates to the rules used to assign scores and is
an indicator of the kind of information that the scores provide that may consist series of quantities,
values, degrees, numbers and etc. The scale to which a measurement belong will be important
in determining appropriate methods for data description and analysis.

59
Four Levels or Scales of Measurement
1. Nominal Data – It comes from the latin word, “nomos” that uses names for classification.
This property allows one to make statements of similarities and differences. All qualitative
variables are measured on a nominal scale. According to Ymas (2013), “In nominal level
of measurements, observations can be classified and counted without particular order or
ranking imposed on the data.”
Examples:
a. Sex-member of population (male or female), socio-economic status (high, average or low)
b. An electric company may list 5 types of electric consumption. The company might use ‘1”
to identify residential, “2” for commercial, “3” for industrials “4” for government and “5” for
others.
c. Report on the number of persons involved in different religions in a certain school. Look
at the illustrated table below:

Religion Number of Persons

Catholic 1170
Protestants 45
Iglesia ni Cristo 62
El Shaddai 25
No Religion 95
Not Reported 153
TOTAL 1550
Table 5: Sample Nominal Data Table
2. Ordinal Data – This variable refers to a property whereby members of a group are ranked.
It uses number in order to rank a given set thus connote inequalities. In this type of data,
numbers represent “greater than” or “less than” measurements, such as preferences or
rankings.
Examples:
a. One can judge and rank the contestants in a beauty contest.
b. Students Evaluation (Excellent, Very Good, Good, Poor)
3. Interval Data – This property allows one to make statements of equality of intervals.
Interval data do not only include “greater than” and “less than” relationships, but also has
a limit of measurement that permits us to describe how much more or else one object
possesses than another. Here zero is not absolute.
Examples
a. The difference between 2 and 3 is the same as difference between 3 and 4
(showing equality of intervals)
b. Temperate, Aptitude Test Scores, Likert scales
4. Ratio Data – This property permits making statements of quality of ratios. Similar to
interval data, but has an absolute zero and multiples are meaningful. Here, rating
something starts from zero to a certain point.
Examples
a. If Cora is 48 years old and Philine is 22 years old. Their ages can be expressed
in the ratio of 48:22 or 24:11
b. Performance in English Subject – a grade of 89% (from 0 to 100%)

60
Lesson 3: Sampling Method
One of the most important parts of the research work that needs preparation and planning is
choosing the right and appropriate sampling method. Any sampling method that produces an
inference that underestimates what is biased.

In this lesson, students will briefly understand the sampling methods. Among this sampling
methods, three of the most common sampling methods used in quantitative research: simple
random sampling, stratified sampling, systematic sampling, cluster sampling and quota
sampling. The explanations in this lesson are meant to help the learners understand the reasons
for using each method.

In research, sampling means the process of selecting samples or the respondent itself from a
population. Statistical sampling techniques are the strategies applied by the researcher during
the statistical sampling process. In order to understand what a sampling means, let’s defined
statistics first and terms used in statistics.

Statistics is a science deals with the collection, organization, presentation, analysis and
interpretation of data. Mostly statistics deals with numbers which is essential in a quantitative
research.

Terms use in statistics:

 Population – totality of a group
 Sample – sub-group of population
 Sampling Frame – the term used to mean the list of the members of such population from
where you will get the sample.
 Parameter – any numeric or nominal characteristics of population
 Data – set of information
 Variable – factor in experiment or research that may subject to change. There are two
types of variable according to functional relationship. (1) Dependent - Sometimes called
the criterion variable.

Two Main Types of Sampling Method

Probability Sampling or Unbiased Sampling

An equal chance of participation in the sampling or selection process (simply chance process) is
given to every member listed in the sampling frame. By means of this unbiased sampling, you are
able to obtain a sample that is capable of representing the population under study or of showing
strong similarities in characteristics with the members of the population. It is basically a principle
of randomization or chance.
Types of Probability Sampling
1. Simple Random Sampling – it is the most popular sampling method used in decision
making today. Using a pure-chance selection, you assure every member the same
opportunity to be in the sample.
Example: Lottery Method or Fishbowl Method, Table of Random Numbers

61
 2. Systematic Sampling – an interval in choosing a respondent is determined. It simply
th
means a random starting point is selected and then every k member will be the
succeeding samples. So the items are arranged in alphabetically or other sort.
Example: Checking every 10th student in the list.
3. Stratified Sampling – obtained by independently selecting a separate simple random
sample from each population stratum. It is used if the population has several categories
that divides the population into “strata” (divided into subsets based on homogeneity).
Example:
4. Cluster Sampling – population is divided into smaller groups and the group to be used is
selected randomly. It is sometimes referred as “area sampling” because it is frequently
applied on a geographical basis.
Example: Randomly selecting three sections with 40 students out of 1000 students.

Non-Probability Sampling
It disregards random selection of samples. Since it is not based on chance thus this sampling is
biased. It involves the selection of elements based on assumptions regarding the population of
interest, which forms the criteria for selection. The sample is chosen based on their availability,
or the purpose of study, and in some cases, on the sole discretion of the researcher.
Types of Non-Probability Sampling
1. Quota Sampling – a sampling technique whereby participant quotas are preset prior to
sampling. Typically, the researcher is attempting to gather data from a certain number of
participants that meet certain characteristics that may include things such as age, sex,
class, marital status, HIV status, etc.
2. Voluntary Sampling – there’s no selection process since the subjects are willing or
voluntarily participating in the sample selection.
3. Purposive Sampling - the most common sampling strategy. In this type of sampling,
participants are selected or sought based on pre-selected criteria based on the research
question. A group with particular characteristics that a respondent in the group should
possess.
4. Availability Sampling - the willingness of a person as your subject to interact with you counts
a lot in this non-probability sampling method. If during the data-collection time, you
encounter people walking on a school campus, along corridors, and along the park or
employees lining up at an office, and these people show willingness to respond to your
questions, then you automatically consider them as your respondents.
5. Snowball Sampling - also known as chain referral sampling. In this method, the participants
refer the researcher to others who may be able to potentially contribute or participate in the
study. This method often helps researchers find and recruit participants that may otherwise
be hard to reach.

When determining sample size for qualitative studies, there are, however, at least three
considerations:
1. The saturation or redundancy of the sample size must be considered. The size and pattern
of the sample need to be considered. Some Interviews conducted might result to no
significant concepts.
2. The size of a sample is important to determine the difference within a target population.
Having a large sample size might assess the quantity of distinction that will eventually
denote the population of interest.

62
3. Approximation of a sample size grounded on the method of the study may be used. In
every category of a sample size there are rules of thumb that are represented in the tables
below.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Five Basic Sampling Techniques of Quantitative

Research (as cited by Baraceros, 2016, p.31)

Sampling Techniques Advantages Disadvantages

Random Sampling The most accurate Unavailable list of
theoretically; influenced only
the entire population
by chance sometimes or prevention
of random sampling by
practical considerations
Stratified Sampling Assures a large sample to Can be biased if strata
subdivide on important are given false weights,
variables; needed when unless the weighting
population is too large to list; procedure is used for
can be combined with other overall analysis
techniques
Systematic Sampling Similar to random sampling; Sometimes permits bias
often easier than random
sampling
Cluster Sampling Easy to collect data on the Prone to bias when the
subject number is small
Quota Sampling Available when random Presence of bias not
sampling is impossible; controlled by the quota
quick system
to do
Table 6: Advantages and Disadvantages of Five Basic Sampling Techniques of
Quantitative Research

63
Lookback: Review
The main ideas found in this unit are the following:
1. Research design is a plan to answer your research question. There are two main type of
research design in quantitative research namely experimental and non-experimental.
Experimental research has two types called true experimental and quasi-experimental
(whereas quasi-experimental has three types: matched comparison, time-series quasi-
experimental and single-subject quasi-experimental) designs. On the other had, non-
experimental has three types called descriptive (whereas descriptive has three types:
observation studies, correlational and survey research), comparative and ex-post facto
research designs.
2. The overall structure for a quantitative design is based in the scientific method. It uses
deductive reasoning, where the researcher forms an hypothesis, collects data in an
investigation of the problem, and then uses the data from the investigation, after analysis
is made and conclusions are shared, to prove the hypotheses not false or false.
3. Data are the raw material which the statistician works. Collecting data is important. There
are four data collection techniques namely, observation (direct and non-direct), survey
(interview and questionnaire), experiment and content analysis.
4. In order for a researcher to collect data from the respondents, the researcher needs to develop and
design a research instruments that is validated or other adapt a research tool that is already used by
other researcher. It must have the characteristics of usability, validity and reliability.
5. In quantitative research, assigning a numerical value to a variable is a process called
measurement. A scale or level of measurement relates to the rules used to assign scores
and is an indicator of the kind of information that the scores provide that may consist series
of quantities, values, degrees, numbers and etc. The scale to which a measurement
belong will be important in determining appropriate methods for data description and
analysis. There are four scale or levels of measurement: nominal and ordinal (for
qualitative data), interval and ratio (for quantitative data).
6. The study research objectives and the characteristics of the study population (such as
size and diversity) determine which and how many people to select. There are two main
types of sampling method: Probability and Non-Probability. The four most common
sampling methods used in quantitative research are random sampling, stratified sampling,
systematic sampling and quota sampling.

64
UNIT Exercise
IDENTIFICATION.
A. Write P if the sentence talks about probability sampling; otherwise write NP.
______ 1. Checking every 10th student in the list.
______ 2. Dividing 100 persons into groups.
______ 3. Interviewing some persons, you meet on the campus.
______ 4. Letting all members in the population join the selection process.
______ 5. Having people willing to be chosen as respondents.
______ 6. Dividing 100 persons into groups.
______ 7. Choosing a group of subjects among several groups.
______ 8. Choosing subjects capable of helping you meet the aim of your study.
______ 9. Voluntarily participating in the sample selection.
______ 10. Using Lottery Method or Fishbowl Method.

B. Check the right column that corresponds to the given questions.

Opening Generative Directive Closing

Interview Questions
Questions Questions Questions Questions
1. Is there anything you want me to
know more about being part of the
committee in accreditation
process?
2. Can you describe your feelings
and experience being the head of
the accreditation committee?
3. We have agreed to have this
session in 30 minutes and this will
be audio recorded. Is this okay
with you?
4. Though, it is hard. What makes
you so eager in finishing the task
that is entrusted to you?
5. What are the difficulties you’ve
encountered in finishing the paper
works of accreditation process?
6. You took a van in coming here,
didn’t you?
7. What are the essentials of the
degree program that is being
accredited?
8. Please introduce yourself. Who
you are and what is your
designated position?
9. How does accreditation works?
10. What do you think was the
most significant thing that we dealt
with in the interview?

65
C. State the level of measurement for each of the following:
_________ 1. Heights of trees along the highway
_________ 2. The vote of “yes or no” in a referendum
_________ 3. Temperature of patients recorded by a nurse
_________ 4. Student responses in the wearing of school uniform
_________ 5. 20 bulbs were tested with four defective
_________ 6. Ratings of newscast in ABS-CBN (poor, fair, good)
_________ 7. Temperature of automatic popcorn poppers
_________ 8. Time required by drivers to complete a course
_________ 9. Marital status of respondents to a survey on savings accounts
_________ 10. Rankings of weight lifters

MULTIPLE CHOICE. Circle the letter of the correct answer.

1. Designing a research is thinking _______________.
a. Critically c. Literally
b. Skillfully d. Imaginatively
2. To design a research is seeing the research process in your _______________.
a. Paper c. Library
b. Mind d. Book
3. Preparing in your mind how to find answers to your research questions is _______________.
a. Deciding on your research topic c. Designing your research
b. Controlling your emotions d. Asking research questions
4. These are aspects of your research: research objectives, topic, questions, hypotheses, and
methodology. You come to think of quantitative research design _______________________.
a. before finalizing your mind on these aspects of your research
b. after thinking of these aspects of your research
c. as you formulate hypotheses about these parts
d. as you ponder on your research problem
5. Central to experimental design is analyzing relationships that are _________.
a. Specific c. Hypothetical
b. Causal d. Stable
6. A quantitative research design that is equated with qualitative design is _______________.
a. True experimental c. Non-experimental
b. Semi-experimental d. Quasi-experimental
7. Quantitative research designs are true for all experimental designs except the aspect on
_______________.
a. Subject selection c. Treatment application
b. Variable relationships d. Variable control
8. A quantitative research design that makes you behave as a scientist is_______________.
Survey Research
a. Survey Research c. Experimental Design
b. Case Study d. Correlative Stud
9. An empirical study is based on a research design that is _______________.
a. Qualitative c. Quantitative
b. Hypothetical d. Theoretical
10. These two are the leading indicators of the occurrence of true experimental design:
a. Pre-test and post-test c. Treatment and condition
b. Randomization and variable control d. Experimental and control group

66
 Finding Answers through Data
UNIT V:
Collection
Introduction
In quantitative research, finding answers to your questions is possible through these theoretically
based - data collection methods/approach: observation, interview or survey questionnaire.
Obtaining data through these methods requires you to understand that observation, interview and
survey questionnaire, when properly implemented, are very effective methods.
As the researcher collects and consolidate this data, the researcher can now summarize and
present data in different forms – this is what you called presentation of data. This is to make the
data comprehensible and meaning. The results from the presented data will help to draw
conclusion. In order to make and presents meaningful data, statistical methods and data analysis
is applied to mark the validity and reliability of the varied data employ in your research study.
In this unit, the learner will recognize the different statistical treatment that can be used in a
research study and how to interpret the results.
Content Standard:
The learner demonstrates understanding of:
 Data collection procedures and skills using varied instruments;
 Data processing, organizing, and analysis.

Performance Standard
The learner is able to:
 Gather and analyze data with intellectual honesty, using suitable techniques.

Most Essential Learning Competencies:

 Collects data using appropriate instruments;
 Presents and interprets data in tabular or graphical forms;
 Uses statistical techniques to analyze data – study of differences and relationships
limited for bivariate analysis.

67
Lesson 1: Quantitative Data Analysis
Data collected from questionnaires or other instruments in quantitative research methods have to
be analyzed and interpreted. Generally, statistical procedures are quantitative data approaches
that will help you to analyze the data you gathered. Here we will look at the steps on how we
analyze the quantitative data:

Steps in Quantitative Data Analysis

1. Preparing the Data:
a. Coding System – as you analyze data, you need to quantify the data into numerical
information. Words, images or pictures must be converted into numbers for analytical
procedures that is requires mathematical and arithmetic computations. Thus, Verbal
responses and observation categories must be coded.
Example: As regards gender variable, give number 1 as the code or value for Male and
number 2 for Female. As to educational attainment as another variable, give the value of
2 for elementary; 4 for high school, 6 for college, 9 for MA, and 12 for PhD level. By coding
each item with a certain number in a data set, you are able to add the points or values of
the respondents’ answers to a particular interview question or questionnaire item. (Adapted
from Baraceros, E. L. (2016). Practical Research 2 First ed.)

b. Data Tabulation – for easy classification and distribution of numbers based on a certain
criterion, you have to collate them with the help of a graph called Table. Used for frequency
and percentage distribution, this kind of graph is an excellent data organizer that
researchers find indispensable. Here’s an example of tabulated data:
Total Sample Size: 24
Gender Male: 11 (46%)
Female: 13 (54%)
Course Fine Arts: 9 (37%)
Architecture: 6 (25%)
Journalism: 4 (17%)
Com. Arts: 5 (20%)
School FEU: 3 (12%)
MLQU: 4 (17%)
PLM: 3 (12%)
PUP: 5 (20%)
TIP: 4 (17%)
UE: 5 (20%)
Attended in 2016 Summer Arts Seminar- Yes: 18 (75%)
Workshop No: 6 (25%)
Role in the 2016 Seminar-Workshop on Arts Speaker: 4 (17%)
Organizer: 3 (12%)
Demonstrator: 5 (20%)
Participant: 12 (50%)
Satisfaction with the demonstration and Strongly agree: 11 (46%)
practice exercises Agree: 5 (20%)
Neutral: 2 (8%)
Disagree: 4 (14%)
Strongly disagree: 2 (8%)
Table 7: Sample Data Tabulation
Source: Baraceros, E. L. (2016). Practical Research 2 First ed. Quzon City: Rex Bookstore Inc. p.110

68
2. Analyzing the Data:
After you code and tabulate the data, now it’s time to analyze the data. There are two kinds of
quantitative data analysis:
a. Descriptive Statistical Techniques – it provides a summary of orderly or sequential data
obtained from sample through data-gathering instrument used. However, this does not
give information about population from where the sample came. The following are the
aspects of data:
 Frequency Distribution - The arrangement of the gathered data by categories and
their corresponding frequencies and class marks or midpoints as well as
percentage of the occurrence of an item in asset of data. Note: Frequency distribution
and how you present them can be learn in succeeding lessons)
 Measures of Central Tendency – a kind of middle point of a distribution where as
a single number that represents the typical score of the data. There are three
measures: (a) Mean – average set of data; (b) Median – middle measure in a set
of given data and (c) Mode – most frequent score in an array of data. Note:
Measures of Central Tendency and how you present them can be learn in succeeding
lessons)
 Standard Deviation – a special form of average deviation from the mean. It is used
to measure the spread or dispersion around the mean of a data set. Note: Measures
of variability and how you present them can be learn in succeeding lessons)
b. Inferential Statistical Techniques or Advanced Quantitative Analytical Methods –
consist of generalizing from samples to populations, performing hypothesis testing,
determining the relationships among variables and making predictions. It involves more
complex statistical methods.
 Correlation – uses statistical analysis to yield results that describe the relationship
of two variables. The results, however, are incapable of establishing causal
relationships.
 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) – to determine if the difference in the means or
averages of two categories of data are statistically significant.
 Regression - has some similarities with correlation, in that, it also shows the nature
of relationship of variables, but gives more extensive result than that of correlation.
Aside from indicating the presence of relationship between two variables, it
determines whether a variable is capable of predicting the strength of the relation
between the treatment (independent variable) and the Outcome (dependent
variable). Just like correlation, regression is incapable of establishing cause-effect
relationships. (Baraceros, 2016)

69
 Quantitative Data
Analysis

Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics

Testing for Significant

Measures of Central Measures of Correlation
Differences between Enumeration
Tendency Variability Coefficients
Two Means

Mean Range t-Test Six Measures chi-square

Pearson's r
Median Variance ANOVA
correlation

Mode Standard Deviation Guttman's lamda

Spearman Rho

Goodman and
Kruskal's Gamma

Point Biserial

Correlation Ratio

Figure 6: Summary of Statistical Components in Quantitative Data Analysis

70
Lesson 2: Statistical Methods
Statistical information and development can be traced back from ancient times. As time went by,
statistics has continued to have a marked influence on the activities of mankind from describing
data and analyzing them. Statistics is a science deals with the collection, organization,
presentation, analysis and interpretation of data. Statistics is used in almost all fields of human
endeavor whether public health, sports and business – it continues to evolve. Today statistics is
used as a necessity in studies and researches.
Statistics has the same meaning as the Latin word datum which means a fact or information. The
plural of datum is data. Statistics can refer to the mere tabulation of numeric information as in
report of stock, market transactions or to body of techniques used in processing or analyzing data.
(Ymas, 2013).
Statistics has two types: (a) descriptive statistics and 9b) inferential TERMS TO CONSIDER
statistics. Descriptive statistics is the collection and organization of *Population – totality of
data to summarize information. In descriptive statistics, statistician the group
and researcher tries to describe situation. For example, getting the *Sample – sub-group of
census of the population – usually it is organized through frequency population
distribution, bar graph or pie graphs. On the other hand, inferential *Parameter – the
statistics consists of generalizing from sample to populations, measures of population
performing hypothesis testing, determining relationships among *Estimates or Statistics –
variables and making predictions. It means it uses methods for the measures of sample
drawing conclusions and measuring the reliability of conclusions
about a population based on information from a sample of the Example of Population
population – basically means hypothesis testing. Hypothesis testing Scores of entire students of
is a decision-making process for evaluating claims about secondary level
population, based on the information obtained from the samples. Example of Sample
For example, predicting the life span of a mechanical toy gun is Scores of the students in a
based on the performance of the several similar toy guns. class

In this section, we will look at these common statistical approaches and emphasis on a conceptual
understanding for quantitative data analysis.
Descriptive Statistics
Numbers that are used to describe sets of data are called descriptive measures. There are two
measures under descriptive statistics: (a) measures of central tendency and (b) measures of
dispersion or variation.

Measures of Central Tendency

A kind of middle point of a distribution and dispersion is the degree of scatter or spread of data.
Baraceros (2016) asserts, “It indicates the different positions or values of the items, such that in
a category of data, you find an item or items.”

71
Three Measures of Central Tendency
 Mean – The most common measures of central tendency. It is the average set of data.
The sum of all data values divided by total number of data items.
 Median – The middle measure in a set of given data.
 Mode – The most frequent score in an array of data.

Measures FORMULA
Statistical
of Central
Notation Ungrouped Data Grouped Data
Tendency
∑𝑋 ∑ 𝐹𝑋𝑚
𝑥̅ = 𝑥̅ =
𝑛 𝑛
where 𝑥̅ = is the mean where 𝑥̅ = is the mean
∑ 𝑋 = is the sum of
Mean 𝑥̅ scores
F = is the frequency of the
interval
n = is the total number ∑ 𝑋𝑚 = is the sum of scores
of cases n = is the total number of
cases
𝑛
− < 𝐶𝐹
𝑥̃ = 𝐿𝑚 + [2
If
]𝑖
𝐹𝑚
1. Arrange first the array of
data in ascending order. where 𝑥̃ = is the median
2. If the array of data is set to 𝐿𝑚 = is the lower boundary of the
be odd, the median formula median class
Median 𝑥 will be,
𝑁+1
or simply the
n = is the total number of cases
2 < 𝐶𝐹= is the cumulative frequency
middle value of the given data up to the class just before
is the median. the median class
3. If the array is even, the 𝐹𝑚 = is the frequency of the
median is the arithmetic mean median class
of the two middle values. 𝑖 = is the class size

𝑓𝑚𝑜 − 𝑓1
𝑥̂ = 𝐿𝑚 + [ ]𝑖
The mode in the ungrouped 2𝑓𝑚𝑜 − 𝑓1 − 𝑓2
data is the score or item that where 𝑥̂ = is the median
occurs with the highest 𝐿𝑚 = is the lower boundary of
frequency. the modal class
𝑓𝑚𝑜 = frequency of the modal
Mode 𝑥̂ Note: one mode = unimodal, class
two modes = bimodal and if 𝑓1 = frequency of the class
no value in a data occurs preceding the modal
more than once, then the data class
has no mode. 𝑓1 = is the frequency of the
median class
𝑖 = is the class size
Table 8: Summary of Measures of Central Tendency

Note: In terms of scale or level of measurement, Mean is used when the data has
characteristics of interval or ratio; Median is for interval data and Mode is when there is
nominal or ordinal data.

72
 USES OF MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
MEAN MEDIAN MODE
1. When the scores in 1. When the research 1. When all that is required is
distribution are more or less problem calls for knowledge a quick and appropriate way
symmetrically grouped about of the exact midpoint of a of determining central
a central point. distribution. tendency.
2. When the research 2. when the extreme distort 2. When in referring to what is
problem requires measures the mean as in our “average”, the word is used in
of central tendency that will hypothetical example of the sense of the typical or the
also form the basis of other annual marriage ceremonies. most usual.
statistics. The mean reflects extreme
3. When the research values, the median does not.
problem requires combination 3. when dealing with “oddly-
of the mean with the means shaped” distributions, for
of other groups measured on example, those in which a
the same variable. high proportion of extremely
high scores occur as well as
low proportion of extremely
low ones.
Table 9: Summary of Uses of Measures of Central Tendency
To illustrate how the measures of central tendency is use, let’s take the following set of data as
an example,
Given the following weights of 20 patients in Olivarez Hospital below:

35 lbs 120 lbs 70 lbs 70 lbs

110 lbs 20 lbs 80 lbs 80 lbs
76 lbs 45 lbs 85 lbs 90 lbs
25 lbs 50 lbs 130 lbs 95 lbs
105 lbs 40 lbs 150 lbs 160 lbs

Measures of Central Tendency (Ungroup Data)

1. Mean
∑𝑋 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + 𝑋3 +...+ 𝑋𝑛 35+120+70+70+110+...+160
𝑥̅ = 𝑥̅ = 𝑥̅ = 𝑥̅ = 81.80
𝑛 𝑛 20

2. Median
1. Arrange the data in ascending order.
20, 25, 35, 40, 45, 50, 70, 70, 76, 80, 80, 85, 90, 95, 105, 110, 120, 150, 160
2. Identify if the given array of data is odd or even in numbers.
n = 20 which is even n/2 = 10; look at the 10th and 11th place for this is the middle point of
the distribution. Then do this,
80+80
= 80; Thus median for this ungrouped data is 𝑥̃ = 80
2
3. Mode
There are two values that is frequent in this set of data. This means it is bimodal.
𝑥̂ = 70 & 90

73
Measures of Central Tendency (Group Data)
In order to solve the group data of measures of central tendency, you need to create a
frequency table first.

The Weights of 20 Patients in Olivarez Hospital

N = 20
Weight
Tally Frequency Xm FXm <CF
Interval
154 – 167 |1 160.5 160.5 20
140 – 153 |1 146.5 146.5 19
126 – 139 |1 132.5 132.5 18
112 – 125 |1 120.5 120.5 17
98 – 111 ||2 104.5 209 16
84 – 97 |||
3 90.5 271.5 14
70 – 83 |||||
5 76.5 382.5 11
56 – 69 0 0 62.5 0 6
42 – 55 ||2 48.5 97 6
28 – 41 ||2 34.5 69 4
14 – 27 ||2 20.5 41 2
N = 20 T = 1630
Table 10: Frequency Table of the Weights of 20 Patients in Olivarez Hospital
Note: the red box indicates the median class.

1. Mean
∑ 𝐹𝑋𝑚 1630
𝑥̅ = 𝑛
𝑥̅ = 20
𝑥̅ = 81.50

2. Median
𝑛
− <𝐶𝐹
𝑥̃ = 𝐿𝑚 + [ 2 ]𝑖
𝐹𝑚
20
−6
𝑥̃ = 69.5 + [ 2 5 ] 14
10 − 6
𝑥̃ = 69.5 + [ ] 14
5
4
𝑥̃ = 69.5 + [5] 14
𝑥̃ = 69.5 + [0.8]14
𝑥̃ = 69.5 + 11.2 ; thus the median is 𝑥̃ = 80.7

3. Mode
𝑓𝑚𝑜 −𝑓1
𝑥̂ = 𝐿𝑚 + [2𝑓 ]𝑖
𝑚𝑜 − 𝑓1 − 𝑓2
11 − 6
𝑥̂ = 69.5 + [2(11)− 6− 14] 14
5
𝑥̂ = 69.5 + [ ] 14
2
𝑥̂ = 69.5 + [2.5]14
𝑥̂ = 69.5 + 35; thus the mode is 𝑥̂ = 104.5

74
Measures of Dispersion or Variability
We next intend to analyze a set of data by describing its spread or dispersion. It is important to
know how set of values spreads out or fluctuates. Measures of variability measures the average
distance of each observation from the center of distribution. It generally refers how spread out a
group of score is. There are also three measures under measures of variability: (a) range – it is
the simplest form of variability. It is the difference between the highest and lowest score; (b)
variance - mean of the sum of squares of the deviations from the arithmetic mean. It simply means
the square of the standard deviation; (c) standard deviation – a special form of average deviation
from the mean. It is to shows how much variation exists from the average.

Measures FORMULA
Statistical
of
Notation Ungrouped Data Grouped Data
Variability
Range = Highest Score – Range = Upper Boundary –
Range R
Lowest Score Lower Boundary
2
∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅)2 2
∑ 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2
𝑆 = 𝑆 =
𝑛−1 𝑛−1
where 𝑆 2 = is the variance where 𝑆 2 = is the variance
𝑥 = is the value of each 𝑓 = frequency of each interval
Variance 𝑥s2 item 𝑥 = is the value of each item
𝑥̅ = is the mean of the 𝑥̅ = is the mean of the set of
set of data data
n = is the total number n = is the total number of cases
of cases

∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅)2 ∑ 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑥̅)2

𝑆= √ 𝑆= √
𝑛−1 𝑛−1
where 𝑆 = is the standard where 𝑆 = is the standard deviation
deviation 𝑓 = frequency of each interval
Standard 𝑥 = is the value of each 𝑥 = is the value of each item
Deviation
𝑆 item 𝑥̅ = is the mean of the set of
𝑥̅ = is the mean of the data
set of data n = is the total number of cases
n = is the total number
of cases

Table 11: Summary of Measures of Variability

To illustrate the measures of variability, let’s look on the previous example. We will add some
elements on the previous frequency table that we made.

75
 The Weights of 20 Patients in Olivarez Hospital
N = 20
Weight
Tally Frequency Xm FXm <CF x − x̅ (x − x̅)2 𝑓(x − x̅)2
Interval
154 – 167 | 1 160.5 160.5 20 79 6241 6241
140 – 153 | 1 146.5 146.5 19 65 4225 4225
126 – 139 | 1 132.5 132.5 18 51 2601 2601
112 – 125 | 1 120.5 120.5 17 39 1521 1521
98 – 111 || 2 104.5 209 16 23 529 1058
84 – 97 ||| 3 90.5 271.5 14 9 81 243
70 – 83 ||||| 5 76.5 382.5 11 -5 25 125
56 – 69 0 0 62.5 0 6 -19 361 0
42 – 55 || 2 48.5 97 6 -33 1089 2178
28 – 41 || 2 34.5 69 4 -47 2209 4418
14 – 27 || 2 20.5 41 2 61 3721 7442
N = 20 T = 1630 T = 30052
Table 12: Advanced Frequency Table of the Weights of 20 Patients in Olivarez Hospital
1. Compute for the Range.
Range = Upper Boundary – Lower Boundary
Range = 167.5 – 14.5
Range = 153

2. Compute for the Variance.

2
∑ 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2
𝑆 =
𝑛−1
30052
𝑆2 =
20 − 1
30052
𝑆2 =
19
𝑆 2 = 1581.68
3. Compute for the Standard Deviation.
∑ 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2
𝑆= √
𝑛−1

30052
𝑆= √
20 − 1

30052
𝑆= √
19
𝑆 = √1581.68
𝑆 = 39.77

76
Inferential Statistics
This type of statistics is not simple as descriptive statistics. Here it focusses on measuring
the reliability, drawing conclusions and testing hypothesis rather than describing the
whole set of data. It uses sample to estimate population parameters.
Types of Statistical Data Analysis (as cited in Baraceros, 2016)
Types of statistical analysis of variables in a quantitative research are as follows:
 Univariate Analysis – analysis of one variable
 Bivariate Analysis – analysis of two variables (independent and dependent variables)
 Multivariate Analysis – analysis of multiple relations between multiple variables

Statistical Methods of Bivariate Analysis (as cited in Baraceros, 2016)

The following are the methods of Bivariate Analysis:
1. Correlation or Covariation (correlated variation) – describes the relationship between two
variables and also tests the strength or significance of their linear relation. This is a
relationship that makes both variables getting the same high score or one getting a higher
score and the other one, a lower score. Covariance is the statistical term to measure the
extent of the change in the relationship of two random variables. Random variables are
data with varied values like those ones in the interval level or scale (strongly disagree,
disagree, neutral, agree, strongly agree) whose values depend on the arbitrariness or
subjectivity of the respondent.
2. Cross Tabulation – is also called “crosstab or students-contingency table” that follows the
format of a matrix (plural: matrices) that is made up of lines of numbers, symbols, and
other expressions. Similar to one type of graph called table, matrix arranges data in rows
and columns. By displaying the frequency and percentage distribution of data, a crosstab
explains the reason behind the relationship of two variables and the effect of one variable
on the other variable. If the Table compares data on only two variables, such table is called
Bivariate Table.
Example of a Bivariate Table:
HEI MALE FEMALE Row Total
CEU 83 (10.2%) 101 (12.2%) 184
FEU 69 (8.5%) 93 (11.3%) 162
JRU 102 (12.6%) 120 (14.5%) 222
La Salle 79 (9.7%) 99 (12%) 178
MLQ 81 (10%) 79 (9.5%) 159
NU 61 (7.5%) 58 (7%) 119
OUP 59 (7.2%) 48 (5.8%) 107
UP 120 (14.8%) 98 (11.9%) 218
UST 152 (18.7%) 127 (15.4%) 279
Column Total 806 (100%) 823 (100%) 1629
Table 13: HEI Participants in the 2016 NUSP Conference
Adapted from Baraceros, E. L. (2016). Practical Research 2 First ed.

77
Measure of Correlation
1. Correlation Coefficient
When the degree of relationship is measured, correlation is basically the test of measurement.
Correlation means a measure of association that measure the degree of relatedness of two or
more variables.

When the computed value of the correlation coefficient is high, it does not necessarily mean
that one factor is strongly dependent on the other. On the other hand, when the computed
value of the correlation coefficient is small it does not necessarily mean that one factor has no
dependence on the other factor. (Ymas, 2013)

Three Degrees of Correlation Relationship Between Two Variables

a. Perfect Correlation (positive or negative)
b. Some degree of correlation (positive or negative)
c. No correlation

Correlation Interpretation Guide

Figure 7: Correlation Interpretation Guide

Source: Ymas, S.E. (2013). College Statistics Rev ed.

Correlation in Diagram Form

Figure 8: Graphs showing Different Correlation Coefficients

Source: http://arts.uwaterloo.ca/~jfsulliv/Lectures%2015%20&%2016.htm

78
Six Measures of Correlation
The process of selecting the appropriate measure of correlation to be used involves a number of
important decisions. Among several levels of measurement, you will find different statistical
correlation measures appropriate to each.
a. Correlation between interval variables: Pearson product-moment correlation (also
known as Pearson’s r, r or R). It is developed by Karl Pearson and it measures the
strength and direction of the linear relationship (measure r) of two variables and of the
association between interval and ordinal variables.
𝑁 ∑ 𝑥𝑦 − ∑ 𝑥 ∑ 𝑦
𝑟=
√[𝑁𝛴𝑥 2 − (𝛴𝑥)2 ][𝑁𝛴𝑦 2 − (𝛴𝑦)2 ]
Where N = number of samples
x = first variable
y = other variable
For example, let us measure the degree of relationship between the students’ grades
in mathematics and science.
Individual Grade in Grade in
Student Mathematics Science
1 85 80
2 90 89
3 87 84
4 79 86
5 75 79
6 80 86
7 88 90
8 85 90
9 86 87
10 80 86
Table 14: Frequency Table of Student’s Grade
Adapted from Ymas, S.E. (2013). College Statistics Rev ed.
Solution:
Individual Grade in Grade in
(x2) (y2) (xy)
Student Mathematics (x) Science (y)
1 85 80 7225 6400 6800
2 90 89 8100 7921 8010
3 87 84 7569 7056 7308
4 79 86 6241 7396 6794
5 75 79 5625 6241 5925
6 80 86 6400 7396 6880
7 88 90 7744 8100 7920
8 85 90 7225 8100 7650
9 86 87 7396 7569 7482
10 80 86 6400 7396 6880
835 857 69925 73575 71649
Table 15: Pearson’s r Correlation Student’s Grade
Adapted from Ymas, S.E. (2013). College Statistics Rev ed.
𝑁 ∑ 𝑥𝑦− ∑ 𝑥 ∑ 𝑦 10(71,649)−835(857) 895
𝑟= 𝑟= 𝑟= = 0.55
√[𝑁𝛴𝑥 2 −(𝛴𝑥)2 ][𝑁𝛴𝑦 2 −(𝛴𝑦)2 ] √[10(69,925)−(835)2 ][10(73,575)−(857)2 ] √(2025)(1031)

Interpretation.

79
There is a high positive correlation between the student grades in Mathematics and Science.
b. Correlation between nominal variables: Guttman’s Lambda – also known as Guttman’s
Coefficient of Predictability.
𝐹𝑅 − 𝐶𝑇
𝜆𝑐 =
𝑁 − 𝐶𝑇
where FR = the biggest cell frequency in each row
CT = the biggest column total
N = total frequency

and
𝐹𝐶 − 𝑅𝑇
𝜆𝑟 =
𝑁 − 𝑅𝑇
where FC = the biggest cell frequency in each column
RT = the biggest row total
N = total frequency
For example, let us measure the degree of relationship of individual’s religion and
political party where he belongs.
Political Party
LAKAS
LAMMP REPORMA Total
NUCD
Catholic 20 9 15 44
Iglesia ni Cristo 5 18 4 27
Protestant 11 8 10 29
Total 36 35 29 100
Table 16: Political Party and Religion Guttman’s Lambda Relationship
Adapted from Ymas, S.E. (2013). College Statistics Rev ed.

Solution.
𝐹𝑅−𝐶𝑇 (20+18+11)−36 13
𝜆𝑐 = 𝑁−𝐶𝑇 𝜆𝑐 = 100−36
𝜆𝑐 = 64
𝜆𝑐 = 0.20 or

𝐹𝐶−𝑅𝑇 (20+18+15)−44 9
𝜆𝑟 = 𝑁−𝑅𝑇
𝜆𝑟 = 100−44
𝜆𝑟 = 56
𝜆𝑟 = 0.16

Interpretation.
The obtain lambda coefficient of 0.20 indicates that when religion is treated as independent
variable, the error reduced in the prediction (increase its accuracy) is 20 percent. While the
obtained lambda coefficient of 0.16 indicates that when political party is treated as independent
variable, the error minimized in the prediction (increases its accuracy) is 16 percent. These
results prove that religion accurately predicts political party more than political party predicting
religion.

c. Correlation between ordinal variables of 30 samples or less: Spearman’s rho

(Spearman’s r, or r) – the test to measure the dependence of the dependent variable
on the independent variable. It is also known as Spearman Rank-Order Correlation
Coefficient)
6𝛴𝐷 2
𝜌 =1−
𝑁(𝑁 2 − 1)
where N = number of samples
D = difference between ranks

80
 For example, let’s measure the degree of relationship between performance rank
obtained by the ten trainees during the first and second evaluation period. Given the
table below:

Rank During 1st Rank During 2nd

Student Trainee
Evaluation Evaluation
1 8 7
2 2 5
3 7 10
4 1 4
5 4 2
6 9 6
7 3 1
8 6 9
9 10 8
10 5 3
Table 17: Student’s Trainee Rank Evaluation Frequency Table
Adapted from Ymas, S.E. (2013). College Statistics Rev ed.
Solution.
st
Student Rank During 1 Rank During
D D2
Trainee Evaluation 2nd Evaluation
1 8 7 1 1
2 2 5 -3 9
3 7 10 -3 9
4 1 4 -3 9
5 4 2 2 4
6 9 6 3 9
7 3 1 2 4
8 6 9 -3 9
9 10 8 2 4
10 5 3 2 4
ΣD2 = 62
Table 18: Student’s Trainee Rank Evaluation Spearman’s rho Correlation
Adapted from Ymas, S.E. (2013). College Statistics Rev ed.
6𝛴𝐷 2 6(62) 372
𝜌 =1− 𝜌 =1− 𝜌 =1− 𝜌 = 0.62
𝑁(𝑁 2−1) 10(102 −1) 990

Interpretation.
There is a high positive correlation between the student trainees’ performance rank during the
first and second evaluation period.

d. Correlation between Ordinal variables of more than 30 samples: Goodman and

Kruskal’s Gamma
𝑥𝑟 − 𝑥𝑙
𝛿=
𝑥𝑟 + 𝑥𝑙
where xr = number of pairs observed in parallel direction
xl = number of pairs observed in opposite direction

81
 Column Variable
c1 C2 C3
r1 x11 x12 x13
r2 x21 x22 x23
r3 x31 x32 x33
Table 19: Correlation between Ordinal Variables Format
Adapted from Ymas, S.E. (2013). College Statistics Rev ed.

where
xr = x11 (x22 + x23 + x32 + x33) + x12 (x23 + x33) + x21 (x32 + x33) + x22 x33
xl = x13 (x21 + x22 + x31 + x32) + x12 (x21 + x31) + x23 (x31 + x32) + x22 x31

For example, measuring the degree of relationship between student’s’ performance in

academic and non-academic areas.

Performance in Academic and Non-Academic Areas

5 12 6
3 8 7
2 5 2
Table 20: Student’s Performance in Academic and Non-Academic Areas
Adapted from Ymas, S.E. (2013). College Statistics Rev ed
Solution.
1. Arrange the ordering for one of the two characteristics from the highest to lowest or
vice versa from top to bottotm through the rows and for the other characteristics from
the highest to the lowest or vice versa from left to right through the column.
2. Compute xr by multiplying the frequency in every cell by the series of the frequencies
in all of the other cell which are both to the right of the original cell below it and then sum
up the products obtained.
xr = 5(8+7+5+2) + 12(7+2_ + 3(5+2) + 8(2) = 255
3. To solve xl, you simply reverse partially the process described in step 2. You multiply
the frequency of every cell by the sum of the frequencies in all of the cells to the left of
the original cell below it and then sum up the products obtained.
xl = 6(3+8+2+5) + 12(3+2) + 7(2+5) + 8(2) = 233
4. Substitute the values of xr and xl in gamma.
𝑥 −𝑥 255−233 22
𝛿 = 𝑥𝑟 + 𝑥𝑙 = 255+233 = 488 = 0.05
𝑟 𝑙
Interpretation.
There is a very small positive correlation between the student’s performance in academic and
non-academic areas.

e. Correlation between interval and dichotomous nominal variables: Point Biserial

𝑟 ∑ 𝑓(∑ 𝑓𝑎 𝑥)− ∑ 𝑓𝑎 (∑ 𝑓𝑥)
𝑝𝑏=
√∑ 𝑓𝑎 ∑ 𝑓𝑏 [∑ 𝑓(∑ 𝑓𝑥 2 )−(∑ 𝑓𝑥)2 ]
where x = interval variable
fa = frequency of one of the dichotomous normal variable
fb = frequency of one of other dichotomous normal variable
f = total frequency of the dichotomous normal variable

82
 Here in this example, let’s measure the degree or relation between sex and intelligence.
IQ Score No. of Males No. of Females
95 8 3
90 3 2
85 1 4
80 2 0
75 4 3
Table 21: Frequency Table of Relation between Sex and Intelligence
Adapted from Ymas, S.E. (2013). College Statistics Rev ed.
Solution.
(x) (fa) (fb) f (fx) (fx2) (fax)
95 8 3 8 1045 99,725 760
90 3 2 3 450 40,500 270
85 1 4 4 425 36,125 85
80 2 0 2 160 12,800 160
75 4 3 4 525 39,375 300
18 12 30 2605 228,075 1,575
Table 22: Point Biserial Relation between Sex and Intelligence
Adapted from Ymas, S.E. (2013). College Statistics Rev ed

𝑟𝑝𝑏= ∑ 𝑓(∑ 𝑓𝑎 𝑥)− ∑ 𝑓𝑎 (∑ 𝑓𝑥) 𝑟𝑝𝑏= 30(1,575)−18(2,605) 𝑟𝑝𝑏= 360 𝑟𝑝𝑏= 0.10
3484.9
√∑ 𝑓𝑎 ∑ 𝑓𝑏 [∑ 𝑓(∑ 𝑓𝑥2 )−(∑ 𝑓𝑥)2 ] √18(12)[30(228,075)− (2,605)2

Interpretation.
There is very small positive relationship between sex and intelligence.

f. Correlation between interval and any nominal variables: Correlation Ratio

∑ 𝑁𝑖 𝑦̅𝑖2 − 𝑁𝑦̅ 2
𝐸2 = 2
∑ 𝑦̅𝑖𝑗 − 𝑁𝑦̅ 2
where Ni = number of sample per category
𝑦̅𝑖 = average obtained per category
N = total number of samples
𝑦̅ = over-all average
yij = individual itemType equation here.
For example, let us measure the degree relationship between the civil status and the
annual salary (expressed in thousands of pesos) of the given samples:
Single 65 83 81 69 73 89 76 60
Married 70 67 90 84 78
Widowed 89 64 78
Solution. Interpretation.
There is a very small positive
N1 = 8 N2 = 5 N3 = 3
596 389 231 relationship between the civil
𝑦̅1 = 8 = 74.5 𝑦̅2 = 5 = 77.8 𝑦̅3 = 3 = 77 status and the annual salary
N = 16 (expressed in thousands of
1216 pesos) of the given samples.
𝑦̅ = = 76.0
16
2
𝑦𝑖𝑗 = (65)2 + (83)2 + (81)2 +. . . +(89)2 + (64)2 + (78)2 = 93, 792
∑ 𝑁𝑖 𝑦̅𝑖2 −𝑁𝑦̅ 2 [8(74.5)2 +5(77.8)2 +3(77)2 −16(76)2 ] 92,453.2−92,416
𝐸2 = 2 −𝑁𝑦
∑ 𝑦̅𝑖𝑗 ̅2
= 93,792−16(76)2
= 93,792−92,4166
= 0.03

83
2. Enumeration of data. In the analysis of enumeration of data, the researcher often needs
to decide whether several independent samples should be regarded as having come from
the somewhat, and the problem is to determine whether the observe samples from the
same population. (Ymas, 2013). Enumeration data are expressed in the form of
frequencies, which represent the number of items within specified qualities, descriptions
or categories. It has two class classification: (a) one-way – has only one variable described
by at least two categories and (b) two-way – have two variables described by their
respective categories. It is best presented in a contingency table.

The Chi-Square Test

It can be used for a variable or two variables (bivariate analysis of nominal variable,
specifically to test null hypothesis) for which there are two or more categories each. It
reflects discrepancies between the observed and expected or theoretical frequencies of
individuals, objects or events falling in the various categories (tells if there is a relationship
exists between or among variables).

Steps in Using Chi-Square (as cited in Ymas, 2013)

a. State the null hypothesis. The null hypothesis may be stated in any of these ways:
 The sample distribution conforms with the hypothetical or theoretical
distribution;
 The actual observed proportion is not significant different from the ideal or
expected proportion.
 One variable does not depend on other variable. The two variables are
independent from each other.
b. Set the level of significance, also known as alpha (𝛼).
c. Cast the observed frequencies in a k x r contingency table, using the k columns for the
groups. Determine the expected frequency for each cell by finding the product of the
marginal totals common to the cell and dividing this product by N. (N is the sum of
each group of marginal totals. It represents the total number of independent
observation. Inflated N’s invalidate the test.)
Determine the degrees of freedom using the formula:
For one-way classification:
DF = number of categories - 1
For two-way classification:
DF = (k -1) (r-1)
d. Locate the tabular value of the chi-square, in the chi-square distribution table by
getting the value where the desired level of significance and the computed degree of
freedom intersect
e. Compute for the chi-square value by using formula:
(𝑂 − 𝐸)2
𝑥2 = 𝛴
𝐸
where O = observed number of cases
E = observed number of cases
(𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙)(𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙)
E= 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

f. State the conclusion to arrive at by the acceptance or rejection of the null hypothesis.
If the computed value of the chi-square is less than the tabular value, the null
hypothesis is accepted. If the computed value of the chi-square is greater than the
tabular value, the null hypothesis is rejected.

84
 Applications of the Chi-Square (as cited in Ymas, 2013)
a. test of goodness of fit – is performed in order to determine if a set of observed data
corresponds to some theoretical distribution.
b. test of homogeneity (two or more samples, one criterion variables) – frequently used
to determine if two or more populations are homogeneous. It means that the data
distributions are similar with respects to a particular criterion variable.
c. test of independence (one sample, two criterion variable) – for each sample member
there are members of randomly drawn from the same population. This test is used to
see if measures taken on two criterion variables are either independent or associated
with one another in a given population.

3. Variance Analysis (Three Ways)

One technique in inferential statistics designed to whether the two samples are
significantly different from each other is variance analysis. It is mostly known as Analysis
of Variance (ANOVA). This is the most widely used and highly developed statistical
method in modern research. ANOVA was developed by R.A. Fisher in 1923 and the f-test
used in ANIVA is named after him. It was used to test hypothesis about population means
rather than population variances. It is a method for dividing the variation observed into
different parts, each part assignable to a known source, cause or factor. The type of data
analyze in ANOVA is interval data.

Noted: The t-test is used to test non-significance of difference between samples, taking them
one pair at a time and it is applied as many times as there are pairs among the samples. ANOVA
is a simultaneous test taking the samples all at a single time and it is applied only once
.
a. One-Factor ANOVA – one factor being studied as the independent variable. It can
test this null hypothesis: There is no significant difference among the samples.

Illustration of ANOVA One-way Classification

A1 A2 A3 … An
.. .. .. ..
.. .. .. ..
.. .. .. ..
. .
. .
. .
.. .. .. … ..
Table 23: One-Way Classification Table

SV SS DF MSS F
Between SSbet DFbet MSSbet Fc
Within SSwit DFwit MSSwit
Total SStot DFtot
Table 24: One-Way ANOVA Table

where
Column 1
SV = sources of variations
Between = variation between groups
Within = variation within groups
Total = sum of all variations

85
 Column 2
SS = sum of squares
SSbet = between groups sum of squares
SSwit = within groups sum of squares
SStot = total sum of squares

Column 3
DF = degrees of freedom
DFbet = between groups degrees of freedom
DFwit = within groups degrees of freedom
DFtot = total degrees of freedom

Column 4
MSS = mean sum of squares
MSSbet = between groups mean sum of squares
MSSwit = within groups mean sum of squares

Column 5
F = f-statistic
Fc = computed value of f-statistics

ANOVA Formulas
Column 2
(∑ 𝑋𝐴𝑖 )2 (∑ 𝑋𝑖 )2
SSbet = 𝛴 −
𝑛𝐴𝑖 𝑁
(∑ 𝑋𝑖 )2
SStot =∑ 𝑥𝑖2 −
𝑁
SSwit = SStot – SSbet

Column 3
DFbet = c – 1
DFwit = N – c
DFtot = N – 1

Column 4
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑒𝑡
MSSbet =
𝐷𝐹𝑏𝑒𝑡
𝑆𝑆𝑤𝑖𝑡
MSSwit =
𝐷𝐹𝑤𝑖𝑡
Column 5
𝑀𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑒𝑡
Fc =
𝑀𝑆𝑆𝑤𝑖𝑡

where
x = observed value
i = individual observation or cell
A = the given factor or category
N = total samples
c = number of categories

b. Two-Way Factor ANOVA – there are two factors being studied as independent
variable. The two-factor ANOVA can test the following null hypothesis: (1) Factor A
has no significant effect; (2) Factor B has no significant effect; (3) factor A and B has
no significant effect.

86
Illustration of ANOVA Two-way Classification
A1 A2 A3 … Am
B1 .. .. .. ..
B2 .. .. .. ..
B3 .. .. .. ..
. . .
. . .
. . .
Bn .. .. .. … ..
Table 25: Two-Way Classification Table

SV SS DF MSS F
Factor A SSA DFA MSSA FA
Factor B SSB DFB MSSB FB
AxB SSA x B DFA x B MSSA x B FA x B
Within SSwit DFwit MSSwit Fwit
Total SStot DFtot
Table 26: Two-Way ANOVA Table

where
Column 1
SV = sources of variations
Factor A = effect of factor A
Factor B = effect of factor B
A x B = interaction effect of factors A and B
Within = variation within groups
Total = sum of all variations
Column 2
SS = sum of squares
SSA = factor A sum of squares
SSB = factor B sum of squares
SSA x B = interaction A x B sum of squares
Within = within groups sum of squares
Total = total sum of squares
Column 3
DF = degrees of freedom
DFA = factor A degrees of freedom
DFB = factor B degrees of freedom
DFA x B = interaction A x B degrees of freedom
DFwit = within groups degrees of freedom
DFtot = total degrees of freedom
Column 4
MSS = mean sum of squares
MSSA = factor A mean sum of squares
MSSB = factor B mean sum of squares
MSSA x B = interaction A x B mean sum of squares
MSSwit = within groups mean sum of squares
Column 5
F = f-statistic
FA = factor A computed value of f-statistics
FB = factor B computed value of f-statistics
FA x B = interaction A x B computed value of f-statistics

87
 ANOVA Formulas
Column 2
(∑ 𝑋𝐴𝑖 )2 (∑ 𝑋𝑖 )2
SSA = 𝛴 −
𝑛𝐴𝑖 𝑁
(∑ 𝑋𝐵𝑖 )2 (∑ 𝑋𝑖 )2
SSB = 𝛴 −
𝑛𝐵𝑖 𝑁
(∑ 𝑋𝐴𝑖𝐵𝑖 )2 (∑ 𝑋𝑖 )2
SSbet = 𝛴 −
𝑛𝐴𝑖𝐵𝑖 𝑁
SSA x B = SSbet – SSA – SSB
(∑ 𝑋 )2
SStot = ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 − 𝑖
𝑁
SSwit = SStot – SSbet

Column 3
DFA = A – 1: (categories in A – 1)
DFB = B – 1: (categories in B – 1)
DFA x B = (A – 1) (B-1)
DFwit = N – AB
DFtot = N – 1

Column 4
𝑆𝑆𝐴
MSSA =
𝐷𝐹𝐴
𝑆𝑆𝐵
MSSB =
𝐷𝐹𝐵
𝑆𝑆𝐴𝑥𝐵
MSSA x B =
𝐷𝐹𝐴𝑥𝐵
𝑆𝑆𝑤𝑖𝑡
MSSwit =
𝐷𝐹𝑤𝑖𝑡
Column 5
𝑀𝑆𝑆𝐴
FA =
𝑀𝑆𝑆𝑤𝑖𝑡
𝑀𝑆𝑆𝐵
FB =
𝑀𝑆𝑆𝑤𝑖𝑡
𝑀𝑆𝑆𝐴𝑥𝐵
FA x B =
𝑀𝑆𝑆𝑤𝑖𝑡

where
x = observed value
i = individual observation or cell
A = the first given factor
B = the second given factor
A x B = interaction of factor A and B
n = number of samples in particular category
N = total samples

c. Three-factor ANOVA – three factors being studied as the independent variables.

The three-factor ANOVA can test the following hypothesis: (1) Factor A has no
significant effect; (2) Factor B has no significant effect; (3) Factor C has no significant
effect; (4) Factors A and B has no interaction effect; (5) Factors B and C has no
interaction effect; (6) Factors A and C has no interaction effect; (7) Factors A, B and
C has no interaction effect.

88
Illustration of ANOVA Three-way Classification
A1 A2 A3 … Al
B1 C1 .. .. .. ..
C2 .. .. .. ..
C3 .. .. .. ..
. . .
. . .
. . .
Cn .. .. .. … ..
B2 C1 .. .. .. ..
C2 .. .. .. ..
C3 .. .. .. ..
. . .
. . .
. . .
Cn .. .. .. … ..
.
.
.
Bm C1 .. .. .. ..
C2 .. .. .. ..
C3 .. .. .. ..
. . .
. . .
. . .
Cn .. .. .. … ..
Table 27: Three-Way Classification Table

SV SS DF MSS F
A SSA DFA MSSA FA
B SSB DFB MSSB FB
C SSc DFc MSSc Fc
AxB SSA x B DFA x B MSSA x B FA x B
BxC SSB x C DFB x C MSSB x C FB x C
AxC SSA x C DFA x C MSSA x C FA x C
AxBxC SSA x B x C DFA x B x C MSSA x B x C FA x B x C
Within SSwit DFwit MSSwit Fwit
Total SStot DFtot
Table 28: Three-Way ANOVA Table

where
Column 1
SV = sources of variations
A = effect of factor A
B = effect of factor B
C = effect of factor C
A x B = interaction effect of factor A x B
B x C = interaction effect of factor B x C
A x C = interaction effect of factor A x C
A x B x C = interaction effect of factor A x B x C
Within = variation within groups
Total = sum of all variations

89
 Column 2
SS = sum of squares
SSA = factor A sum of squares
SSB = factor B sum of squares
SSC = factor C sum of squares
SSA x B = interaction A x B sum of squares
SSB x C = interaction x C sum of squares
SSA x C = interaction A x C sum of squares
SSA x B x C = interaction A x B x C sum of squares
SSWithin = within groups sum of squares
SSTotal = total sum of squares
Column 3
DF = degrees of freedom
DFA = factor A degrees of freedom
DFB = factor B degrees of freedom
DFC = factor C degrees of freedom
DFA x B = interaction A x B degrees of freedom
DFB x C = interaction B x C degrees of freedom
DFA x C = interaction A x C degrees of freedom
DFA x B x C = interaction A x B x C degrees of freedom
DFwit = within groups degrees of freedom
DFtot = total degrees of freedom
Column 4
MSS = mean sum of squares
MSSA = factor A mean sum of squares
MSSB = factor B mean sum of squares
MSSC = factor C mean sum of squares
MSSA x B = interaction A x B mean sum of squares
MSSB x C = interaction B x C mean sum of squares
MSSA x C = interaction A x C mean sum of squares
MSSA x B x C = interaction A x B xC mean sum of squares
MSSwit = within groups mean sum of squares
Column 5
F = f-statistic
FA = factor A computed value of f-statistics
FB = factor B computed value of f-statistics
FC = factor C computed value of f-statistics
FA x B = interaction A x B computed value of f-statistics
FB x C = interaction B x C computed value of f-statistics
FA x C = interaction A x C computed value of f-statistics
FA x B x C = interaction A x B x C computed value of f-statistics

ANOVA Formulas
Column 2
(∑ 𝑋𝐴𝑖 )2 (∑ 𝑋𝑖 )2
SSA = 𝛴 −
𝑛𝐵𝐶 𝑁
(∑ 𝑋𝐵𝑖 )2 (∑ 𝑋𝑖 )2
SSB = 𝛴 −
𝑛𝐴𝐶 𝑁
(∑ 𝑋𝐶𝑖 )2 (∑ 𝑋𝑖 )2
SSC = 𝛴 −
𝑛𝐴𝐵 𝑁
2
(∑ 𝑋𝐴𝑖𝐵𝑗 )2 (∑ 𝑋𝐴𝑖 )2 (∑ 𝑋𝐵𝑗 ) (∑ 𝑋𝑖 )2
SSA x B = − 𝛴 − 𝛴 +
𝑛𝐶 𝑛𝐵𝐶 𝑛𝐴𝐶 𝑁

90
 2 2
(∑ 𝑋𝐵𝑖𝐶𝑗 ) (∑ 𝑋𝐵𝑖 )2 (∑ 𝑋𝐶𝑗 ) +(∑ 𝑋𝑖 )2
SSB x C = − −
𝑛𝐴 𝑛𝐴𝐶 𝑛𝐴𝐵 𝑁
2
(∑ 𝑋𝐴𝑖𝐶𝑖 )2 (∑ 𝑋𝐴𝑖 )2 (∑ 𝑋𝐶𝑗 ) (∑ 𝑋𝑖 )2
SSA x C = − − +
𝑛𝐵 𝑛𝐵𝐶 𝑛𝐴𝐵 𝑁
2 2 2
(∑ 𝑋𝐴𝑖𝐵𝑗𝐶𝑘 )2 (∑ 𝑋𝐴𝑖𝐵𝑗) (∑ 𝑋𝐵𝑗𝐶𝑘 ) (∑ 𝑋𝐴𝑖𝐶𝑘 )2 (∑ 𝑋𝐴𝑖 )2 (∑ 𝑋𝐵𝑗 ) (∑ 𝑋𝐶𝑘 )2
SSA x B x C = − − − + + + −
𝑛 𝑛𝐶 𝑛𝐴 𝑛𝐵 𝑛𝐵𝐶 𝑛𝐴𝐶 𝑛𝐴𝐵
(∑ 𝑋𝑖 )2
𝑁
(∑ 𝑋𝐴𝑖𝐵𝑗𝐶𝑘 )2
SSwit = ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 −
𝑛
(∑ 𝑋𝑖 )2
SStot = ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 −
𝑛

Column 3
DFA = A – 1: (categories in A – 1)
DFB = B – 1: (categories in B – 1)
DFB = C – 1: (categories in C – 1)
DFA x B = (A – 1) (B – 1)
DFB x C = (B – 1) (C – 1)
DFA x C = (A – 1) (C – 1)
DFA x B x C = (A – 1) (B – 1) (C – 1)
DFwit = N – ABC
DFtot = N – 1

Column 4
𝑆𝑆𝐴 𝑆𝑆𝐵𝑥𝐶
MSSA = MSSB x C =
𝐷𝐹𝐴 𝐷𝐹𝐵𝑥𝐶
𝑆𝑆𝐵 𝑆𝑆𝐴𝑥𝐶
MSSB = MSSA x C =
𝐷𝐹𝐵 𝐷𝐹𝐴𝑥𝐶
𝑆𝑆𝐶 𝑆𝑆𝐴𝑥𝐵𝑥𝐶
MSSC = MSSA x B x C =
𝐷𝐹𝐶 𝐷𝐹𝐴𝑥𝐵𝑥𝐶
𝑆𝑆𝐴𝑥𝐵 𝑆𝑆𝑤𝑖𝑡
MSSA x B = MSSwit =
𝐷𝐹𝐴𝑥𝐵 𝐷𝐹𝑤𝑖𝑡
Column 5
𝑀𝑆𝑆𝐴 𝑀𝑆𝑆𝐴𝑥𝐵
FA = FA x B =
𝑀𝑆𝑆𝑤𝑖𝑡 𝑀𝑆𝑆𝑤𝑖𝑡
𝑀𝑆𝑆𝐵 𝑀𝑆𝑆𝐵𝑥𝐶
FB = FB x C =
𝑀𝑆𝑆𝑤𝑖𝑡 𝑀𝑆𝑆𝑤𝑖𝑡
𝑀𝑆𝑆𝐶 𝑀𝑆𝑆𝐴𝑥𝐶
FB = FAxC =
𝑀𝑆𝑆𝑤𝑖𝑡 𝑀𝑆𝑆𝑤𝑖𝑡
where
x = observed value
i = individual observation or cell
A = the first given factor
B = the second given factor
B = the third given factor
A x B = interaction of factor A and B
B x C = interaction of factor B and C
A x C = interaction of factor A and C
A x B x C = interaction of factor A, B and C
n = number of samples in particular category
N = total samples

91
4. Regression
When correlation is the process of determining a measure of the strength of relatedness of
variables whereas regression analysis involves developing a functional relationship between
variables.
Similar to correlation, regression determines the existence of variable relationships, but does
more than this by determining the following: (1) which between the independent and
dependent variable can signal the presence of another variable; (2) how strong the
relationship between the two variables are; and (3) when an independent variable is
statistically significant as a soothsayer or predictor. (Baraceros, 2016, p.121)
Other Statistical Methods
 t-tests - evaluates the probability that the mean of the sample reflects the mean of the
population from where the sample was drawn. It also tests the difference between two
means: the sample mean and the population mean. (Baraceros, 2016, p.121)
 z-tests – the standard score usually the z-value refers to a kind of transformed score that
relates a raw score to the mean and standard deviation of a distribution.
 Friedman’s test - the non-parametric alternative is Friedman’s test and is used for ordinal
data or an interval-scale variable that is not normally distributed. (Gardner, 2007)
 McNemar’s test - used to compare two paired samples when the data are nominal and
dichotomous. (Gardner, 2007)
 Cochran’sQ test - used for nominal dichotomous data when there are more than two
related groups. (Gardner, 2007)
 Mann–Whitney test - used to compare two independent samples when data are either
interval scale but assumptions for t-test (normality) are not satisfied, or ordinal (ranked)
scale. The hypothesis being tested is whether the two medians are equal (as opposed to
two means in the independent samplest-test). (Gardner, 2007)
 Wilcoxon signed rank test - used to compare two paired samples when data are either
interval scale but assumptions for the paired t-test (normality of within-pair differences)
are not satisfied or ordinal (ranked) scale. The hypothesis being tested is whether the
median difference is zero (as opposed to mean difference in the paired t-test). (Gardner,
2007)

Those statistical tests is very unique to each other and has its own formula. The mastery of those
statistical formulas and data analysis guarantee the validity, credibility and reliability of your
research findings. However, if you are not familiar with those statistical tools, you need to read
further about the fundamentals of statistics or hire the services of a statistician. You can also ask
your research adviser to be able to apply them to your research study.

92
Lesson 3: Quantitative Data Presentation
Presentation of data also needs planning and presentation, if data are properly and interestingly
presented, the benefits will not only go to the readers or users out more so to the statisticians who
will make the analysis and interpretation of the data gathered. (Ymas, 2013)
To make the data comprehensible and meaningful, the researcher or statistician summarized the
data gathered and presented in different forms: (a) textual form – the data presents as the name
it suggests; (b) tabular form – the data presents in the means of table (rows and columns); and
(c) graphical form – the data presents in graphs and diagram and it is usually used when you
need to presents are large sets of data.
Basically, the collected data in a research study that is not organized is called raw data or
ungrouped data. On the other hand, raw data that are presented in the form of a frequency
distribution are called grouped data.
Two Methods of Organizing the Raw Data (as cited in Ymas, 2013)
1. Array – ordering of the observations from smallest to largest or vice versa. The advantage of
this you can easily perceived the low and high values.
2. Steam and Leaf Diagram – the number (raw data) is broken into tens and unit digits are tallied
together whose values share with the tens digits.
Example:
A nationwide travel agency offers special rates for packages tours during summer. To economize
spending for the advertisement only certain age group of people will be sent brochures for
attraction. The agency gets to previous passenger customers from its files and groups them
according to ages. Only those age groups with least people are set brochures. The following are
the ages of the previous customers:

59 50 52 38 80 62 77 56
60 61 58 62 51 36 54 18
71 54 44 52 26 63 58 56
41 34 61 50 60 53 62 62
53 43 63 71 65 79 45 66

I. An array from largest to smallest

80 79 77 71 71 66 66 66
63 63 62 62 62 62 61 61
60 60 59 58 58 55 54 54
53 53 52 52 50 50 50 45
44 43 41 38 36 34 26 18

93
II. An array from smallest to largest
18 26 34 36 38 41 43 44
45 50 50 51 52 52 53 53
54 54 55 58 58 59 60 60
61 61 62 62 62 62 63 63
66 66 66 71 71 77 79 80

III. Stem and Leaf Diagram

1 8
2 6
3 4 6 8
4 1 3 4 5
5 0 0 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 8 8 9
6 0 0 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 6 6 6
7 1 1 7 9
8 0
In the first row, we think of 18 as 1|8. Each row represents a stem position and each digit to the
right of a vertical line in a leaf. Thus, the first row 1|8 is the stem and 8 is the leaf. The first row
tells us that the list contains the value 18. The second row or second stem tells us the list
containing the value of 26. The third stem contains 3 values in the 30’s: 34, 36 and 38. So on and
so forth.

Frequency Distributions
When the data are arranged in tabular form by the frequencies, the table is called frequency table.
It is another way of presenting raw data. The arrangement of the gathered data by categories and
their corresponding frequencies and class marks or midpoints is called frequency distribution. The
construction of frequency distribution consists essentially of three steps:
1. Deciding on a set of groupings called classes;
2. Sorting or tallying the data into classes;
3. Counting the number of tallies in each class called class frequencies.

Rules in the construction of Frequency Distribution

1. Note that it is impractical to group a thousand measurements into 4 classes or to group 10
observations to 7 classes. With this, we seldom use fewer than 5 or more than 15 classes.
2. Make the classes cover equal ranges of values and make ranges multiples of numbers that
are easy to work with. Open classes should avoid such as classes if “less than or more
than.”
3. Make sure that each item goes only into one class.
4. Tally is usually omitted in the final presentation of the table.

In deciding the number of classes, the statisticians Freud and Simon suggested the following:

𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Class Interval = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
Note: To get the class interval, you need to use the formula of range.
Range = Highest Value – Lowest Value.

94
Another way is:
𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Class Interval = 1+3.322 log 𝑁
Where N denotes the number of observations.

For example, using the previous sample above, the class interval will be:
𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Class Interval = 1+3.322 log 𝑁
80−18 62
Class Interval = 1+3.322 log 40
= 6.322 = 9.8 or 10, approx. class interval
Note: If the highest value in the array of numbers is not yet included in the last class interval, then
we add some more intervals until all the scores or items in the list of raw data are already included.
In statistics, the value 1 + 3.322 log N is called the Slovian’s Formula.

Relative
Class Tally Frequency Percentage
Frequencies
10 – 19 | 1 0.025 2.5%
20 – 29 | 1 0.025 2.5%
30 – 39 ||| 3 0.075 7.5%
40 – 49 |||| 4 0.100 10.0%
50 – 59 ||||| - ||||| - ||| 13 0.325 32.5%
60 – 69 ||||| - ||||| - ||| 13 0.325 32.5%
70 – 79 |||| 4 0.100 10.0%
80 – 89 | 1 0.025 2.5%
TOTAL 40 1.000 100.0%
Table 29: Frequency Distribution of Ages of Customer
Passengers of Nationwide Travel Agency

To convert a frequency distribution to a relative frequency distribution, divide each class frequency
by the total number of frequency. Thus,
1÷40 = 0.025
3÷40 = 0.075
The relative frequencies show the percent of the total number of observation in each class. The
relative frequencies must total 1.

To convert a relative frequency distribution to percentage distribution, the decimal point of the
relative frequencies will be moved two places to the right and affix the percent sign.

True Limits and Class Marks

A point that represents the halfway point between successive classes is called a true limit or
class boundary. Each category or class has two limits – the lowest limit and the upper limit. True
limit or class boundary is obtained by adding the upper limit of one class and the lower limit of
the next class and then dividing by 2. Given the previous example,

19+20
2
= 19.5
Note: The upper boundary of one class is the lower boundary of the next class.

95
The class mark is the midpoint of a class. It is determined by going halfway between stated
class limits or the class boundaries. To obtain the class mark, the lower and upper stated class
limits or class boundaries are added and divided by two. Class marks are used to construct a
frequency polygon (a graphical presentation of frequency table). Again, given the previous
example,
10+19
2
= 14.5, is the class mark of the first class.
Stated Lower Upper Class Mark
Class
Lower Limit Upper Limit Boundary Boundary (Xm)
10 – 19 10 19 9.5 19.5 14.5
20 – 29 20 29 19.5 29.5 24.5
30 – 39 30 39 29.5 39.5 34.5
40 – 49 40 49 39.5 49.5 44.5
50 – 59 50 59 49.5 59.5 54.5
60 – 69 60 69 59.5 69.5 64.5
70 – 79 70 79 69.5 79.5 74.5
80 – 89 80 89 79.5 89.5 84.5
Table 30: Sample table presenting class limits, class boundaries and class marks

Note: The scientific notation for class mark is Xm.

Graphical Representation of Frequency Distribution

Graphical forms of presenting information are often more helpful in making a stronger visual
impact. There are some features in tabular form, which can’t be discerned simply by looking at
raw data. (Ymas, 2013)

Histogram
A graphic representation of a frequency distribution where adjoined vertical rectangles are drawn
on the horizontal axis with the centers of the bases located at the class marks. The class
boundaries are plotted against the frequencies. It simply means vertical axis: frequencies, as for
horizontal axis: class boundaries. That’s makes histogram as one of the most easily interpreted
charts.

Given the previous example above,

Class Frequency Class Mark (Xm)
10 – 19 1 14.5
20 – 29 1 24.5
30 – 39 3 34.5
40 – 49 4 44.5
50 – 59 13 54.5
60 – 69 13 64.5
70 – 79 4 74.5
80 – 89 1 84.5
TOTAL 40
Table 31: Sample Frequency Distribution

96
 Frequency Histogram
14

12

10
FREQUENCY
8

0
4.5 14.5 24.5 34.5 44.5 54.5 64.5 74.5 84.5 94.5
CLASS MARK

Figure 9: Frequency Histogram

Frequency Polygon
A closed figure of n sides constructed by plotting the class marks against the frequencies.
Connecting the said points will make a close polygon with the x-axis, where the two ends of the
n-sides are connected thru two more class marks on the x-axis. (Ymas, 2013)

Frequency Polygon
14

12

10
FREQUENCY

0
4.5 14.5 24.5 34.5 44.5 54.5 64.5 74.5 84.5 94.5
CLASS MARK

Figure 10: Frequency Polygon

Note: Cumulative Frequency is the total frequency of all values less than the upper class
boundary of a group class interval up to and including the class interval itself. For example,
less than cumulative frequency (<cf) up to and including the class interval 40-49 as indicated
in the table below is 1 + 1 + 3 + 4 = 9. This asserts that 9 persons have ages less than 49.5

97
Ogive
An ogive or cumulative frequency polygon is a graph representing the class boundaries along
the horizontal axis and the corresponding cumulative frequencies along the vertical axis. (Ymas,
2013)
There are two types of ogive: (a) less than cumulative frequency or ogive – graph showing the
cumulative frequency less than any upper class boundary plotted against the upper class
boundary; (b) greater than cumulative frequency or ogive – graph showing the cumulative
frequency greater than any lower class boundary plotted against the lower class boundary.
Still given the previous example, where N = 40:
Class
Class
Range Upper Lower Frequency <cf >cf >cf *
Mark (Xm)
Boundary Boundary
Less than Greater
0–9 4.5 0 0 40 39 + 1 = 40
9.5 than 9.5
Less than Greater
*10 – 19 14.5 1 1 40 - 1 = 39 38 + 1 = 39
19.5 than 19.5
Less than Greater
20 – 29 24.5 3 2 39 – 1 = 38 35 + 3 = 38
29.5 than 29.5
Less than Greater
30 – 39 34.5 4 5 38 – 3 = 35 31 + 4 = 35
39.5 than 39.5
Less than Greater 18 + 13 =
40 – 49 44.5 13 9 35 – 4 = 31
49.5 than 49.5 31
Less than Greater 31 – 13 =
50 – 59 54.5 13 22 5 + 13 = 18
59.5 than 59.5 18
Less than Greater
60 – 69 64.5 4 35 18 – 13 = 5 1+4=5
69.5 than 69.5
Less than Greater
70 – 79 74.5 1 39 5–4=1 0+1=1
79.5 than 79.5
Less than Greater
80 – 89 84.5 40 40 1-1 =0 0 Add up
89.5 than 89.5
Table 32: Cumulative Frequency Distribution
* Another cf> interpretation
Here is the sample ogive chart to present the <cf and >cf polygon.

Less than Cumulative Frequency Polygon Greater than Cummulative Frequency Polygon

40 40
CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY
CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY

35 35
30 30
25 25
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
9.5 19.5 29.5 39.5 49.5 59.5 69.5 79.5 89.5 9.5 19.529.539.549.559.569.579.589.5
UPPER CLASS BOUNDARIES
LOWER CLASS BOUNDARIES

Figure 11: <CF Polygon Figure 12: >CF Polygon

98
Pie Chart

Another way of drastically and effectively presents a distribution are pie charts and bar graphs. In pie chart,
a circle is divided into sectors or pie-shaped pieces, which are proportional in size to the corresponding
frequencies. Qualitative distributions are often presented here. To construct a pie chart, the distribution is
converted into relative frequency, each frequency to be multiplied by 360°. The relative frequency multiplied
by 360° gives part of the circle called the sector occupied by each class.

Let’s take a look in the table below (still from the previous example):

Relative Sector occupied

Class Frequency
Frequencies in the Pied Graph
10 – 19 1 0.025 0.025(360°) = 9°
20 – 29 1 0.025 0.025(360°) = 9°
30 – 39 3 0.075 0.075(360°) = 27°
40 – 49 4 0.100 0.100(360°) = 36°
50 – 59 13 0.325 0.325(360°) = 117°
60 – 69 13 0.325 0.325(360°) = 117°
70 – 79 4 0.100 0.100(360°) = 36°
80 – 89 1 0.025 0.025(360°) = 9°
TOTAL 40 1.000 360°
Table 33: Areas of Sectors Occupied by Each Class

AREAS OF SECTOR OCCUPIED BY EACH CLASS

9 9 9
36 27

Ages 10 - 19
36 Ages 20 - 29
Ages 30 - 39
Ages 40 - 49
Ages 50 - 59
117 Ages 60 - 69
Ages 70 - 79
Ages 80 - 89

117

Figure 13: Areas of Sector Occupied by Each Class Pie Graph

99
On the other hand, bar graph is also one of the many techniques that you can used to present
data. It will be helpful so that you may easily recognize patterns or trends using this graph. Bar
graph can be describe as presenting categorical and numerical variables grouped in class
intervals. Just like line graph, it also consists of axis (y-axis and x-asis). The bars represent
frequencies of different values themselves.
When developing bar graphs, draw a vertical or horizontal bar for each category. The height or
length of the bar will represent the number of units or observations in that category (frequency)
or simply the value of variable. Select an arbitrary but consistent width for each bar as well.
(Statistics Canada, 2017).
Three Types of Bar Graph
 Horizontal Bar Graph. It uses the y-axis for labelling. The reason it is more room to fit
text labels for categorical values on the y-axis. Here in this graph, the bars are in horizontal
view. It is said that is more effective to use this type of bar graph rather than a line graph
especially if there is a fewer time periods or segments of data (line graph is at best if you
want to compare more than 9 or 10 items).
Frequency Distribution of Ages of Customer
Passengers of Nationwide Travel Agency
14
12
10
Frequency

8
6
4
2
0
10 – 19 20 – 29 30 – 39 40 – 49 50 – 59 60 – 69 70 – 79 80 – 89
Age Interval

Figure 14: Frequency Distribution of Ages of Customer Passengers of Nationwide

Travel Agency Bar Graph

 Vertical Bar Graph. It is particularly useful for time series data or statistics, but it also be
used in description of components and frequency distribution – this is to highlight the
change in magnitude. The space labels on the x-axis is small (means a lack of space when
you put your category label), but it is ideal for years, minutes, hours or months.
 Stacked Bar Graph. A preliminary data analysis tool used to show segments of totals.
This type of graph conveys a lot of information and it will be difficult to analyze if too many
items are in each stack that is why it is rarely used.
Guidelines in Making a Bar Graph (as cited in Statistics Canada, 2017)
1. Make bars and columns wider than the space between them.
2. Do not allow grid lines to pass through columns or bars.
3. Use a single font type on a graph. Try to maintain a consistent font style from graph to graph
in a single presentation or document. Simple sans-serif fonts are preferable.
4. Order your shade pattern from darkest to lightest on the stacked bar graphs.
5. Avoid garish colors or patterns.

100
Lookback: Review
The main ideas found in this unit are the following:
1. Quantitative methods deal with numbers and anything that is measurable in a systematic
way of investigation of phenomena.
2. Three types of descriptive designs are observation, correlation and survey research.
There are two types of survey: cross sectional survey and longitudinal survey.
3. There three measures in central tendency. These are (a) mean – usually not applicable to
qualitative data; (b) Median – the middle point of data and (c) Mode – frequent score.
4. Likert Scale is the common rating scale widely used in questionnaires.
5. Questionnaires are used widely due to their cost effectiveness and easier management
nature.
6. The t-test is used for significant differences between means for independent and
dependent groups.
7. ANOVA is used when comparing the means of more than two groups.
8. Correlation coefficient is used to test the strength of relationship between two variables.
9. Regression analysis involves developing a functional relationship between variables.
10. To make the data comprehensible and meaningful, the researcher or statistician
summarized the data gathered and presented in different forms: (a) textual form
(paragraph text); (b)tabular form (frequency distribution) and (c) graphical form (histogram,
ogive, pie chart, bar graph)
11. There are two ways of organizing raw data: (a) array and (b) steam-leaf diagram.

101
UNIT Exercise
PROBLEM SOLVING. Read each problem and item carefully and answer the questions that follows.

1. Although there are many potent medications for arthritis on the market today, patients taking
these drugs often experience some sort of reaction, ranging from mild to severe. Medical
researchers administered a new experimental drug to 45 subjects. They recorded the
following number of minutes elapsed before the drug showed any effect.
a. Make a frequency distribution table.
b. Calculate the mean, median and mode of this grouped data.
c. Find the median class. Encircle it.
d. Calculate the range, variance and standard deviation.
e. Show your solution.

2. According to the Department of Food and Nutrition, the recommended daily allowance (RDA)
of calcium for adults is 800mg. A nutritionist thinks that people with income below poverty
level average less than RDA of 800 mg. Intakes of calcium were determined for a sample of
40 people with income below poverty level. The result is obtained in the following frequency
distribution.
a. Make a frequency distribution table.
b. Calculate the mean, median and mode of this grouped data.
c. Find the median class. Encircle it.
d. Calculate the range, variance and standard deviation.
e. Show your solution.

3. The table below lists the annual volume of exports and imports (in billions of pesos) for six
consecutive years. Is there a correlation between exports and imports based on the given
data? Calculate the correlation coefficient. Show your solution.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Exports 8.3 14.5 17.5 20.0 22.1 24.0
Imports 10.0 12.2 15.0 24.8 30.1 32.0

4. A local college wanted to know if there was any relationship between grades as a high school
señior and grades as a college freshman. Grades are recorded as the average during the last
year of high school and the average during the freshman year of college. Plot the data.
Calculate the r. Is r significant at alpha = 0.057? Show your solution.

H.S. 74 90 93 92 98 78 88 94 76 87 86 70 91 80
C. 78 95 94 94 98 84 88 97 80 88 89 83 81 87

102
5. A random sample of 50 men and 50 women was surveyed as to drinking habits and classified
as alcoholics. Heavy drinkers and light drinkers. The results were as follows:
Alcohol Consumption
Sex Alcoholic Heavy Drinker Light Drinker
Male 11 18 21
Female 7 15 28
Analyze the data using chi-square. Show your solution.

6. In a survey it was found that 63 out of 107 females and 52 out of 134 males preferred a certain
TV program over one another. Is there a sex difference in the preference for this program?
Use alpha = 0.005. Analyze the data using chi-square. Show your solution.

7. Determine if there is significant difference the test scores obtained by the group of 4 students
from 5 different sections.
SECTIONS
1 2 3 4 5
89 80 97 88 89
75 87 78 92 90
95 91 89 82 94
85 95 79 77 75
Analyze the data using ANOVA. Show your solution.

8. Determine if there is significant difference among the costs of daily allowance received by the
group of 5 students from 4 different year levels.

YEAR LEVEL
Freshman Sophomore Juñior Señior
90 20 75 55
40 85 25 60
70 95 50 30
100 45 60 80
35 65 50 75
Analyze the data using ANOVA. Show your solution.

9. Measures the degree of relationship of the set of variables below using the appropriate
formulas for correlation and interpret the results. Show your solution.
Student No. Pre-test Score Post-test Score
01 84 85
02 78 86
03 88 89
04 79 83
05 84 87
06 91 88
07 83 89
08 77 81
09 86 85
10 85 82

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 UNIT VI: Drawing Conclusions and Reporting

Introduction
The researcher must collect facts and information that are capable of having an evidence-based
conclusion. Factual data which is systematically and logically collected to form a meaningful
information that yields to credible conclusion which are gearing to answers the researcher’s study.

In this unit, learners will be able to write a conclusion based on the quantitative data they have
gathered which will serve as discussion points as they relate these findings with other pertinent
literature.

Also in this unit, the learners will learn how to properly cite sources and creating references list to
make a crude, valid and reliable research paper that is supported by different resources and
recognizing the different guidelines in presenting the written research report or study.

Content Standard:
The learner demonstrates understanding of:
 Guidelines in making conclusions and recommendations;
 The techniques in listing references;
 The process of report writing.

Performance Standard
The learner is able to:
 Form logical conclusions;
 Make recommendations based on conclusions;
 Write and present clear report.

Most Essential Learning Competencies:

 Draws conclusions from research findings;
 Formulate recommendations;
 Presents written research report.

104
Lesson 1: Drawing Conclusion and Making
Recommendations
Now, we are drawn to the last chapter (chapter 5) of writing a research study. It composes of summary of
findings, conclusion and recommendations. Whatever research methods were used; the final conclusion is
critical in determining success or failure of a study. Generating answers to the research problem where we
started to work on, for any research study or other disciplines – drawing conclusion is most important part
of the process.
Drawing Conclusion
The section in a research paper that causes intense and heated debate amongst scientists and
researchers alike are when drawing conclusions. It is critical in determining the direction taken by
the community, but the researcher will have to justify their findings.

As Shuttleworth (2014) asserts, “If an otherwise excellent experiment is summarized by a weak

conclusion, the results will not be taken seriously. Success or failure is not a measure of whether
a hypothesis is accepted or refuted, because both results still advance scientific knowledge.”
Failure means poor experimental design, or flaws in the reasoning processes, which nullify the
results. As long as the research process is vigorous and well designed, then the findings are
comprehensive, and the process of drawing conclusions begins. In general, a researcher will
summarize what they believe has been learned from the research (summary of findings section),
and will try to assess the strength of the hypothesis. In observational research, with no hypothesis,
the researcher will analyze the findings, and establish if any valuable new information has been
uncovered.

However, very few experiments give specific results, and most research uncovers more questions
than answers. The researcher can use these to suggest interesting directions for further study
(recommendations section). Let’s take for example, if the null hypothesis was accepted, a strong
conclusion will analyze why the results were not as predicted. These could form the basis of
further study, or experimental refinement and redesign.

The researcher will then evaluate any apparent problems with the experiment. This involves
critically evaluating any weaknesses and errors in the design, which may have influenced the
results. Even strict, 'true experimental,' designs have to make compromises, and the researcher
must be comprehensive in pointing these out, justifying the methodology and reasoning.

When drawing conclusions, the researcher may think that another causal effect influenced the
results, and that this variable was not eliminated during the experimental process. A refined
version of the experiment may help to achieve better results, if the new effect is included in the
design process.

In the global warming research study for example, the researcher might establish that carbon
dioxide emission alone cannot be responsible for global warming. They may decide that another
effect is contributing, so propose that methane may also be a factor in global warming. A new
study would incorporate methane into the model.

105
The key to drawing a valid conclusion is to ensure that the deductive and inductive processes are
correctly used, and that all steps of the scientific method were followed. Your research study
must have a robust design, questioning and analysis that are devoted to the experiment
conclusion, rather than the methods.

Making Recommendations
In this section, the researcher finally has the opportunity to present and discuss the actions that
future researchers should take as a result of the study. This final stage is the researcher's
recommendations based upon the results, depending upon the field of study. This area of the
research process can be based around the researcher's personal opinion, and will integrate
previous studies. A well-considered set of recommendations makes it more likely that the future
researcher will take your recommendations seriously. Ideally the researcher should be able to
make a formal recommendation regarding the alternative that is best supported by the study.

For example, a researcher into schizophrenia may recommend a more effective treatment. A
physicist might postulate that our picture of the structure of the atom should be changed. A
researcher could make suggestions for refinement of the experimental design, or highlight
interesting areas for further study. This final piece of the paper is the most critical, and pulls
together all of the findings.

When preparing this section, remember that in making your recommendations, you must show
how your results support them. As Biay & Cortez (2017, p.107) asserts, recommendation for a
preferred alternative should include:
1. Specifically stating what should be done, the steps required to implement the policy, and
the resources needed;
2. Discussion of the benefits to the organization and what problems would be corrected or
avoided;
3. Discussion of the feasibility of the proposed policy;
4. General statement about the nature and timing of an evaluation plan that would be used
to determine the effectiveness of the proposed policy.

106
Lesson 2: Reference List
Reference list is what you see at the last section of books or journals. A bibliography which should
appear at the end of the paper or books. On the one hand, a references or works cited is where
researchers acknowledge other researchers and bodies of literature that are actually cited and
helped them write their research paper. work. References and Works Cited are used differently
depending on the style used. References is used in APA Style while Works Cited is used in MLA
Style. This list provides the essential information for a reader to locate any source cited in the
research

Baraceros (2016) stated, “Referencing your research means directing your readers to the exact
sources of data or information stated in your report, particularly those stated in the review of
related literature.”

What should be cited? The writer should cite the source or sources of the following:
1. An idea borrowed from another author;
2. A word or a phrase copied from a source;
3. A paragraph copied from a written work of another author.

Translating a person’s work into another language does not also exempt one from citing the
source. In this case, the idea is still originally that of the author so he or she should be given credit
for this.

These are different method and styles in citing sources, one could use footnoting or in-text
citations paired with a list of references at the end of the paper. Citations style guides have been
used in order to provide writers with a set of guidelines or rules to follow when citing their sources.
The two most common style guides used in research papers are APA and MLA.

Two Main Style Guide for Referencing

A. APA
APA stands for American Psychological Association style guideline which is widely used by
writers around the world. Simply refers to the rules and conventions established by American
Psychological Association for documenting sources used in a research paper. It is frequently used
in the field of social sciences. A reference style that uses the Author-Date format.

B. MLA
MLA stands for Modern Language Association of America. The MLA publication manual was
first published in 185 which focuses on the study and teaching of language and literature. This
publication manual requires the use of parenthetical documentation or the parenthetical
reference which includes the name of the author and the page number. It requires that a Works
Cited Page should be found at the end of the research scholarly paper. All the sources cited in
in-text citation should match with all the entries in the Works Cited page. This referencing style
is often used in literature, history, and arts.

107
Both APA and MLA reference style uses In using footnotes or notes, you number the notes
a hanging indent format, and all entries consecutively from number 1 throughout each chapter
are arranged alphabetically. or article. Place the note number at the end of the
sentence, of a clause, and right after a quotation. Do
As you can recall, APA stands for not put the number at the end or within a chapter title
American Psychological Society and MLA or at a subheading because this suggests negligence
stands for Modern Language Association. in organization.
These two methods of citation are the
Notes to charts, tables, and other graphs make use of
ones more frequently used by symbols, letters, and, sometimes, numbers. These
educational institutions in the country. notes on graphs, which are numbered independently in
Below is a table showing the similarities the text, must be placed below the table or illustration,
and differences in formatting the APA not at the foot of the page or at the end of the book or
reference list and MLA works cited. article. Notes consisting of explanations or elaborations
of the discussions in the text are called substantive or
discursive notes.

Example of footnotes:
Research-report writing is an academic writing and central to this kind of writing is the expression
of ideas, viewpoints, or positions on issues obtained through learned or trained methods of
producing sound evidence to support your claims or conclusions about something.1 To support
your claims, reference is important. Creating a list is what you called – bibliography. A
bibliography is a list of the sources you used to get information for your report. It is included
at the end of your report, on the last page (or last few pages). 2
1 Baraceros, E. L. (2016). Practical Research 2. Quezon City: Rex Bookstore, Inc.
2 Biay, E. C. & Cortez, S. I. (2017). Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research. Unpublished Material.

General guidelines in listing reference:

1. Order: Entries should be arranged in alphabetical order by author’s last names.
2. Authors: Write out the last name and initials for all authors of particular work. Use an
ampersand (&) when listing multiple authors of a single work.
3. Titles: capitalize only the first word of a title or subtitle, and nay proper names that are part
of a title.
4. Pagination: Use the abbreviation p. or pp. to designate page numbers of articles from
periodicals that do not use volume numbers, especially newspaper.
5. Indentation: The first line of entry is flush with the left margin, and all subsequent lines are
indented (5 to 7 spaces) to form a hanging indent.
6. Underling vs Italics: It is appropriate to use italics instead of underlining for titles of books
and journals.
7. Internet Access: A stable internet access should be included and should be direct the
reader as close as possible to the actual work. If the work has a digital object identifier
(DOI) or similar handle, use a stable URL. If the URL is not stable, use the home page of
the site you retrieved the work from.
8. Date: If the work is a finalized version published and dated, as in case of a journal article,
the date within the main body of the citation is enough. However, if the work is not dated
and/or is subject to change, as in the case of an online encyclopedia article include the
date you retrieved the information.

108
Example or Resource Page/Reference List:

APA Style

References

Anderson, J. (2003, October) Superego. Journal of Psychology, 41. Retrieved November 10,
2003, from EBS cohost.
Binns, T. B. (2001). The bald eagle. Chicago, Il: Rourke Publishers.
Donaldson, S. (1995). Protecting the troops from hemingway: an episode in censorship. The
Hemingway Review, 15, 87–93.
Gibaldi, J. (2003) MLA handbook for writers of research papers. 6th ed. New York: MLA.
Gordin, M. D. (2012). The pseudoscience wars: Immanuel Velikovsky and the birth of the modern
fringe. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Green, J. (2007, September). The Rove presidency. The Atlantic.com. Retrieved
fromhttp://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2007/ 09/the-rove-presidency/6132/.
Klaphake, E. (1999). My life as an English professor. Bellevue, Nebraska: Bellevue University
Press.
Marcuse, S. (1975). A survey of musical instruments. New York: Harper and Row.
Shafron, G. R., & Karno, M. P. (2013). Heavy metal music and emotional dysphoria among
listeners. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 2, 74–85. doi:10.1037/a0031722

MLA Style
Works Cited

Anderson, John. "Superego." Journal of Psychology October 2003: 41. Academic Search
Elite.EBSCO host. MSB Brooklyn Center Campus Library, Brooklyn Center, MN. 10
November 2003.
Binns, Tristan Boyer. The Bald Eagle. Chicago: Rourke, 2001. Print.
Donaldson, Scott. "Protecting the Troops from Hemingway: An Episode in Censorship." The
Hemingway Review 15 (1995): 87– 93.
Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 6th ed. New York: MLA, 2003.
Gordin, Michael D. The Pseudoscience Wars: Immanuel Velikovsky and the Birth of the Modern
Fringe. Chicago: U Chicago P, 2012. Print. Green, Joshua. 𝑥The Rove Presidency. The
Atlantic.com. Atlantic Monthly Group, Sept. 2007.Web.15 May 2008.
Klaphake, Elizabeth. My Life as an English Professor. Bellevue, Nebraska: Bellevue University
Press. 1999.
Marcuse, Sibyl.A Survey of Musical Instruments. New York: Harper, 1975.
Shafron, Gavin Ryan, and Mitchell P. Karno. 𝑥Heavy Metal Music and Emotional Dysphoria
Among Listeners.𝑥 Psychology of Popular Media Culture 2.2 (2013): 74–85. PsycNET.
Web. 11 Feb. 2014

Quick Tip: To know the format on how to cite references from different sources such as
books, films, journals, etc. using APA style (7th Edition) and MLA style (8th edition), you may
visit the website Purdue OWL (https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/) or visit
the this Gdrive link (https://drive.google.com/folderview?id=1DEhv0wFK1PWmXxazbE0
2Yd7A YLrtkfEF) for your reference.

109
Lesson 3: Research-Report Writing
When you write the final output, the researcher should know not only the parts in research
process but also the forms and style in writing the research proposal and the research paper.

Guidelines in Research-Report Writing

1. Organize the parts of your research report based on the standard research report structure that
consists of the following sequential components:
Preliminary Pages
a. Title. This part of your research paper gives information and descriptions of the things
focused on by your research study. It should not be too long or too short as well as too
vague and general.
b. Acknowledgement. A section wherein the researcher expresses his deep gratitude for
those persons who assisted and helped him to make the study a successful one.
c. Abstract. Using only 100 to 150 words, the abstract of a research paper, presents a
summary of the research that makes clear the background, objectives, significance,
methodologies, results, and conclusions of the research study. Abstract has key terms
section wherein helps the reader to grasp quickly what is the research all about.
d. Table of Contents. From the word itself, it contains all parts of the research paper
including the pages.
e. List of Figures. Composed of paradigms, diagrams, graphs and charts or flowcharts.
f. List of Tables. This follows the table of content and indicates the title of the tables in
research paper.
Main Body
a. Introduction. Given a stress in this section of the paper are the research problem and its
background, objectives, research questions, and hypotheses.
b. Methodology. This part of the research paper explains the procedure in collecting and
analyzing data and also describes the sources of data.
c. Results or Findings. There’s no more mentioning of analysis of data or not yet analyzed
data in this section. What it does is to present the research findings that are expressed
through graphics, statistics, or words. *
d. Conclusions. This section explains things that will lead you to significant points, insights,
or understanding, or conclusions that derive their validity, credibility or acceptability from
the factual evidence gathered during the data-collection stage. Stated here, too, is the
significance of the results; that is, whether or not these are the right answers to the
research questions or the means of hypotheses acceptance or rejection. Your assessment
of the data in relation to the findings of previous research studies is also given a space in
this section of the research paper. *
e. Recommendations. Due to teachers’ instructions or discipline-specific rules, this
section tends to be optional in some cases. Done by some researchers, this section
gives something that will expand or extend one’s understanding of the conclusions
raised earlier, such as suggesting a solution to the problem or recommending a further
research on the subject.
f. References. It is in this part where you display the identities or names of all writers or
owners of ideas that you incorporated in your research paper.
g. Appendices. Included in this section are copies of materials like questionnaires, graphs,
and letters, among others that you used in all stages of your academic work, and are,
then, part and parcel of your research study.
323

110
2. Familiarize yourself with the language of academic writing.
a. Avoid adverbs
b. Avoid exclamation points
c. Don’t write sentence fragments
d. A paragraph needs at least three sentences
e. Use passive voice rather than active voice
f. Avoid using emotive words such as dissatisfied, uninteresting and the likes
g. Use modality to express opinionated statements that are most likey have various degree
or level of certainty

3. Observe the mechanics of research-report writing which are as follows:

a. Physical Appearance. Use white bond paper having the size of 8 ½ x 11 in. and provide
1 ½ in. left-margin, 1 in. top, bottom and right margin. Unless your teacher instructs you
to use a particular font style and size, use the standard Arial, Helvetica or Times New
Roman, 12 pts.
b. Quotations. A one-line, double-spaced quotation is in quotation marks; 4- to 5-line, single-
spaced quotations are indented further from the margin to appear as block quotation.
c. Footnotes. Footnotes appear at the bottom of the page and are numbered consecutively
stating with number one (1) in each chapter. Note: In other fields or academic university,
when using footnotes is not necessarily to appear at the bottom page, it may be found at
the last page of the paper.
d. Statistics and Graphs. Use tables, charts, bar graphs, line charts, pictograms, flowcharts,
schematic diagrams, etc. in connection with the objectives of the study as you present
your findings and data.
e. Final Draft. Subject the final form of the research report to editing, revising, rewriting, and
proofreading. You may assign yourself a grammarian that will help you to edit.

Basic Structure of Research Paper (IMRaD Format)

a. Introduction – The entire presentation should logically conclude with research questions,
arguments, or assumptions. At the end of the introduction, the reader should know exactly
what you are trying to accomplish with your research.
b. Methods – Describe how to conduct the experiment and why it is necessary to select a
specific experimental procedure.
c. Results and Discussion – The results section should show that the results are in logical
order with no bias or explanation. The purpose of the discussion is to explain and describe
the significance of the findings based on the known information on the research question
being studied and to explain any new understanding or insight on the issue after
considering the findings.

Quick Tip: Visit this Gdrive link (https://drive.google.com/folderview?id=1UKgh7lUjE5

gAjP4Z m1Ep_P86A059jY) for additional reference such as sample research studies
(IMRaD and educational and technical research) and other research related concepts.

For further readings, please visit the following links:

http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/title, http://classroom.synonym.com/choose-title-
research-paper-4332.html

111
Lookback: Review
The main ideas found in this unit are the following:
1. Drawing conclusions and formulate recommendations is the last process in doing a
research study. The key to drawing a valid conclusion is to ensure that the deductive and
inductive processes are correctly used, and that all steps of the scientific method were
followed. In making recommendations, a well-considered set makes it more likely that the
future researcher will take your recommendations seriously. Ideally the researcher should
be able to make a formal recommendation regarding the alternative that is best supported
by the study.
2. There are two common formats in reference listing: APA and MLA. There are distinct
differences between these formats. In APA, Reference is the title of the resource page
used while Works Cited is the one preferred in MLA. Students are expected to follow the
guidelines in citing print and non-print materials and apply them in writing the resource
page of their research work.
3. When writing your research-report study, you must use the established and generally
accepted guidelines in order for you to present the research study formally and
academically. As well as to be able the research-report to understand easily. It must be
clear, concise and precise.

112
 UNIT Exercise
MATCHING TYPE. Match column A to column B. Write your answer on the space provided.
Column A Column B
_____1. It gives information and description of the subject matter of
A. References
the research.
_____2. It concisely discusses the essential aspects of your paper. B. Appendix
_____3. This part explains the background of the research problem. C. Findings
_____4. This section explains the types and sources of data as well D. Method
as the method. E. Recommendation
_____5. Present as findings of your study those that you have F. Abstract
analyzed and commented on. G. Introduction
_____6. Findings resulting from thematically or theoretically gathered H. Discussion
and analyzed data.
_____7. Type of inferential or interpretative thinking that derives its I. Conclusion
validity and truthfulness. J. Title
_____8. To broaden the readers’ knowledge and understanding of the
area covered by the research.
_____9. Alphabetize, identify, and list down in this section all sources
of knowledge you used.
_____10. Contains copies of questionnaires, interview rates, and
other materials that are necessary in research.

REFLECT. Given the sample research below, describe how the researcher conclude the research
study. Write a simple reflection on what you observe on how the researcher draw their conclusion
about the study.
Research Topic: Determining the Stress Level and Management of Pre-service Teachers in PNU
Statement of the Problem: This study primarily aimed to find the differences between the stress levels of
the third year pre-service teachers of Philippine Normal University, Manila.
Specifically, this study aimed to answer the main problem through the use of the following inquiries:
1. What are the stress level of the pre-service teachers under different Faculties?
2. What is the most common stress management used by the third year pre-service teachers in PNU?
3. Is there a significant difference between the stress levels experienced by the pre-service teachers
under the different Faculties?
Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between the stress levels experienced by the pre-service
teachers under the different Faculties.
Summary of Findings: The summary of the findings were as follows:
1. The researchers used the mean of the respondents’ answer as a basis for their stress level. It
showed that all Faculties obtained moderate stress level. Pre-service teachers under the Faculty
of Arts and Languages got the highest stress level among the different Faculty, which obtained
2.61 stress level and those who are under the Faculty of Educational Science got the lowest stress
level, which obtained 2.28.
2. The researchers used the mean of the respondents’ answers in stress management as a basis for
determining the most common stress management used by the third year pre-service teachers in
PNU. It is indicated that listening to music is the most common stress management used by the
third year pre-service teachers in PNU, which obtained a mean of 3.54 followed by sleeping and
watching television, movies, series, etc. which got a mean of 3.32.
3. Kruskal-Wallis H test was used to determine if there is significant difference between the stress
levels experienced by the pre-service teachers under the different Faculties. Using the alpha of
0.05, results showed that there was a statistically significant difference between the stress levels

113
 experienced by the pre-service teachers under the different Faculty, χ2(5) = 30.797, p < 0.001, with
a mean rank stress level of 252.30 for the Faculty of Arts and Languages, 248.39 for the Faculty of
Behavioral and Social Sciences, 141.71 for Faculty of Educational Sciences, 224.29 for Faculty of
Science, Technology and Mathematics, 238.80 for Institute of Knowledge Management and 170.10
for Institute of Physical Education, Health, Recreation, Dance and Sports.
Conclusion: The findings and result of this study indicates that third year pre-service teachers acquired
moderate level of stress and listening to music is the most common stress management to the
respondents. It also showed that the difference between the stress levels of the third yapper-service
teachers in PNU is highly significant, therefore the null hypothesis was rejected.

Source: Balbin, M.A.R. & Bravo, N. L. (2017). Determining the Stress Level and Management of Pre-
service Teachers in PNU. BS. Philippine Normal University-Manila:Philippines

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 APPLICATION. To practice what you have learned, read the passage below and perform the
task indicated.
The growing Impact that social media sites have on today’s generation’s lives is
increasingly difficult to ignore. It has resulted to indirect and direct effects in the society from which
we live in. Without having to look much farther, it’s likely that one will find an increasing influence
of the social media sites in academics, social relationship and business among others. Its
pervasiveness is seen in how it shapes the way society thinks and acts.

This was lifted directly from the information provided below:

Name of Research Journal The Academician
Title of Article Prevalence of Syntax Errors in Social Media
Postings of Selected Students from San
Sebastian College-Recoletos Manila: An
Analysis
Volume Number XVII no.1
Date of Publication June 2014
Author Aisa P. Arlos
Page Number 15

1. Select a line from the passage, provide an introductory phrase, quote in directly and cite the
source using MLA and APA in-text citation.
APA
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MLA
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2. Write the resource page/reference list using the information provided above.
APA
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MLA
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115
Hello Learners,

This module is for the applied track subject course, Practical Research 2. This course develops
critical thinking and problem-solving skills through qualitative research. Now that you’ve learned all the
lessons in this module, you are now eligible to take the Post-Test of this module to identify what you have
learned about the subject course. Note: No peeking of answers to the past chapters. It violates academic
integrity and the results of your scores will not be reliable and valid.

Name: Date:
Section Rating:

POST-TEST

I. IDENTIFICATION.

A. Classify each item as nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio level of data.

_____________ 1. Number of exams given in a statistics course.
_____________ 2. Ratings of word-processing programs as user-friendly.
_____________ 3. Temperatures of a sample of automobile tires tested at 55 miles per hour for six
minutes
_____________ 4. Weights of suitcase on a selected commercial airline flight.
_____________ 5. Classification of students according to major field.

B. Classify each variable as discrete or continuous.

_____________ 6. The time and speed it takes to drive to work.
_____________ 7. The amount of drug injected into a rat.
_____________ 8. The amount of sodium contained in a bag of potato chips.
_____________ 9. The number of cars stolen each week in a Metro Manila.
_____________ 10. Number of cable television companies.

C. Classify each variable as qualitative or quantitative.

_____________ 11. Colors of jackets in a men’s clothing store.
_____________ 12. Number of seats in classrooms.
_____________ 13. Classification of children in a day care center (infant, toddler, preschool)
_____________ 14. Length of fish caught in a certain stream.
_____________ 15. Number of students who fail their first statistic test.

D. Classify whether each statement is descriptive or inferential statistics were used.

_____________ 16. A recent study showed that eating garlic can lower blood pressure.
_____________ 17. The average number of students in a class at the University of the Philippines is 22.6.
_____________ 18. It is predicted that the average number of automobiles each households owns will
increase next year.
_____________ 19. Last year’s total attendance at Ateneo de Manila’s basketball games was 8,345.
_____________ 20. The chance that a person will be robbed in a certain city is 15%.

116
II. MULTIPLE CHOICE. Encircle the letter of the correct answer.
21. Characteristics of research that is based on direct experience or observation by the researcher.
a. Analytical c. Empirical
b. Controlled d. Systematical

22. It is a characteristics of research that utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering the data, whether
historical, descriptive and experimental.
a. Analytical c. Empirical
b. Controlled d. Systematical

23. _____________ is defined as the scientific process of gathering, analyzing, organizing, presenting and
interpreting of data that lines an individual’s speculation with reality.
a. Inquiry c. Study
b. Investigation d. Research

24. _____________ generally is considered to deal with beliefs about what is right or wrong, proper or
improper, good or bad. It is to conform to accepted professional practice.
a. Ethics c. Principles
b. Moral d. Value

25. Mike together with his group mates is a senior high school student where he conducts his research
study carefully, wisely, practically at the right time and place efficiently, effectively and economically. What
is the characteristic of researcher does they employ?
a. Intellectual Creativity c. Intellectual Honesty
b. Intellectual Curiosity d. Prudence

26. A group of grade 11 students is conducting their research in gathering data honestly in order to arrive
at honest and valid results. What is the characteristic of researcher does they show?
a. Intellectual Creativity c. Intellectual Honesty
b. Intellectual Curiosity d. Prudence

27. The word research is derived from the old French word ______________, which means to “seek or to
search.”
a. Ceircheir c. Cercheir
b. Ceirchier d. Cerchier

28. The students of a grade 11 class is able to communicate with their peers and their teacher and able to
present new understandings. What process of inquiry model they are demonstrating?
c. Creating c. Evaluating
d. Planning d. Sharing

29. An analogy, Research: Search as for Inquiry: ________________.

a. Analysis c. Investigation
c. Examination d. Study

30. What is another name for the ogive?

e. Histogram g. Cumulative frequency polygon
f. Frequency polygon h. Pareto Chart

31. What graph should be used to show the relationship between the parts and the whole?
e. Histogram g. Pictograph
f. Pie Chart h. Ogive

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32. When arranging data into classes, it is suggested that you have
c. Fewer than 5 classes c. More than 20 classes
d. Between 5 and 20 classes d. Between 10 and 40 classes

33. The class midpoint is the ____________________.

e. Number of observations in a class g. Upper limit of the class
f. Center of the class h. Width of the class

For numbers 34 – 36. The following frequency distribution record the numbers of empty seats on the flights
from Manila to Cebu:
Number of empty Seats Frequency
0 up to 5 3
5 up to 10 8
10 up to 15 15
15 up to 20 18
20 up to 25 12
25 up to 30 6

34. The midpoint of the 0 up to 5 class is _____________.

e. 2 g. 2.5
f. 4 h. 0

35. The lower limit of the 0 up to 5 class is ______________.

e. 0 g. 2.0
f. -0.5 h. 0

36. The size of the class is _________.

e. 5 g. 4.5
f. 4 h. 3

37. Among the following, the most reliable method of obtaining a simple random is with _______.
a. Random digits c. A telephone book
b. Physical mixing in a bowl d. A convenience sample

38. Every 100th hamburger manufactured is checked to determine its fat content. The sampling technique
used is ______________.
a. Cluster Sampling c. Systematic Sampling
b. Simple Random Sampling d. Stratified Sampling

39. Barangay officials of Metro Manila are divided into four groups according to gender (male or female)
and according to whether they prefer day or night duties. Then 30 are selected from each group and
interviewed to determine whether they have encountered robbers in the last year. What sampling
technique did the officials employs?
a. Cluster Sampling c. Systematic Sampling
b. Simple Random Sampling d. Stratified Sampling

40. The value that occurs most often in a set of data is called the ________.
a. Mode c. Median
b. Arithmetic Mean d. All of the above

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41. A sample of 10 students is obtained. The students are weighed and ranked according to their weight.
The media weight is the ______________.
a. Weight of the fifth student c. The median does not exist
b. Weight of the sixth student d. Average weight of the fifth and sixth

42. Which of the following is not a property of the mean?

a. At least the interval scale of measurement is required.
b. All the data values are used in the calculation.
c. A set of data has only one mean that is unique.
d. The sum of the deviations from the mean equals 0.

43. Which of the following does not characterize the median?

a. At least the ordinal scale of measurement is required.
b. It is not influenced by extreme values.
c. Fifty percent of the observations are greater than the median.
d. It is a unique value for a set of data.

44. Which of the following does not characterized the mode?

a. It is the value that occurs most often in a set of data.
b. It can be found in all levels of data.
c. A set of data can have 2 or 3 modes.
d. Fifty percent of the observations are always larger than the mean.

45. A quantitative research design that is equated with qualitative design is _______________.
a. True experimental c. Non-experimental
b. Descriptive d. Quasi-experimental

46. These two are the leading indicators of the occurrence of true experimental design:
a. Pre-test and Post-test c. Treatment and Condition
b. Randomization and Variable Control d. Experimental and Control Group

47. Group D conducts a research study that is applied to their field. They are now in data collection phase,
now the group used to ask questions to a respondent using paper questionnaires. What type of
descriptive research designs does this group employs?
a. Observation Research c. Comparative research
b. Correlational Research d. Survey research

48. What type of data in research that is collected by the researcher himself?
a. Primary c. Tertiary
b. Secondary d. Meta-analysis

49. Interview is a data-collection technique wherein the researcher ask question orally. Which of the
following is not part of the set order of interview question?
a. Opening Question c. Discussion Question
b. Generative Question d. Ending Question

50. Observation is a data-collection technique wherein it has two types: Direct observation and Non-direct
observation. What is the other name for direct observation?
a. Participatory c. Partake
b. Participate d. Preside

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51. It arise from the factual data you encountered and analyzed. What section of research-report writing
you can find this?
a. Summary of Findings c. Recommendations
b. Conclusion d. Discussions

52. This is where the researcher finally has the opportunity to present and discuss the actions that future
researchers should take as a result of the study. What section of research-report writing you can find
this?
a. Summary of Findings c. Recommendations
b. Conclusion d. Discussions

53. It is a science deals with the collection, organization, presentation, analysis and interpretation of data.
What is this?
a. Geometry c. Algebra
b. Calculus d. Statistics

54. A statistical formula that measures the strength and direction of the linear relationship of two variables
and of the association between interval and ordinal variables. What is this?
a. Pearson’s r correlation c. t-test
b. Chi-square d. f-test

55. What is the name of this statistical formula shown below:

(𝑂−𝐸 2 )
X2 = Σ 𝐸
a. Pearson’s r correlation c. t-test
b. Chi-square d. f-test

56. Which of the following is not a type of research questions?

a. Descriptive Questions c. Relations Questions
b. Deductive Questions d. Causal Questions

57. Which of the following is that needs to identifies as a specific element of a quantitative research problem?
a. Type of Research Design
b. The Variables and the Relationship among them
c. Subjects involved in the study
d. All of the Above

58. In formulating hypothesis, alternative hypothesis: researcher wishes to support as to null hypothesis:
___________________.
a. Positive statement like alternative hypothesis
b. Researcher wishes also to support
c. Contradiction to alternative hypothesis
d. Exist for the benefit of alternative hypothesis

59. IMRaD is a format that usually used when you write an academic research journal. IMRaD stands for
Introduction, Methods and ____________.
a. Results and Direction c. Results and Discussion
b. Results and Discourse d. Results and Details

60. IPO model in conceptual framework stands for Input, Process and _______________.
a. Output c. Outside
b. Outcome d. Objective

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61. A graphical presentation of your concepts on the basic structure or components of your research as
well as relationships of the elements with one another is called ___________.
a. Concept Map c. Research Paradigm
b. Conceptual Framework d. Concept Chart

III. REFERENCE. For numbers 62-65 (2pts for each format), create a bibliographic entry using the format
given below:

Title: Practical Research 1: Qualitative Research

Author: Paul Micah S. Francisco, Virlyn S. Francisco, Aisa P. Arlos
Date of Publication: 2016
Publishing Company: Mindshapers Co., Inc.
Publishing Place: Manila

APA
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

MLA
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

IV. Problem Solving. For numbers 66 – 100 (35 pts). Read the question carefully and answer the
questions that follows.

A. In randomly selecting computers and checking their parts for defective functioning, the following
numbers of the computer parts were formed to be defective:
15, 4, 1, 13, 8, 2, 9, 6, 3, 10, 12, 3 ,3 ,7, 5
a. Find the mean, median and mode of these ungrouped data.

B. The heights of 40 students in a senior class are shown below.

Heights of Señior Class
N = 40
Height (cm) Frequency
170 – 174 1
165 – 169 3
160 – 164 8
155 – 159 15
150 – 154 10
145 – 149 3
a. Make a frequency distribution table.
b. Calculate the mean, median and mode of this grouped data.
c. Find the median class. Encircle it.
d. Show your solution

121
 APPENDIX A
AREAS UNDER NORMAL CURVE (Z-VALUES)

122
 APPENDIX B
Student’s t-DISTRIBUTION

123
 APPENDIX C
CRITICAL VALUES OF F

124
 APPENDIX D
CHI-SQUARE DISTRIBUTION TABLE

125
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