Hyperfields and Tropical Geometry

Christian David Forero Pulido

Final Project
Introduction to Tropical Geometry

Professor:
Johannes Rau

Universidad de los Andes

Facultad de Ciencias, Departamento de Matemáticas
Bogotá, Colombia
2020
Contents

1 Hyperfields 2
1.1 Multivalued maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Multigroups and Hypergroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Multirings and Hyperrings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Hyperfields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2 Tropical Geometry 7
2.1 The tropical hyperfield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 The tropical complex hyperfield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1
Chapter 1

Hyperfields

1.1 Multivalued maps

The idea behind multivalued maps is to relax the univalent condition of functions.
Even though this may sound at first, as an unnatural idea, we have already seen
examples in which multivalued maps arises in a natural way. For example, in
complex analysis, it is well known that some important real functions such as
logarithm cannot be possibly defined as maps for complex numbers, and this is
because the univalent condition would not hold. One might think of multivalued
maps as a generalisation of maps. It will be of important interest for as, to
understand what happens with binary operations such as the sum of a group,
or the multiplication in a ring which are maps, when the univalent condition is
dropped, and we think of them as multivalued maps.

Definition 1.1.1. A multivalued map f : X ( Y may be defined in the usual

framework of maps, as a map X Ñ 2Y . The map X Ñ 2Y will be denoted as f Ò .

Definition 1.1.2. Now lets define some of the basic notions for maps, in the
context of multivalued maps. Let f : X ( Y be a multivalued map, then

• The value of f at the point a P X is the image of a in the map X Ñ 2Y in

the usual sense, an is denoted f paq.

• The image of f at the subset A Ď X is the set f pAq “ aPA f paq

Ť

• If g : Y ( Z is a multivalued map, then the compositionŤ of f and g is

defined as the multimap g ˝ f : X ( Z such that f pxq “ yPf pxq gpyq.

• The upper preimage of the subset B Ď Y is defined as f ` pBq “ tx P X :

f pxq Ď Bu.

• The upper preimage of the subset B Ď Y is defined as f ´ pBq “ tx P X :

f pxq X B ‰ Hu.

2
 The above definitions will be useful in order to describe sets and multivalued
maps. From the above definitions it is easily seen that f ` pBq Ď f ´ pBq. Also,
note that the multivalued map IdX : X ( X defined by Idx paq “ tau for every
a P X, behaves like the identity map, in the sense that f ˝ Id “ f and IdX ˝g “ g.
Remark 1.1.1. Sets and multivalued maps form a category, which we will denote
as MSets. So a possible approach to multivalued maps is to try to understand
this category.
Definition 1.1.3. A multivalued binary operation in a set X is a multivaleud
map X ˆ X ( X with non empty values.
Remark 1.1.2. The category MSet has all products (and coproducts) which as
sets are the same as in the category of sets.
Definition 1.1.4. A multivalued binary operation f on X, is call commutative if
the following diagram commutes
tauˆtbu
˚ X ˆX
tbuˆtau f

X ˆX f
X

Definition 1.1.5. A multivalued binary operation f on X, is call associative if

the following diagram commutes
IdX ˆf
X ˆX ˆX X ˆX
f ˆIdX f

X ˆX f
X

Definition 1.1.6. Let Y Ď X and f : X ˆ X ( X be a multivalued binary

operation. A multivalued binary operation g : Y ˆ Y ( Y is said to be induced
by f , if gpa, bq “ f pa, bq X Y for any a, b P Y .
The induced operation is completely determined by the original one. It exists if
and only if f pa, bq X Y ‰ ∅ for any a, b P Y (recall that according to the definition
of a multivalued operation the set gpa, bq is not allowed to be empty).

1.2 Multigroups and Hypergroups

Definition 1.2.1. A set X with a multivalued operation pa, bq ÞÑ a ¨ b is a multi-
group if there exist a map X Ñ X : a ÞÑ a´1 and an element 1 P X such that
(i) pa ¨ bq ¨ c Ď a ¨ pb ¨ cq for any a, b, c P X.

(ii) a ¨ 1 “ a for any a P X,

3
(iii) c P a ¨ b implies a P c ¨ b´1 and b P a´1 ¨ c for a, b, c P X
Remark 1.2.1. Note that a multigroup is not in general a group object in the
category MSet since the multivalued binary operation is not associative. A group
object need a strong condition a stronger condition.
Theorem 1.2.1. The inverse map X Ñ X : a Ñ a´1 is an involution.
Proof. Let a P X, since a P a ¨ 1 by (ii), by (iii) 1 P a´1 ¨ a. Then again by (iii)
a P pa´1 q´1 ¨ 1, but by (ii) pa´1 q´1 ¨ 1 “ pa´1 q´1 , so pa´1 q´1 “ a
Definition 1.2.2. Let X and Y be multigroups. A map f : X Ñ Y is called a
(multigroup) homomorphism if f p1q “ 1 and f pa ¨ bq Ă f paq ¨ f pbq for any a, b P X.
A multigroup homomorphism f : X Ñ Y is said to be strong if f pa¨bq “ f paq¨f pbq
for any a, b P X. If Y is a group, then any multigroup homomorphism f : X Ñ Y
is strong.

1.3 Multirings and Hyperrings

In this section we will refer to commutative multigroups (i.e. such that the binary
operation is commutative as in definition 1.1.4), an the neutral element will be
denoted as 0, and the element a´1 will be denoted as ´a, and the multivalued
operation with symbols different from `.
Definition 1.3.1. A set X equipped with a binary multivalued operation ! and
(univalued) multiplication ¨ is called a multiring if
• pX, !q is a commutative multigroup.
• pX, ¨q is a monoid with unity 1 (i.e., multiplication pa, bq ÞÑ a¨b is associative
and 1 ¨ a “ a “ a ¨ 1 for any a P Xq.
• 0 ¨ a “ 0 for any a P X
• the multiplication is distributive over ! in the sense that for every a P X
maps X Ñ X defined by formulas x Ñ a¨x and x ÞÑ x¨a are homomorphisms
of multigroup pX, !q to itself.
Remark 1.3.1. In more concrete terms, the associativity may be stated as a ¨
pb ! cq Ď a ¨ b ! a ¨ c and pb ! cq ¨ a Ď pb ¨ aq ! pc ¨ aq for any a, b, c P X
Definition 1.3.2. A multiring is said to be commutative is the multiplication is
commutative.
Remark 1.3.2. A Multiring is not a ring object in the category MSet for similar
reasons as in remark 1.2.1.
Definition 1.3.3. A multiringring X is said to be a Hyperring is it satifies a
stronger associativity, namly if a, b, c P X, then a ¨ pb ! cq “ a ¨ b ! a ¨ c and
pb ! cq ¨ a “ pb ¨ aq ! pc ¨ aq.
Remark 1.3.3. A Hyperring is a ring object in the category MSet as the mul-
tivalued operation is associative en the sense of definition 1.1.5.

4
1.4 Hyperfields
Definition 1.4.1. A multiring X is called a hyperfield if Xzt0u is a commutative
group under multiplication.
Theorem 1.4.1. Every hyperfield is a hyperring.
Proof. Let a, b, c P X such that a ‰ 0, then
pabq ! pacq “ aa´1 ppabq ! pacqq Ď apb ! cq
now, if a “ 0, then both sides of the equation above are 0 so the equality holds,
as desired.
Remark 1.4.1. A hyperfield is a inner field in the category MSet for same reason
as remark 1.3.3.
Example 1.4.1. Take the set t0, 1u, and define an operation O by formulas:
0 O 0 “ 0, 0 O 1 “ 1 “ 1 O 0, 1 O 1 “ t0, 1u. One can easily check that this is a
multigroup. The multiplicative group is trivial. This is clearly a hyperfield, and
is usually denoted K, the Krasner hyperfield.
Remark 1.4.2. In a usual ring R it can be easily derived by the distributive law
that for every a, b, c, d P R
pa ` bqpc ` dq “ apc ` dq ` bpc ` dq “ ac ` ad ` bc ` bd
nevertheless, is is not true for hyperrings and hyperfields, for a hyperfield X, and
a, b, c, d P X
pa ! bqpc ! dq “ apc ! dq ! bpc ! dq
but c ! d is not an element, but a set, so distributive law may not be true.However,
there is always an inclusion, namely
pa ! bqpc ! dq Ď ac ! ad ! bc ! bd
Definition 1.4.2. An integer n is the characteristic of a multiring if n is the
smallest positive number such that the sum 1 ! ¨ ¨ ¨ ! 1 of n ` 1 summands
contains 0 if 1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` 1 ‰ 1 for any number k ą 1 of summands, then the
characteristic is zero. The characteristic of X is denoted char X
Definition 1.4.3. The C-characteristic of a multiring X is the smalles positive
number such that the sum 1 ! ¨ ¨ ¨ ! 1 of n ` 1 summands contains 1. Similarlly
as before, if 1 R 1 ! ¨ ¨ ¨ ! 1, the the C-characteristic is 0. The C-characteristic
is denoted C-char X.
Definition 1.4.4. Let X and Y be multirings. A map f : X Ñ Y is called a
multiring homomorphism if it is a multigroup homomorphism for the additive
multigroups of X and Y and that f pabq “ f paqf pbq for any a, b P X. A multiring
homomorphism is said to be strong if it is strong as a multigroup homomorphism
for the additive multigroups.

5
Remark 1.4.3. For any multiring homomorphism f : X Ñ Y , qe define its kernel
as Ker F “ ta P X : f paq “ 0u.

One of the reasons that multirings seem to be an appropiate framework to

construct formally Tropical Geometry, is because a lots of concepts may be gen-
eralized from classical algebraic geometry, for instance, one can talk about ideals,
and also prime ideal as we shall see.

Definition 1.4.5. An ideal of a commutative multiring X is a non-empty subset

I Ď X such that a ! b Ď I for any a, b P I, and ab P I if a P X and b P I.

Definition 1.4.6. Let X be a multiring, and I an ideal of X, we say I is a prime

ideal if 1 ‰ I and if ab Ă I implies either a P I or b P I.

Remark 1.4.4. For any multiring homomorphism f : X Ñ K, the kernel is a

prime ideal. And any prime ideal may be represented as the kernel of a multirring
homomorphism, for this, take the multiring homomorphism

0, if x P I
"
fI : X Ñ K : x ÞÑ
1, if x R I

Remark 1.4.5. This treatment of multirings, gives a straightforward generaliza-

tion of the theory of prime ideal and its relation with geometric spaces, namely,
algebraic geometry. Furthermore, the the prime ideal spectrum SpecX of a mul-
tirring X can be identified with the set of multirring homomorphisms X Ñ K.

6
Chapter 2

Tropical Geometry

The theory of multivalued maps, and more specifically, multigroups, multirrings

and hyperfields are relevant to tropical geometry. Furthermore, it may be useful
to develop the grounds of the tropical geometry theory. It attempts to provide a
similar framework of classical geometry in order to use its techniques for tropical
geometry.

2.1 The tropical hyperfield

Definition 2.1.1. The usual map log : Rą0 Ñ R is naturally extended by map-
ping 0 to ´8. This is a bijection, and the hyperfield structure of Tˆ can be
transferred via log to R Y t´8u. Denote the resulting hyperfield by T, and call
it the tropical hyperfield.

The hyperfield is the heart T of this project, so lets describe it explicitly and
independently of constructions above. The underlying set of T is R Y t´8u, the
addition is
if a ‰ b
"
maxpa, bq,
pa, bq ÞÑ a O b “
tx P T : x ď au, if a “ b
the multiplication is the usual addition of real numbers extended in the obvious
way to ´8, the hyperfield’s additive neutral element is ´8, the hyperfield’s
multiplicative neutral element is 0 P R.

2.2 The tropical complex hyperfield

Definition 2.2.1. The tropical complex hyperfield T C is the complex numbers
C as a set. Let z, w P C, then the tropical sum ! is defined as follows

• If |z| ą |w|, then z ! w “ z.

• If |z| ă |w|, then z ! w “ w.

7
 • If |z| “ |w| and z ` w ‰ 0, then z ! w is the set of all complex numbers
which belong to the shortest arc connecting z with w on the circle of complex
numbers with the same absolute value. In formulas: if z “ reαi , w “ reβi
with |β ´ α| ă π, then z ! w “ treϕi : |α ´ ϕ| ` |ϕ ´ β| “ |α ´ β|u

• If z ` w “ 0, then z ! w is the whole closed disk tc P C : |c| ď |z|u.

And the multiplication is defined as the usual sum in C.

Theorem 2.2.1. The complex tropical hyperfiled T C is actually a hyperfield.

Proof. The addition ! is obviusly commutative, and since }a} “ 0 implies a “ 0,

then the additive neutral element is 0. Similarly, the additive inverse of an element
a is ´a, because if 0 P a ! b and }a} ‰ }b}, then WLOG }a} ą }b} and a ! b “ a,
so a “ 0 and }b} ă 0 which is impossible. If }a} “ }b} and a ` b ‰ 0, then a ‰ 0,
b ‰ 0, but obviously for every element c P a ! b, }c} “ }a} “ }b} ‰ 0, so
0 Q a ! b. Finally, if }a} “ }b} and b “ ´a then everything is fine, namely
0 P a ! b. For associativity we refer to the appendix 1 of [1]. And distributivity
follows immediately because the constructions and characteristics involved in the
definition of ! are invariant under multiplication of a complex number.

Definition 2.2.2. R inherits the structure of hyperfield from T C. The induced

addition pa, bq ÞÑ a !R b “ pa ! bq X R can be described directly as follows:

if |a| ą |b|
$
’ tau,
if |a| ă |b|
’
&
tbu,
a „R b “
’ tau, if a “ b
r´|a|, |a|s, if a “ ´b
’
%

This operation is denoted as the tropical real addition. The hyperfield T C is the
set of real numbers R with the addition !R and the usual multiplication.

2.3 Polynomials
Let ppXqřnP CrXs kbe a polynomial in one variable X awith complex coefficients,
ppXq “ k“0 ak X , where ak P C, an ‰ 0. Let wppq “ |an | e Further, let wp0q “ 0.
n n

This defines a map CrXs Ñ C : p ÞÑ wppq

Theorem 2.3.1. The map w is a multiring homomorphism of the polynomial ring

CrXs to the hyperfield T C, that is wpp`qq P wppq ! wpqq and wppqq “ wppqwpqq
for any p, q P CrXs

Proof. The value of w on a polynomial p is equal to the value of w on the monomial

of p having the greatest degree. For a monomial ppXq “ aX n the value of w equals
ppeq
|pp1q|
. Obviously, the latter formula defines a multiplicative homomorphism.

8
Let us prove that wpp ` qq P wppq ! wpqq for any p, q P CrXs. Let the highest
degree monomials of p and q are aX n and bX m , respectively (so that deg p “
n, deg q “ mq. If n ą m, then the highest degree term of p ` q equals aX n and
wpp ` qq “ wppq “ wppq ! wpqq. similarly, if n ă m, then wpp ` qq “ wpqq “
wppq ! wpqq. If deg p “ deg q and the coefficients a and b of the highest terms are
such that |a|
a
` |b|b “ 0, then the highest terms may annihilate under summation.
Therefore the highest term of p ` q is either equal to the sum of the highest terms
of p and q, or come from terms of lower degrees and cannot be recovered from the
terms of the highest degree. The only that we can say about it if we know only
wppq and wpqq (i.e., if we know only the arguments of the coefficients in the terms
of the highest degrees and the degrees), is that its degree is not greater than the
degree of the summands. This implies wpp ` qq P wppq ! wpqq.
Now lets motivate this polynomials as a useful construction. The image of w
consists of only those complex numbers whose absolute values are powers of e.
However similar constructions are able to provide multiring homomorphisms onto
the whole tc. For this, it is enough to replace usual polynomials by polynomials
with arbitrary real exponents.
Let us replace CrXs by the groupřalgebra CrRs of the additive group R. Ele-
ments of CrRs can be thought of as k ak X rk , where ak P C rk P R. The formal
variable X symbolizes here the transition from additive notation for addition in
R to multiplicative notation in CrRs, where additive notation is reserved for the
formal sum.
ř Elements of CrRs may be interpreted
ř as rfunctions C Ñ C. For this, let us turn
a
k k X r
r k into an exponential sum a
k k e k T by replacing X with eT

The map w : CrXs Ñ C extends to CrRs as follows: choose from the sum k ak X rk
ř
the summand with the greatest exponent, say, an X rn and apply the same formula
to it |aann | ern . The map is a multiring homomorphism of the ring CrRs onto the
hyperfield T C. The proof that this is a multiring homomorphism is quite simple
and left to the reader.

Remark 2.3.1. Similarly

ř A ring can be replaced here by an algebraically closed
field realpower series rPI ar t , where I Ă R is a well-ordered set.
r

This final constructions be may be understood as motivation to define the

tropical addition of complex number tropically, and it may be useful to try to
develop the the theory of tropical geometry in this framework.

9
Bibliography

[1] Oleg Viro. Hyperfields for Tropical Geometry I. Hyperfields and dequantiza-
tion. arXiv e-prints, page arXiv:1006.3034, June 2010.

10