Additive Manufacturing for Aerospace

Schiller, G.1.
United Launch Alliance
9501 East Panorama Circle
Centennial, CO 80112
303-269-5331
Gregory.1. Schiller @ulalaunch.com

Additive Manufacturing aka 3D printing opens up a boundless capabilities of 3D printers is reaching all genres.
whole new era for digital design and manufacturing. No Social media as portrayed by Wikipedia describes AM as
longer is the aerospace engineering designer constrained the following:
by the ability to manufacture a component. The new
"3D printing or additive manufacturing (AM)
philosophy is "if you can design it, we can produce it".
refers to any of the various processes for
Yet there is a laundry list of caveats with the current
printing a three-dimensional object. Primarily
state of the technology especially as it applies to
additive processes are used, in which
aerospace applications and in particular, launch
successive layers of material are laid down
vehicles. Use of polymer based materials has caught
under computer control"
hold in production tooling, yet use of polymers and
metals for actual flight applications faces challenges Subtractive methods such as machining a finished
until the technology catches up with the specific needs of product out of a block of metal is now considered "old
the Aerospace industry. Launch vehicle applications school". Under older manufacturing technologies, the
may prove to be the bounding arena for aerospace designer used a term called "design for manufacturing"
applications. Consider the need for perfection in which was essentially a constraint against design options
quality, temperature extremes from cryogenic since more intricate designs were extremely costly to
commodities to rocket engine exhaust, shock and produce. AM changes that paradigm. Referring again to
vibration conditions, and the grand size. However, given that new age source of all knowledge, Wikipedia, which
the variety of exquisite designs and low volume, describes a disruptive technology as:
aerospace applications are well suited for Additive
"A disruptive innovation is an innovation that
Manufacturing. The challenges of today are already
helps create a new market and value network,
being solved and incorporated into the technology of
and eventually disrupts an existing market and
tomorrow. It is simply a matter of time before AM finds
value network (over a few years or decades),
not only a foot hold in aerospace but becomes the
displacing an earlier technology"
manufacturing tool of choice.
One can certainly apply this label to AM. 3D printing
TABLE OF CONTENTS opens up a new age of design opportunities unconstrained

1. INTRODUCTION 1 by old school manufacturing methods. Innovators are using

2. 1
..........................................

it to redesign existing applications. New unique applications

AEROSPACE DESIGN OPPORTUNITIES
3. 2
.....
are being brought to the market in a variety of industries.
AEROSPACE ApPLICATIONS
4. 3
' ..................... The aerospace industry is perfectly suited to the
COST ASSESSMENT opportunities enabled by AM, yet may prove to be a
5. 5
.....................................

CHALLENGES bounding area given the extreme environments. There are

6. 5
.............................................

TECHNOLOGY TRENDS still a large list of caveats and challenges to the idea "if you

7. 5
..............................

can design, AM can produce it". But these challenges are

WAY AHEAD
8. SUMMARy 5
, ..............................................
being overcome. This paper explores the utilities of AM for

6
................................................... aerospace applications, while highlighting many of
REFERENCES challenges and trends still on the horizon.
6
....................................................

BIOGRAPHy
2.
......................................................

AEROSPACE DESIGN OPPORTUNITIES

1. INTRODUCTION
Most aerospace applications are match fit to AM
capabilities. This is especially true on the space side of the
Additive Manufacturing is capturing the imagination of
aerospace arena. Launch vehicles and satellites are not high
young and old alike. Look at any school in the U. S. and one
rate products. Airplanes are more so. But it can be a
has a good chance of finding a 3D printer accessible to the
business challenge to ask a technology company to design a
student body. Kids are asking parents for 3D printers for
highly complex product and then tell them you need two a
their birthdays instead of video games. This last comment
year for the next five years. AM provides capabilities to
may be a bit speculative yet the hype surrounding the
produce singular units of production at relatively low cost

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that completely changes the business case assessment
(described later in this paper).
Aerospace products are uniquely complex. Many parts
must satisfy extreme requirements which many times lead to
complex geometries and structures. Complexity creates
challenges for existing manufacturing technologies. As
complexity increases, traditional manufacturing costs
skyrocket. Complex parts require multitudes of individual
parts that must be fastened together with nuts, bolts, welds Figure 2: Spacecraft Bracket
or brazes. Each of these connections reduces the reliability
of the component which leads to increased inspection The software technology used to support the designs of
requirements. It should be no surprise why aerospace these exqUlslte parts is referred to as Topology
components cost as much as they do. However, this is Optimization. For structural optimization, these tools take
where AM can shine with the ability to produce complex an initial draft design and start eliminating material in areas
parts with the same agility as simple parts. Aerospace not necessary to support structural requirements. The
developers are now free to design to exquisite levels of resulting design can look quite strange often mimicking
complexity without driving manufacturing cost exponential. biological forms and is certainly challenging to produce
By reducing part count and connection points, reliability can from traditional manufacturing [4]. Even though AM
be improved. At the same time, the exquisite complexity techniques can support these types of designs, the engineer
can also increase functionality. The AM component can be may back off from what the tool is saying is the most
tailored very specifically to the need. This is exactly the optimal design to one that satisfies other optimization
value that GE Aviation saw in their design of a fuel nozzle objectives. Additionally, AM can produce related
for their latest jet engine design seen in Figure 1. Using AM optimization of interior structures such as lattices and
capabilities, GE designed the fuel nozzle for the highest trusses that provide structural stability but at much reduced
level of efficiency while minimizing weight. The resulting weight [4].
increase in functionality and reduction in weight cut fuel
Materials availability has come a long way in the last
consumption and thus reduces long term cost [1].
decade. Thermoplastic materials have the most pedigree
Reliability and durability is driven up as they were able to
behind them and have found opportunities in current
consolidate what was 20 parts to one [2].
aerospace applications. Additionally, there are opportunities
for thermoplastic materials to replace metals in less
demanding situations and thus should not be overlooked for
design options. Plastics are being used in many non
structural applications such as environmental control system
ducts, protective covers, cockpit parts, and others [4].
Military jets like the F-18 and F-35 host or will host many
3D printed parts [4]. More will be said later in this paper
about plastic utilities for tooling.

For metals, the list of more common aerospace focus

alloys includes high grade Stainless Steel; Nickel-based
super alloys like Inconel 625 and 718; Titanium and
Titanium alloys; and to a lesser degree Cobalt Chrome
alloys [4]. There has been plenty of research conducted on
Inconel 625 with 718 not far behind. Given its lighter
weight, strength and ductility characteristics, Titanium alloy
Figure 1: GE Jet Engine Fuel Nozzle
is a heavy area of research. The higher relative cost of
Titanium drives a desire to use an additive approach vice a
Another giant in the aerospace industry, Lockheed
subtractive one given the high buy-to-fly ratios possible.
Martin has a grand vision of innovation using advanced

3.
manufacturing techniques including the application of AM.
This contributes heavily to their innovation construct AEROSPACE ApPLICATIONS
referred to as their Digital Tapestry [3]. The example
Aerospace applications may prove to be the most
shown in Figure 2 illustrates how AM can transform a
stressing application of AM technologies. To be even more
relatively simple connecting bracket into a more complex
specific, launch vehicles and satellites face temperature
component at a tenth of the weight. This much lighter
extremes from liquid cryogens to rocket engine combustion
weight bracket still meets all of the requirements imposed.
and exhaust. Likewise, launch vehicles are exposed to high
A complex design like this would be exceeding costly to
structural, vibration, and acoustic loads. High pressures and
produce via traditional methods. Now the component is
speeds exist in combustion chamber, turbo pump assemblies
less costly due, in part, to the reduction of material being
and jet turbines [4]. While some of these affects are more
used to print the part referred to as the buy-to-fly ratio.

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short lived, aircraft applications must consider longer term Fuel flow characteristics are critical to performance of
aging and fatigue issues. Aircraft manufacturers also must components such as this. 3D printers enable unique interior
consider repair and rework more so that space oriented flow configurations that would be almost impossible for
applications. These requirements drive the need for more normal manufacturing techniques. The liquid Oxygen
capable alloy materials that can accommodate a wide range Flange shown in Figure 4 is used on the upper stage of
of concurrent requirements. Material characteristics are also United Launch Alliance Launch Vehicles. The photo on the
driven by the need for consistency and quality. left is the original part and the one on the right is 3D
printed. One can see there are differences between the two.
Most of the more costly aerospace applications, again
On the left, the interior "vanes" are brazed into position. On
the example being launch vehicles, are very large. Consider
the right, they are simply printed as part of the 3D build
a launch vehicle's height of 200 ft composed of fuel tanks
process. When qualified for flight, this part would operate
that are as big as a semi tractor trailer. Aircraft are not far
exactly the same as the original. However, very little else
off this same size scale. Even the subsystems such as
was done to modify the design of this part to fully take
propulsion, electrical and mechanical that service the
advantage of 3D printing. If the design team steps back to
operating portions of aerospace applications tend to be
investigate the needed flow requirements, a new design may
large.
result in a more elegant configuration with improved
Even with many of these hard-driving requirements, performance.
there are a whole host of opportunities that fall within the
current and very near term capabilities of 3D printing. One
of the best examples of extreme temperature applications is
the work being accomplished at NASA Marshall on a liquid
engine propulsion injector plate. The injector is composed
of a 3D printed aerospace grade alloy that can accommodate
these extreme conditions [4]. The design is highly intricate
with many challenging aspects from surface finish to
materials composition. The photos in figure 3 shows this
injector plate and the component being test fired as part of a
system test [5].

Figure 4: Liquid Oxygen Flange

United Launch Alliance is also baselining several

thermoplastic components to fly on future missions.
Illustrated in figure 5 is an example Environmental Control
System (ECS) duct that will flow conditioned air on
sensitive equipment during launch. This item is printed on a
Stratasys Fortus 900 out of a material called Ultem 9085.
Ultem 9085 is a favorable material due to its high
performance for strength, durability and resistance to heat
and chemicals [6]. There are numerous ducts of this nature
with multiple configurations. Current ducts are composed
primarily of multiple fiberglass pieces with metal attach
fittings. 3D printing enables multiple parts to be
incorporated into singular components. This reduces the
overall part count significantly. 3D printing also eliminates
any mandrels or layup tooling and the cost associated. Other
components like protective covers are being investigated as
well. Many of these components are exposed to severe
aeroheating environments as they are configured on the
exterior of the Launch Vehicle. Although plastic, the
material characteristics of Ultem are considered flight
worthy even in the face of high heat. Yet more analysis is
necessary. Insulation may be necessary but the goal is to fly
this material in a self insulating configuration.

Figure 3: Injector Plate & Test Fire

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 accomplished through traditional machining. But the plastic
portion greatly simplified the construction and operation of
this tool reducing tool creation time by 80%. Shown in
Figure 7 is a fit check tool. This tool is highlighted since it
actually broke during operation. There is a crack visible
along the facing edge. But, the problem was identified, the
tool was redesigned and reprinted within days and put back
into operation. The next tool highlighted in Figure 8 is the
fitting alignment tool used on the aft end of United Launch
Alliance's Centaur upper stage. This tool was previously
metal and thus very heavy and difficult to handle. This tool
weighing only 25 lbs can be handled by one person vice
two. Using plastic, the cost was less than a tenth of the
Figure 5: Environmental Control System Ducts original estimate using other methods. Concerns over
tolerances are still being investigated, yet they are
As mentioned previously, 3D printed plastic tools are anticipated to be solved. Lastly, the tool illustrated in
finding a solid foothold in the aerospace industry. If Figure 9 is another drill jig that is snapped onto the
aerospace companies are only looking at flight applications, component and only fits one way. This tool resulted in 70%
they are missing a significant opportunity for cost savings in labor savings.
their tooling departments. This is the "low hanging fruit" of
the 3D printing arena. Many of the same advantages are
exemplified in tooling applications such as faster tum time
to manufacture the tool and dramatically lower cost. This is
especially true where a metal tool is replaced by a plastic
one. Plastic tools are lighter and more ergonomic which is
even more important in a production labor environment. If a
metal tool is heavy enough to require two technicians to
properly handle, a plastic tool may only require one tech
which reduces half the labor. Plastic materials also limit
potential damage to flight hardware as a result of their use. Figure 6: Drill Fixture

Scratches and dings from metal tool contact could be

catastrophic to Launch Vehicle performance in a worse-case
scenario. At a minimum, they will cause non-conformances
and rework thus driving additional cost. Unlike flight
components, tooling does not require qualification and
certification. Verifying the tool is functional for the
prescribed use is still necessary but the level of testing and
analysis is not as stringent as for a flight component
certification.

Similar to flight component concerns to be discussed

later, tooling is subject to disadvantages using AM.
Understandably, plastic tools are not as robust as metal in
Figure 7: Directional Fit Check Tool
the longer term as wear and tear take their toll. For example,
drill templates require inserted metal bushings which can '-

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cause heating in the surrounding plastic material and " .. � ",.--
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become loose. Mitigation techniques for this are possible, _
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yet often the most expeditious and cheapest route is simply
to print another tool. Post processing to effect a tight 1& '� .
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tolerance on metal parts (and sometimes plastic) is often

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necessary. Overall tolerances on plastic parts can also be a
challenge, but with more experience this too can be
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mitigated in the design phase. The ability to print and test

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inexpensively enables the opportunity for executing some
level of trial and error corrections without the financial
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impact. Even one-time-use only tools can be considered.
This is especially true in molds. , If
Example of a drill template is shown in figure 6. This
Figure 8: Strut Locating Tool
shows a combination of metal and plastic. The metal was

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 Cost may not be the absolute driver in all aerospace
applications. For airplanes, the cost and return on
investment is slightly different. Higher non-recurring cost
may be acceptable if performance saves money in the longer
term. For an aircraft in service for 30 years, fuel savings is a
driving factor. Even in expendable launch vehicles, weight
and performance may trump higher non-recurring cost.
Lesser weight implies higher performance-to-orbit payload
capacity. Many customers including the Department of
Defense value performance.

Cost modeling for AM applications is also an immature

science. AM applications are slowly being introduced into
Figure 9: Snap on Drill Jig
production and integrated into the value stream. Thus

4.
example data is limited. Traditional cost models can be
COST ASSESSMENT
adapted but yet the true life cycle value modeling will take
Like in many industries adopting AM, utilizing AM time to validate. Still leaders at Airbus advertise they see
disrupts the traditional supply chain equation. In general, the small components saving 60-70% on production parts [8].
aerospace industry is more horizontal than vertical. Other estimates capturing longer term fuel savings are
Companies tend to utilize their respective supply chains for enabled by the projected 10-30% weight savings using AM
the variety of unique components necessary for an [4].
aerospace product such as launch vehicles and spacecraft.
The supply chain maintains a bulk of the expertise in the 5. CHALLENGES
many areas. However, utilizing AM enables the opportunity
Much of the previous content paints a fairly rosy
to bring manufacturing back in-house to the prime company,
picture of AM in aerospace applications. There is a fair
thus increasing the level of vertical structure inherent. As a
amount of hype surrounding the technology. Not all hype is
result, the cost and schedule for procurement of components
reality . . . yet. But the technology is still fairly immature in
is effectively eliminated. This is true for most any make/buy
the aerospace industry. Industry standards are lacking. There
decision, but AM is unique in that the make part of the
is no Mil Handbook XYZ governing the standards necessary
equation is different than the buy part which is assumed to
for implementation of AM. Factors of safety for design are
utilize a traditional approach. Of course, as the supply chain
determined on a case-by-case basis. Methods for test and
begins to adopt AM into their respective manufacturing
inspection are being researched with no prevailing methods
repertoire, the decision process begins to compare apples to
rising above the rest. CT scan may be the only method that
apples again. Whether in-house or procured through an AM
can look into the microstructure to determine porosity and
supply chain, the ability to produce a part in a shorter
cavities within the build. Ultrasonic inspection works in
timeframe supports and expands the traditional philosophy
limited applications. Non-recurring component qualification
of the Just-In-Time operations that reduces the carrying cost
methods are conducted utilizing standard methodologies
of inventory. Many believe that AM can reduce leads times
without investigating whether other methods are possibly
around 80% [1].
more conducive to AM technology. Acceptance tests for
AM also disrupts the economies of scale and scope finished components are typically treated as worse case
equation. From a scope standpoint, it is difficult to find situations given the current uncertainties of material quality
another manufacturing tool capable of producing an infinite and consistency.
number of components from a single machine [7]. Similarly,
Not every material used in the aerospace industry is
AM machines can swap from one component to another
reaching maturity. Most notable in this category is
with a software input model and does not require any
aluminum. Some work has been accomplished on lesser
extensive tooling changes [7]. Now a milling machine could
grades of aluminum, yet little has been done for higher
be characterized in the same manner but is still limited in
grades more common in aerospace. Copper is less prevalent
the area of complexity whereas an AM machine is not.
but has similar maturity issues. One possible positive aspect
Looking at the scale aspect, an AM machine cost could
of materials science is that AM may enable additional alloys
reach a breakeven point of even just one unit [7]. With
not previously available due to the nature of some machines
current costs of metal AM machines, that component would
with the ability to mix a variety of metal powders during the
need to be exceeding complex and expensive but yet the
build process [4].
point is still valid. Small numbers of complex components
can make a business case for the investment. Cost of 3D Printer capabilities are continuing to expand, yet
printers (especially metals) and raw materials is still limitations exist. From a build size metric, many machines
relatively high and constrains entry into the market, but the measure build size in inches. Much of the analysis work
trends will continue to bring costs down as competition and accomplished to date has been done by companies
magnitude of demand heats up. investigating components much smaller than a cubic foot in
volume. Not every component is highly suited to AM

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technology. Print orientation and design of build support 6. TECHNOLOGY TRENDS
structure is more art than science right now. Similarly,
different 3D printing techniques have different pros and Each of the various AM techniques have their own

cons associated with component design and print strengths and weaknesses. A greater synopsis of the many

orientation. Much research is being conducted on materials subtleties can be found in the reference material. In this

consistency and quality yet much is left to be learned. In analysis, only the higher order trends are addressed as they

most applications, the post build product must be heat pertain to aerospace interests notably size and finished

treated in a variety of fashions to achieve desired materials material composition. In this respect, three major

quality. Similarly most machines produce a product with a simplifying characterizations are highlighted. In "bed"

very rough surface finish unsuitable for a final component. systems, material more typically in powder or liquid form

Thus post build machining or other surface finishing resides in a bed of raw material. Examples of this nature

techniques are necessary. Machining is still a necessity for include direct metal laser sintering and selective laser

any surface requirements for mating to another component sintering. In "fed" systems, the material is fed into the

requiring a very tight tolerance. system via different methods including powder spray,
filament, or filament tape. Examples of these techniques
Most current machines are essentially "open loop". If TM
include Laser-Engineering Net Shape (LENS ) offered by
there is any fault detection, the machine typically just shuts Optomec Co, Direct manufacturing offered by Sciaky, Inc,
the print job down and pauses for human evaluation. Many and Fused Deposition Modeling offered by Stratasys, Inc.
without any fault detection continue to print and the print Hybrid systems may combine either of the two bed or fed
job can become unrecognizable. Research is being systems' approach with a milling machine capability. An
accomplished to accomplish in-situ process monitoring. For example of a fed Hybrid is offered by DMG MaRl.
metal machines this involves sensor monitoring of the melt
pool. Different sensor techniques are being investigated Metal bed systems and research is more prevalent in

from simple temperature, to infra-red to high speed visual or current aerospace applications. This is useful for relatively

combination of all three [4]. The resulting data is also small applications. Size has been increased, yet at a certain

challenging to evaluate for meaningful information. The raw point, size becomes a challenge with the current bed

data amount is staggering [9]. Consider monitoring a build methodologies. To make a large object, the bed of material

with thousands of layers of melt pool data, then compiling must be exceedingly large as well. This becomes unwieldy

the data into a build assessment in real time in a feedback and costly. Consider a large bed where the risk of

loop to control the printer. Even reviewing this type of contaminating hundreds of thousands of dollars of powder

information after the print job is daunting. Better tools are material in one event will become a costly mistake. Weight

required to make this effective and they must be and safety is another issue. Fed systems have their own

incorporated into the machine by the manufacturers. limitations yet are more likely to enable larger sized
components. In some applications, the only limitation is
Knowledge capital of the design engineers and dependent on the size of the enclosed, pnstme
operators is limited to those directly engaged in AM environmental enclosure one is willing to construct.
pursuits. University based courses, programs and research Extrusion techniques in thermoplastics are making sizes as
activities are growing rapidly. Yet those already in industry large as a car [10]. Both of these techniques as standalone
are typically learning through their own research or in methods do not provide a truly finished product in most
collaboration with others. Much, if not all, knowledge and cases. Post processing techniques must be applied to achieve
intellectual property is being held close to the vest for these desired results either by heat treatment or milling.
companies with substantial investment. They are protecting
the fruits of their investment. This constrains growth of Hybrid techniques seek to resolve the challenge of

knowledge of many of the basic facets of AM including providing a fully finished product as a function of the single

basic material characteristics. machine. Whether bed or fed, hybrid machines incorporate
milling and sometime heat treatment into the build process.
In a similar light, design and analysis tools associated Fundamentally, the process is composed of printing layers
with AM are lacking basic capability and integration into of material and then milling those layers. The process is
existing tools. The concept of seamless progression from repeated until the finished product is done. By heat treating
inception to final product is not quite a reality yet. Several the metal after printing, other challenges in materials
design packages exist for design optimization many in the properties can be overcome as well. The finished product is
non-commercial sense contained within university research truly finished with surface effects that meet requirements
activities. But none have truly risen above the rest. and tolerances to the same level achieved by tight tolerance
milling machines today. Also, by utilizing milling as part of
For aerospace applications, development timelines can
the build process, hard to reach interior surfaces can have
be very long, occasionally longer than a decade. It is often
the same finished surface quality necessary in many
hard to interject rapid moving technology into a lengthy
aerospace applications. Ultimately, a fed hybrid system may
development timeline. The common theme is that
be able to achieve both size and finish requirements of the
technology is outdated before the product is fielded.
future demand by the aerospace industry. Due to the

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newness on the market of Hybrid techniques, more work is 8. SUMMARY
necessary to determine their full potential.
Aerospace is one area among many that is well-suited
Figure 10 provides a much simplified and notional view for adoption of Additive Manufacturing as part of the
of this assessment. Bed systems may be considered more enterprise value stream. Lower cost and increased
capable simply because more applications are currently functionality is possible in this low rate, high complexity
using this technique. Fed systems have greater capacity for arena. Many AM techniques and materials have already
size. Hybrid systems bridge between the two but much found current production ready applications despite many of
more is yet to be learned. the extreme environments inherent in this industry. Tooling
is an unsung hero using AM techniques. Any aerospace
company that is not paying attention to AM tooling
"Bed" Systems opportunities is missing a tremendous advantage. While
cost is a driving imperative, many applications see cost

t
savings achieved not just from reduction in recurring
production but also in advantages achieved in functionality

I---
Hybrid ----f-- that serves longer term ROI. Yes, there are challenges
facing the introduction to AM. Industry standards, materials
characteristics, quality, consistency, process monitoring,
ii surface finish, and software tools are some of the more
co "Fed" Systems
0. challenging areas to be overcome. Advances in size and
co
U capability are increasing pace due to interests driven by the
customer community. Many organizations are jumping into
Size the arena that further accentuates research and application
opporturutles. Ultimately, AM has a firm foothold in
Figure 10: Technology Trend Chart
aerospace with an almost exponential growth opportunity.

7.
Aerospace is now leading the demand for production grade
WAY AHEAD
AM machines [1].
Aerospace companies are investing heavily in AM
applications most notably General Electric. Many see the REFERENCES
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BIOGRAPHY

Greg Schiller received a B.S. and MS. in

Astronautical Engineering from the US Air
Force Academy in 1985 and AF 1nstitute of
Technology in 1992 respectively. He also
achieved a MBA from Webster University in
2014. He retired from the Air Force in 2005
in the rank of Lt Colonel. His military
career included assignments predominantly in the space
career field starting with Space Operations at Shriever AFB
and ending with positions at Los Angeles AFB in Space
superiority, EEL V, and as the Delta II Program Manager.
He transitioned to ULA in June 2007 and currently supports
ULA 's Strategic Planning and Business Development team
where he manages ULA 's portfolio of Independent Research
and Development projects with particular attention on
orchestrating the investment strategy for use of Additive
Manufacturing.

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