Thermoforming

Process Guide

Rigid Packaging
Plastics

1 of 34
 Contents

Thermoforming. We know it isn’t always easy...........................4

Dow materials for thermoforming applications .....................4
Setting quality standards for extruded sheet................................6
Dimensional tolerances ........................................................6
Orientation ...........................................................................6
Moisture ..............................................................................6
Physical properties ..............................................................8
Aesthetics.............................................................................8
Contamination......................................................................8
Regrind ................................................................................8
Holding it all in place with a strong clamp..................................9
What you should know about heating the sheet ........................10
Choosing your equipment ..................................................10
Avoiding stresses and scorching ........................................10
Controlling sheet sag .........................................................11
Getting the most out of the forming process .............................12
Selecting the right mold for the application.........................12
Materials of construction ....................................................12
Mold construction and design.............................................12
Understanding the effects of forming speed .......................13
Using special techniques to control wall thickness....................14
Prestretching.......................................................................14
Mechanical assists .............................................................14
Profile heating....................................................................15
Optimizing the cooling cycle ...................................................16
Finding the trimming method to meet your needs ....................17
Troubleshooting typical problems ...........................................18
Appendix .................................................................................25
Thermoforming equipment.......................................................25
Cut sheet equipment ...........................................................25
Web fed equipment ............................................................27
Basic thermoforming methods and techniques..........................28
Mechanical forming ...........................................................28
Vacuum forming ...............................................................28
Pressure forming ...............................................................32
Twin sheet forming ...........................................................32

®
Trademark of The Dow Chemical Company (“Dow”) or an affiliated company of Dow

Form #760-04501-0906X 2 of 34
Form #760-04501-0906X 3 of 34
 Thermoforming.
We know it isn’t always easy.
Clamping, heating, forming, Our interest in thermoforming
cooling, and trimming. Whether doesn’t stop after we make a resin;
you’re using a web fed thermo- it extends to our customers who
former to produce such things as extrude sheet from that resin and
cottage cheese containers or a cut form it into finished products.
sheet thermoformer to make We developed this guide to help
refrigerator cabinet liners, you you meet your thermoforming
follow these same basic steps. challenges. It contains helpful
Easy, right? As a thermoformer, information for each step of the
you know better. It can be quite thermoforming process, from
complicated at times. There are defining sheet requirements to
challenges every step of the way, trimming the formed part. A
from determining which troubleshooting guide that lists
thermoforming equipment and probable causes and potential
technique will best meet your needs, solutions for many common
to defining initial requirements for thermoforming problems is included
both resin and extruded sheet, to for your reference. So, let’s get
learning how to attain optimum started.
dimensional control, part detail, and
desired final product appearance Dow materials for
and performance. thermoforming applications
The plastics experts here at Dow
can help you sort it all out and face STYRON™ and STYRON
those challenges. A-TECH™ Polystyrene Resins
are used in extrusion applications
because of their excellent
processability, melt strength, color
and clarity, low residual monomer
content, and lot-to-lot consistency.

™Trademark of The Dow Chemical Company

(“Dow”) or an affiliated company of Dow

Form #760-04501-0906X 4 of 34
Providing a superior cost-to-per- MAGNUM™ ABS Resins are PULSE™ Engineering Resins
formance ratio, STYRON™ and used in extrusion applications offer excellent heat resistance,
STYRON A-TECH™ resins are because of their excellent high and superior impact strength (including
used to produce extruded polystyrene low gloss aesthetics, good thermal low-temperature impact strength),
sheet that is thermoformed into such color stability, heat resistance, creep and stiffness for extruded sheet/
things as dinnerware, cups, and thin- resistance, and stiffness. Sheet thermoforming applications such as
walled packaging applications, along extruded from MAGNUM ABS automotive ground effects (aero)
with high-impact plastic liners for resins is used for such things as packages and instrument panels.
refrigerators and freezers. refrigerator/ freezer liners, luggage, Their excellent melt strength during
General purpose STYRON resins burial vault liners, signs, and thermoforming provides uniform
have demonstrated excellent recreational vehicle and interior sheet sag and a wide processing
performance in both extruded foam automotive applications. Such parts window.
sheet and oriented polystyrene sheet can be easily post-decorated and
(OPS). Foam sheet provides assembled.
functional strength and insulation CALIBRE™ Polycarbonate
with less resin weight for meat Resins offer high impact strength,
trays, egg cartons, carry-out transparency, rigidity, dimensional
containers, and similar applications. stability, and exceptional
Such parts can be attractively performance at low, as well as high
decorated and printed. OPS provides temperatures. Formed parts can be
clarity and strength for applications trimmed or cut with conventional
such as cookie trays, salad and deli saws and shears. They may be
containers, and cake domes. joined to other polycarbonate parts
DOW™ Polypropylene resins by adhesives, solvent bonding, heat
offer excellent optics, stiffness and sealing, and mechanical fastening
toughness combined with low taste techniques. They also may be
and odor properties for rigid bonded to other materials using
packaging applications. Dow appropriate procedures.
Polypropylene resins are used in a Applications include solar panels,
wide range of thermoformed commercial signs, and protective
applications including dairy covers for lighting.
containers, fresh fruit packaging,
case-ready meat trays and
disposable drink cups.

™Trademark of The Dow Chemical Company (“Dow”)

or an affiliated company of Dow

Form #760-04501-0906X 5 of 34
Setting quality standards for extruded sheet.
Sheet properties have a significant Orientation • 350°F (175°C) for CALIBRE™
effect on both the thermoformability polycarbonate resins.
of sheet and the functionality of the Excessive and/or unbalanced Measure the change in both the
final formed product. Because orientation (shrinkage) can cause machine and transverse direction
requirements may vary with specific the sheet to pull out of the clamp using a graduated scale.
equipment, processing, and end use frame during the heating cycle. It
performance needs, it is important could also result in uneven % Shrinkage = Initial Final Dimension x 100
for you to discuss sheet require- stretching during the forming Initial Dimension
ments in advance with the end user, process and therefore increased and
sheet extruder, and resin supplier. less balanced orientation in the final
Specifications should be set (and product. Table 1 provides shrinkage
adhered to) for the following: levels considered acceptable for Moisture
amorphous materials, including
Dimensional tolerances styrenics (ABS and polystyrene)
The shelf life of extruded sheet
depends on the moisture absorption
and polycarbonates.
Sheet thickness uniformity, both characteristics of the polymer from
To test for shrinkage levels, bury
parallel and perpendicular to the which it is extruded, as well as
a square of extruded sheet in talc
extrusion direction, can directly packaging and storage conditions.
between two metal plates. Heat in a
affect final product quality, as well Sheet must be dry to be effectively
hot air (convection oven) for one
as production and scrap rates. Sheet thermoformed. Volatiles generated
hour at the appropriate temperature:
length and width consistency, when wet sheet is heated could
• 300°F (150°C) for STYRON™
squareness, and flatness also can result in surface pits and/or voids.
polystyrene, MAGNUM™ ABS
affect processability. To keep out moisture and max
and Polypropylene resins.
imize shelf life, wrap the stacked or
rolled sheet in polyethylene

Table 1 — Shrinkage Limits: Styrenics and Polycarbonates

% Shrinkage
Solid Foam
Machine Direction (MD) < 10% 35-70%

Transverse Direction (TD) < 5% 25-65%

Difference between MD 10% 10%

&TD
Shrinkage values are guidelines, not specifications.
Values may not apply to thin sheet (<40-60 mils [<1-1.5 mm]). Values do not apply to OPS or PP.
Higher orientation may be desirable, i.e.
(a) to increase the toughness of general purpose polystyrene [OPS]
(b) to minimize oven sheet sag experienced with low melt strength materials.

™Trademark of The Dow Chemical Company

(“Dow”) or an affiliated company of Dow

Form #760-04501-0906X 6 of 34
film. If left unwrapped, the top and
bottom sheets in the stack or the
outer loop of the roll may get wet.
Depending on storage time and
conditions, the remaining sheet may
or may not remain dry.
Sheet containing excessive
moisture can be dried in a forced air
oven, using temperatures rec-
ommended for drying the resin from
which the sheet was produced.
Sheets should be stacked or hung
with sufficient space between them
(at least 1 inch) for adequate air
circulation. Drying time will vary
depending on sheet thickness.
Special packaging and/or
inventory control (minimum
storage) generally are not adequate
to keep extremely hydroscopic
materials such as polycarbonate dry.
Unless thermoformed immediately
after extrusion, sheet drying is
suggested by Dow.

Form #760-04501-0906X 7 of 34
Aesthetics Contamination Regrind
Requirements for color, gloss and Static electricity can increase the All regrind used in sheet should be
surface texture need to be potential for contamination by dust clean, compatible, and free of
predetermined and specified, and and dirt. Wrapping the sheet with contamination to avoid degrading
the sheet should be free of die lines, polyethylene as described to keep either physical or aesthetic properties.
pits, or other imperfections. Such out moisture will also help to keep it Predetermine and specify the type and
surface defects may adversely affect clean. Sheet may be cleaned by levels of regrind allowed in the sheet.
physical properties as well as either vacuuming or blowing air
appearance. These requirements across its surface immediately prior Physical properties
should be quantified where possible to forming. Contamination is often
and/or defined via retained controlled by maintaining a clean Physical properties depend not
reference samples. plant with a positive pressure only on the resin, but also on
atmosphere to prevent dust and dirt pigmentation and regrind levels, the
from entering the thermoforming area. homogeneity of the blend, and on
extrusion conditions. It is necessary
for all parties involved to
predetermine and specify the
properties required.

Form #760-04501-0906X 8 of 34
 Holding it all in place
with a strong clamp.
Clamp functions include may require cooling in the clamp
transporting and securely holding frame, whereas brittle materials may
the sheet during heating, forming, have to be heated to prevent
and cooling operations, and cracking, breakage, and potential
sometimes holding the formed part contamination problems associated
for in-mold or in-line trimming. The with the resulting chips and fines.
clamp should hold the plastic sheet Multicavity tooling frequently
tightly enough to prevent it from utilizes clamp frames that securely
pulling free during these operations. hold heated sheet in place around
Localized heating or cooling of the perimeter of each individual
the sheet prior to entering the clamp mold cavity. This isolates the
may be utilized, or temperature material for each cavity and
controlled clamps may be used, prevents it from being drawn from
depending upon specific material, one cavity to another during
processing, and equipment forming. The result is more uniform
capabilities and requirements. parts off each cavity and less part
Materials with poor melt strength variation between cavities.

Form #760-04501-0906X 9 of 34
 What you should know about
heating the sheet.
Choosing your equipment Avoiding stresses and
scorching
Thermoformers typically use ovens
equipped with electrical or gas The desired thermoforming
infrared radiant heaters to heat the temperature is determined and
sheet. These types of heaters are controlled by measuring the sheet’s
very efficient, because the infrared surface temperature, sag distance, or
wavelengths they emit are readily time in the oven. Heating rate is
absorbed by plastics. Common determined by the oven/heater
electrical heaters include tubular temperature, the distance between
metal rods (CALROD™ heaters), the sheet and heaters, and the time
metal panels (black body heaters), in the oven. The heating rate affects
quartz tubes and panels, and the temperature gradient across the
ceramic panels. Gas fired heaters thickness of the sheet.
typically have a ceramic face. Sheet may be heated from one or
Heated metal plates that contact both sides. Generally, two-sided
and heat the sheet by conduction are heating is recommended for all
also used. Such equipment is sheet 0.040" (1.0 mm) and thicker.
generally more suitable for thin Ideally, sheet should be heated
sheet and small parts. Ovens uniformly to its appropriate forming
utilizing radiant heaters are typically temperature, but in practical terms,
programmable. Contact heating this is impossible. There will always
panels generally do not have be a temperature gradient across the
separate temperature control zones. thickness of the sheet. Your goal
should be to minimize the difference
between the sheet’s core and surface
temperatures, while ensuring that
both areas stay within the material’s
minimum and maximum forming
temperatures.
The heating rate must be
controlled so the core reaches the
required forming temperature
without overheating the surface.

™CALROD is a Trademark of General Electric Company

Form #760-04501-0906X 10 of 34
This becomes more difficult and continues to rise, they become more orientation. While sag may be
critical as sheet thickness increases. rubbery. Eventually, melt strength utilized to assist in pre-stretching,
Insufficient core temperature may disappears and the materials become excessive sag may result in the sheet
result in excessive residual stresses fluid-like. The rubbery region prior falling into the oven and igniting.
within the part that can adversely to loss of melt strength is typically Screens are often placed above the
affect properties and dimensional the thermoforming area. heaters in the bottom of the oven to
stability. Excessive surface Because of the reduction in melt catch falling sheet and minimize a
temperatures can cause potential strength, sheet usually sags as it is potential fire hazard. Sag bands may
discoloration and/or physical being heated in the clamp frame be utilized to physically support
property degradation that may cause prior to forming. The degree of sag sheet – especially wide sheet and
formed parts to fall short of end-use depends upon the material’s sheet with poor melt strength. They
performance requirements. As such, required forming temperature and should be positioned so as to contact
optimum heating conditions its corresponding melt strength, the sheet in non-critical appearance
typically involve establishing an draw characteristics, and areas.
acceptable balance between cycle
time and thermoformed part
properties.
Controlling sheet sag

Amorphous materials such as

polycarbonate and the styrenic
polymers do not have distinct
melting points. At room
temperature, they are in a solid or
glassy state. Upon heating, they go
through a glass transition
temperature where they begin to
soften. Initially, they are very
leathery, but as the temperature

Form #760-04501-0906X 11 of 34
 Getting the most out of the
forming process.
Selecting the right mold for such, matched molds potentially
the application overcome some of the limitations
associated with male and female
The three basic types of molds – molds.
male, female, and matched – each Matched mold forming generally
have distinct advantages and involves small, shallow draw
limitations, although male and articles. Major applications include
female molds are potentially foam dinnerware and packaging.
capable of producing the same basic The excellent dimensional control
parts. Table 2 will help you select obtained via this type of tooling is
the mold that is right for your especially critical for nested and
application. stacked products. The fixed mold
Female molds have a cavity gap also minimizes the potential for
configuration. Material is formed crushed cells in foam structures.
into the cavity and the formed part Materials of construction
is pulled out of the mold.
Male molds are protrusions.
Cast or machined aluminum molds
Material is formed over the
satisfy most thermoforming re-
protrusion and the formed part is
quirements. For increased wear and
pulled off of the mold.
abrasion resistance, consider copper
Matched molds combine male
alloys with aluminum or bronze.
and female molds of the same basic
Hardwood, plaster, and thermoset
configuration to form a
plastic molds are typically limited to
predetermined and fixed mold gap
prototype or relatively small
or cavity. The matching mold
production runs due to their lack of
contours may or may not be
durability and poor heat transfer
identical. Because of their finite
properties, which mean increased
mold gap, matched molds are
cycle times and reduced part
capable of accurately producing and
quality/consistency.
consistently reproducing both inside
and outside part dimensions and Mold construction and design
uniform wall thicknesses. Matched
molds are used extensively for Metal molds are typically tempe-
thermoforming of foam sheet. rature controlled. Water cooling
They also permit the same or jackets or channels in temperature
different surface textures and/or controlled metal molds should be
designs on both part surfaces. As

Form #760-04501-0906X 12 of 34
sized and manifolded to provide Specific recommendations with allow more time for cooling both
uniform mold temperature. When respect to vacuum holes, mold before and during the forming
used for prototype or small shrinkage, draft angles, and radii operation. The resulting reduction in
production runs, metal molds may depend on the material being forming temperature increases the
not require water cooling, but a formed and the size, shape, and potential for higher stresses in the
constant mold thickness should be geometry of the formed part. formed part. Forming time may be
utilized to achieve uniform cooling. minimized by utilizing more
The number, size, and location of Understanding the effects of vacuum, avoiding restriction in the
vacuum holes should be optimized forming speed vacuum system, and increasing the
and the volume to be evacuated number, size, and location of
should be minimized to obtain the Both forming rates and draw depths vacuum holes in the mold within
fastest evacuation possible without can influence the properties and allowable limits.
impairing surface appearance. performance of thermoformed
articles. Reduced forming speeds
and/or increased draw depths

Table 2 — Mold Selection Criteria

Male Mold Female Mold Matched Molds

Part Surface Appearance
Inside part surface Inside part surface Both part surfaces
determined by mold determined by sheet determined by mold
Outside part surface Outside part surface
determined by sheet determined by mold

Dimensional Tolerances
Inside dimensions Outside dimensions Inside and outside
determined by mold determined by mold dimensions determined
by mold

Inherent Wall Thickness Uniformity

Part perimeter thin Part perimeter thick Uniform material
(high draw) and center (low draw) and center distribution
thick (low draw) thin (high draw)

Draw Depth vs. Part Removal From Mold

Deep draws potentially Draw depths less Draw depths limited
more difficult — require critical — allow smaller
larger draft angles draft angles

Form #760-04501-0906X 13 of 34
 Using special techniques to
control wall thickness.
Premature sheet contact with the Prestretching
mold, which typically operates at
lower temperatures than the heated Prestretching heated sheet in air
sheet, results in localized cooling of prior to mold contact is a technique
the sheet and non-uniform thinning. commonly used in conjunction with
Any tendency for the material to male molds to improve material
stick to the mold in these areas distribution.
aggravates the problem and can Prestretching increases the
result in visually apparent thickness sheet’s surface area so it more
differences, known as “chill marks” closely matches that of the mold.
or “drag- off lines.” This results in improved wall
Matched molds have a fixed, thickness uniformity by minimizing
finite mold gap that accurately the amount of drawing that occurs
reproduces the thickness profile while the sheet is in contact with the
established in the mold design, so mold.
they require no special processing Prestretching is typically
techniques to control part thickness accomplished utilizing either a
uniformity. However, uniformity of vacuum box or billow (pressure
sheet thickness and temperature are bubble), which are described in the
still important. Basic Thermoforming Methods and
To control wall thickness when Techniques section of the Appendix.
using male or female molds, special Mechanical assists
techniques such as prestretching,
mechanical assists, and profile
heating can be helpful. Descriptions Mechanical assists such as plugs are
of these techniques follow. For typically used to improve the
more specific information, refer to material distribution of formed parts
the Thermoforming Methods and produced with female molds. Plugs
Gridding a sheet by marking off Techniques in the Appendix. may be fabricated from materials
surface areas corresponding to exhibiting both low and high
individually controlled oven heaters thermal conductivity. Syntactic
(top) provides a simple method for
monitoring the thickness uniformity
foam is a commonly used material
of a formed part. When using pattern with low thermal conductivity.
or profile heating, gridding also Aluminum also is frequently used,
identifies specific heaters that can be
adjusted to improve material
distribution. The non-uniform,
elongated grid pattern on the bottom
and sides of the refrigerator liner
pictured at center indicates poor
wall thickness uniformity. Material
distribution is significantly improved
in the liner in the bottom photograph
as a result of profiling the oven
temperature.

Form #760-04501-0906X 14 of 34
but because of its high heat transfer Applying more heat to areas of positioned between the sheet and
properties, it requires external the sheet that correspond to low oven heaters to shade or shield
temperature control to prevent draw sections of the part than to appropriate areas of the sheet from
excessive cooling and potential those corresponding to deep draw the heaters and achieve the desired
formation of chill marks or dragoff sections will result in more uniform sheet temperature differentials; this
lines. sheet thinning during forming. This is shown in Figure 1. The degree of
Plugs prestretch the material profile heating technique should be shading can be controlled by
prior to mold contact and physically used only within a material’s varying the number of screens
force more material into high draw acceptable forming range. and/or the size of the screen
areas. Shaped plugs also Profile heating can be achieved openings.
preferentially cool localized areas of utilizing thermoformers equipped Uniform sheet thickness is
the sheet that ultimately end up in with programmable ovens – ovens required to produce consistent parts;
high draw areas of the formed part, containing separate individual unexpected thin and thick areas can
thereby minimizing sheet thinning heaters and temperature control make profile heating difficult or
in these areas. zones. If the equipment lacks this ineffective.
capability, screens can be
Profile heating
Prestretching and mechanical assist
thermoforming can be used in
conjunction with profile heating to
control wall thickness of Figure 1 — Profile Heating
thermoformed parts produced with
male and female molds.
Thermoformed parts exhibit
inherent thickness variations when
sheet of uniform thickness is drawn
into parts exhibiting varying draw
depths. Profile heating uses
preferential or localized heating of
the sheet prior to forming to
improve material distribution in the
final product.

Form #760-04501-0906X 15 of 34
Optimizing the cooling cycle.
Consistent, high quality, economical stresses. Off-mold cooling in
thermoformed products require ambient air typically allows parts to
uniform, controlled cooling that is cool more slowly in an unrestrained
best achieved with water-cooled state, thereby reducing stress.
metal molds. Cooling depends on Parts produced on non-metallic
mold, sheet, and ambient air molds are especially susceptible to
temperatures; the time the material molded-in stresses. Poor mold heat
is in contact with the mold; the transfer properties result in slower
formed part thickness; and the cooling and increased shrinkage.
mold’s ability to dissipate heat. When this shrinkage is restrained by
Cooling rates affect the total the mold, stresses develop in the
thermoforming cycle and therefore part.
manufacturing cost. They also Forced air (fans), water mist, or a
potentially influence the properties carbon dioxide spray may be used to
and performance of formed parts. supplement ambient air cooling,
Generally, there is no reason to especially if non-metallic molds are
leave a part on the mold any longer being used. Cooling fixtures may
than necessary to cool it below the also be used. They frequently
material’s set or heat distortion reduce the cycle times associated
temperature. If a part is cooled more with non-metallic molds because
slowly, more annealing will occur, they allow parts to be removed from
which minimizes internal residual the mold before the material has
stresses. As such, optimized cooling been cooled sufficiently to prevent
times typically involve a distortion. The dimensions of the
compromise between desired cycle formed parts are retained because
times and part performance the cooling fixture is the same size
requirements. and shape as the mold.
Reducing on-mold cooling time
shortens the forming cycle and
reduces internal residual part

Form #760-04501-0906X 16 of 34
Finding the trimming method
to meet your needs.
Sheet in the clamp areas, which is or jigs can incrementally increase may be mounted directly to the
used to hold the material during the output and improve dimensional mold or a separate knife mounting
heating, forming, and cooling accuracy and consistency. assembly. The material to be cut is
processes, is by nature scrap and Automated cutting tools (saws positioned between the cutting die
must be trimmed from the finished and routers), high pressure water and a second plate. The material is
thermoformed part. This may be jets, and lasers controlled by cut when the two plates are brought
done while the part is still on the template- following cam together such that the knives
mold, at a separate station on the mechanisms or robots with contact the second plate.
thermoformer, or off-line after the electronically controlled computer Matching punch and die sets
part has been removed from the guidance systems provide even provide the greatest trimming speed
thermoformer. greater quality and consistency in and accuracy. More expensive than
To maintain accurate part addition to labor savings. steel rule dies, matching punch and
tolerances, it is important to trim at These off-line trimming die sets are best suited for higher
the same temperature every time or techniques are normally used in production rates. Finished parts are
wait until all post-forming conjunction with cut sheet sheared out of the formed web by
shrinkage has occurred. thermoformers. Continuous web punches with dimensions machined
The trimming method utilized fed equipment generally utilizes to closely match the contours of the
will depend on the type of material multicavity tooling to produce large mating dies.
and thermoforming equipment quantities of relatively small parts. Both steel rule dies and
involved, the thickness of the Such operations typically trim in- matching punch and die sets
formed part, the size and geometry line, utilizing either steel rule dies operate in a press. The forming
of the part, the location of the trim or matching punch and die sets. press is utilized for in-mold
line on the part, the number of parts Steel rule dies consist of trimming by incorporating the
to be produced, and the sharpened, hardened metal strips punches and dies into the tooling.
dimensional accuracy required in that are bent to achieve the desired Both in-line (off-the mold) and off-
the final product. cutting configuration. These shaped line trimming require a separate
Hand sawing and routing are knives are mounted in plywood trim press that may be
commonly used for slow board. The knives extend pneumatically, hydraulically, or
production rates of small volume, completely through the plywood electromechanically driven.
large, thick-walled parts with non- such that the edge opposite the
critical dimensions. The use of cutting edge contacts a metal back-
cutting fixtures up plate. The knives also

Form #760-04501-0906X 17 of 34
Troubleshooting typical thermoforming problems.
Probable Cause Action

Problem 1: Incomplete Forming, Poor Detail

A. Sheet too cold. • Check for non-functioning oven heater.
• Increase heating time.
• Raise heater temperature.
• Use more heaters.
• Change to more efficient heaters.

B. Insufficient vacuum, vacuum too slow. • Check for vacuum leaks.

• Clean vacuum holes.
• Relocate vacuum holes.
• Increase number of vacuum holes.
• Increase size and/or counter bore vacuum holes.
• Use vacuum slots instead of holes.
• Increase size of vacuum lines and valves.
• Decrease number and sharpness of bends in
vacuum lines.
• Increase volume of vacuum surge tank and/or
vacuum pump capacity.

C. Cold clamp frame. • Check functionality of heaters in clamp frame area.

• Preheat clamp frame.
• Heat clamp frame.

D. Excessive draw. • Utilize prestretching or mechanical assist techniques.

Problem 2: Excessive Sheet Sag

A. Sheet too hot. • Lower heater temperature.
• Decrease heating time.
• Increase distance between heaters and sheet.
• Screen sheet from oven heaters.
• Check for malfunctioning heater or controller.

B. Inadequate material hot strength. • Minimize sheet temperature via preferential

heating/temperature profiling.
• Material substitution.
• Utilize sag bands.

Form #760-04501-0906X 18 of 34
Probable Cause Action

Problem 3: Non-Uniform or Inconsistent Sheet Sag

A. Non-uniform sheet thickness. • Control sheet thickness.

B. Non-uniform sheet temperature. • Maintain uniform oven temperature.

• Eliminate drafts.

C. Non-uniform sheet orientation. • Minimize and maintain uniform sheet orientation.

D. Material composition variation. • Control regrind type, level, and blend uniformity.

Problem 4: Non-Uniform or Inconsistent Sheet Prestretching

A. Non-uniform sheet thickness. • Control sheet thickness.

B. Non-uniform sheet temperature. • Maintain uniform oven temperature.

• Eliminate drafts.

C. Non-uniform sheet orientation. • Minimize and maintain uniform sheet orientation.

D. Material composition variation. • Control regrind type, level, and blend uniformity.

E. Non-uniform air pressure • Check for line pressure variations.

(billow or bubble techniques). • Check for leaks in air system.
• Check sheet seal on pressure box.
• Baffle or redirect incoming air to prevent localized
cooling of sheet.

Problem 5: Non-Uniform Wall Thickness

A. Excessive sheet sag. • See Problem #2.

B. Non-uniform or inconsistent sheet sag. • See Problem #3.

C. Sag providing inadequate prestretching. • Utilize positive/controlled prestretching techniques.

D. Non-uniform or inconsistent prestretching. • See Problem #4.

E. Vacuum too slow. • See Problem #1, Probable Cause #2.

F. Mold too cold. • Increase mold temperature.

G. Non-uniform mold temperature. • Check for obstructions in mold cooling channels.

• Redistribute mold cooling channels.

Form #760-04501-0906X 19 of 34
Probable Cause Action
Problem 6: Sheet Pulling Out of Clamp Frame
A. Insufficient clamp area. • Increase clamp area.

B. Insufficient clamp force. • Increase clamp force.

• Increase clamp gripping capabilities
(i.e. pins, corrugations, rough surface textures).

C. Uneven heating. • Check functionality of heater in clamp frame area.

• Control sheet temperature via preferential
heating/temperature profiling.

Problem 7: Bubbles, Blisters, or Pits

A. Sheet too hot. • See Problem #2, Probable Cause #1.

B. Excessive moisture. • Protect sheet with moisture barrier wrap.

• Store sheet in low humidity environment.
• Predry sheet.
• Preheat sheet.
• Heat sheet from both sides.
• Heat sheet more slowly.

Problem 8: Scorching, Degradation

A. Surface too hot. • See Problem #2, Probable Cause #1.

Problem 9: Whitening of Formed Part

A. Sheet formed too cold. • Increase sheet temperature.
See Problem #1, Probable Cause #1.
• Increase forming rate.
- Increase platen speed.
- Increase vacuum.
See Problem #1, Probable Cause #2.

Problem 10: Blushing, Change in Color Intensity

A. Sheet too cold. • See Problem #1, Probable Cause #1.

B. Sheet too hot. • See Problem #2, Probable Cause #1.

C. Material thermal instability. • Material substitution.

D. Sheet drawn too far. • Utilize thicker sheet.

• Utilize prestretching or mechanical assist techniques.
E. Mold too hot or cold. • Increase or decrease mold temperature.

Form #760-04501-0906X 20 of 34
Probable Cause Action

Problem 11: Loss of Embossing Detail

A. Draw too great for depth of embossing pattern. • Increase depth of embossing.
• Reduce draw.

B. Non-uniform draw. • Control heating by temperature profiling.

• Utilize prestretching techniques.

Problem 12: Webbing, Bridging or Wrinkling

A. Sheet blank too large. • Decrease sheet size.

B. Material too hot/excessive sag. • See Problem #2, Probable Cause #1.

C. Insufficient vacuum. • See Problem #1, Probable Cause #2.

D. Excessive draw. • Use mechanical plug or ring assist.

• Increase mold and plug or ring speed.
• Add take-up blocks or web catchers in trim area.
• Increase distance between parts in multicavity molds.
• Increase draft and/or radii.
• Use female instead of male molds.
• Redesign part, mold layout, or mechanical assist.

E. Sheet moving in clamp frame. • See Problem #6.

F. Variable draw depth due to part design. • Utilize temperature profiling, localized
heating, or preferential draw.

Problem 13: Chill Marks, Drag-Off Lines

A. Plug or mold too cold. • Increase plug or mold temperature.

B. Plug sticking. • See Problem #19.

C. Improper plug or mold design. • Relieve plug or mold in critical areas.

D. Sheet too hot or cold relative to plug or mold. • Increase or decrease sheet temperature.
See Problem #1, Probable Cause # 1 and
Problem #2, Probable Cause #1.

E. Non-uniform mold temperature. • See Problem #5, Probable Cause #7.

Form #760-04501-0906X 21 of 34
Probable Cause Action

Problem 14: Surface Marks

A. Dust or dirt on sheet, plug or mold. • Clean material or tooling.
• Store material or tooling in clean environment.
• Isolate thermoforming area and provide
filtered, positive pressure atmosphere.

B. Physically damaged sheet or tooling. • Repair tooling.

• Modify handling and storage practices to
protect sheet or tooling.
• Wrap and/or separate sheet with
protective material.

C. Air entrapped between sheet and mold. • Roughen mold surface.

• Add vacuum holes in affected area.

D. Mold too hot or cold. • Increase or decrease mold temperature.

E. Moisture. • See Problem #7, Probable Cause #2.

F. Material contamination. • Keep virgin and regrind material clean

and segregate different materials.

Problem 15: Pinholes or Pimples on Mold Side of Formed Part

A. Sheet too hot. • Refer to Problem #2, Probable Cause #1.

B. Vacuum holes too large. • Decrease size of vacuum holes.

Problem 16: Shiny Streaks

A. Localized overheating. • See Problem #2, Probable Cause #1.
• Utilize temperature profiling.

B. Poor sheet quality. • Improve sheet quality.

Problem 17: Shrink Marks

A. Insufficient vacuum. • See Problem #1, Probable Cause #2.

Form #760-04501-0906X 22 of 34
Probable Causes Action
Problem 18: Part Warpage and Shrinkage
A. Part too hot when removed from mold • Increase cooling time.
removed from mold. • Reduce mold temperature.
• Utilize additional cooling techniques
(i.e., forced air, water mist).
B. Non-uniform part cooling. • See Problem #5, Probable Cause #7.
C. Non-uniform wall thickness. • See Problem #5.
D. Mold too cold. • Increase mold temperature.
E. Part formed too cold. • Increase sheet temperature.
See Problem #1, Probable Cause #1.
• Increase forming rate.
- Increase platen speed.
- See Problem #1, Probable Cause #2.

F. Poor part design. • Stiffen and break up large surface areas

with ribs, fillets, and corrugations.

Problem 19: Plug Sticking

A. Plug too hot. • Reduce plug temperature.
• Use mold release agent or lubricant.
• Coat plug with Teflon 1 resin.
• Cover plug with wool felt or cotton flannel.
• Utilize syntactic foam plug.
1
Teflon is a trademark of E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Co. Inc.

Form #760-04501-0906X 23 of 34
Probable Cause Action
Problem 20: Mold Sticking
A. Excessive part temperature when. • Increase cooling time.
• Reduce mold temperature.
B. Insufficient mold draft. • Increase draft or taper.
• Increase eject air pressure and time.
• Reduce mold speed.
• Remove hotter part from mold to
minimize shrinkage.
- Shorter cooling cycle.
- Hotter mold.
• Utilize female mold.
• Utilize mold release agent.
C. Mold undercuts. • Avoid.
• Use removable or retractable mold segments.
• Increase eject air pressure and time.
• Reduce mold speed.
D. Rough mold surface. • Polish mold.
• Utilize mold release agent.

Problem 21: Sheet Tearing During Forming

A. Sheet too hot or too cold. • Increase or decrease sheet temperature.
See Problem #1, Probable Cause #1 and
Problem #2, Probable Cause #1.
B. Poor thickness uniformity. • Refer to Problem #5.
C. Excessive draw. • Utilize prestretching or mechanical
assist techniques.
D. Insufficient material melt strength. • See Problem #2, Probable Cause #2.

Problem 22: Part Cracking

A. High internal stresses. • Increase sheet forming temperature.
See Problem #1, Probable Cause #1.
• Form part quickly.
See Problem #1, Probable Cause #2.
B. Non-uniform material distribution. • Utilize prestretching or mechanical
assist techniques.
• Utilize temperature profiling.
C. Improper part design. • Increase radii.

Form #760-04501-0906X 24 of 34
Appendix Thermoforming equipment
There are two basic types of disposable dinnerware (cups,
thermoforming equipment: cut plates, and bowls). These products
sheet and web fed thermoformers. generally require relatively shallow
Cut sheet thermoformers draws (up to 6" [15 cm]), and they
utilize precut sheet. They operate utilize either solid (< 100 mils [2.5
via either “shuttle,” “rotary,” or mm]) or foam (< 250 mils [6 mm])
“continuous” (straight line sheet.
intermittent) motions. Cut sheet
thermoformers are generally used
to produce large, durable products Cut Sheet Equipment
such as refrigerator door and
Shuttle thermoformers are
cabinet liners, computer housings,
available with single or multiple
canoes, boat hulls, coolers, bathtub
forming stations. Single-station
and shower surrounds, toys, and
shuttle machines utilize one clamp
point of purchase displays from
frame to transport sheet back and
relatively large, thick sheet that is
forth between a single oven and
difficult or impossible to wind due
forming station. Sheet and formed
to its stiffness. Such equipment is
parts are loaded and unloaded from
readily capable of handling sheet
the clamp frame at either the
thicknesses of up to 0.600 inches
forming station or a separate
(15 mm) and draw depths up to 42
loading and unloading station.
inches (1,050 mm).
Two-station shuttles utilize two
Web fed thermoformers may
clamp frames, both of which are
operate in a straight line
loaded and unloaded at the forming
intermittent or true continuous
stations, as shown in Figure A-1.
motion. “Off-line” web fed
These machines may be equipped
thermoformers are fed by roll
with either two ovens or two
stock, and “in-line” web fed
forming stations. Two-station
thermoformers are fed directly by
machines increase production
an extruder. This type of equipment
output because they allow multiple
is typically used to produce
operations to occur simultaneously.
smaller, large volume products
Dual ovens are advantageous
such as food and nonfood packages
when heating is the limiting factor
(cottage cheese, sour cream, and
affecting cycle time. Dual forming
yogurt containers; produce, poultry
stations potentially allow two
and cookie trays; egg cartons and
different products to be run at the
blister packs) and
same time.

Form #760-04501-0906X 25 of 34
Rotary thermoformers, shown in
Figure A-2, are also used to
increase production output by
allowing all machine functions to
occur simultaneously. The clamp
frames, one for each station, are
mounted on a circular frame, which
indexes the material through the
various machine operations.
Three-station machines have a
separate loading and unloading
station in addition to the heating
and forming stations. Four-station
machines may have two separate
heating stations or separate loading
and unloading stations to allow for
potential in-line trimming.
Continuous cut sheet
thermoformers, as shown in
Figure A-3, operate in an
intermittent motion. Material
moves along a continuous line from
one end of the machine to the other.
These thermoformers typically use
long ovens through which the sheet
is indexed. This permits slow,
uniform heating without increasing
the cycle time. This type of
thermoformer is usually equipped
with on-the-mold or in-line
trimming.

Form #760-04501-0906X 26 of 34
Web Fed Equipment
Straight line thermoformers
utilize pin chains to index the
material through the machine.
Wheel thermoformers wrap
the web around a continuously
rotating drum, which carries the
material through the heating and
forming operations.
In-line thermoformers (Figure
A-4) are potentially more efficient
and economical than offline
thermoformers (Figure A-5). The
material coming off the extruder
requires less heating. It is primarily
surface cooling that occurs after the
sheet is extruded and the surface is
readily reheated. The center of the
sheet, which is the most difficult to
heat, stays hot, thereby providing
faster cycles and more uniform
sheet temperatures, which
potentially improves both
processability and final product
properties.
Disadvantages associated with
in-line thermoforming include the
increased complexity of
synchronizing the extrusion and
thermoforming operations. Also,
when there is an upset in and/or a
need to shut down one line, both
operations are down.

Form #760-04501-0906X 27 of 34
Basic thermoforming methods and techniques
Mechanical Forming Then the air between the sheet and mold last. Because the mold
the mold is evacuated. The operates at a lower temperature
Matched mold forming, as shown resulting product is thickest in the than the sheet, the sheet cools upon
in Figure A-6, is a common center of the part, where the contacting the mold. This limits the
mechanical method. Matched material first touches the mold. It is material’s ability to stretch and
molds are vented to allow thinnest in high draw areas around become thinner, thereby causing
entrapped air to escape as the the periphery, which contacts the non-uniform thickness.
heated sheet is compressed between
matching male and female molds.
A vacuum may or may not be
utilized to assist in venting
entrapped air.
Vacuum Forming

Vacuum forming uses atmospheric

pressure (14.7 psi [1.3 bar]) to
force the sheet to conform to the
mold. Both male and female molds
can be used for vacuum forming,
and the type of mold selected
dictates which forming technique
should be used. Common vacuum
forming techniques include the
following.
Drape forming, as shown in
Figure A-7, is used with male
molds. The heated plastic sheet is
stretched over the mold, or the
mold is pushed into the sheet.

Form #760-04501-0906X 28 of 34
 Straight vacuum forming, shown is essentially opposite of that Snap back, billow/air slip, and
in Figure A-8, is used with female obtained when the same part is billow drape are multistep vacuum
molds. Heated sheet is sealed produced by drape forming on a forming techniques designed to
against the top of the mold. The male mold. improve the wall thickness
mold cavity is evacuated, and Drape vacuum forming, shown uniformity of parts produced on a
atmospheric pressure pushes the in Figure A-9, is similar to straight male mold by prestretching the
material down into the mold. This vacuum forming except the sheet is sheet prior to its contacting the
forming technique results in mate- stretched all the way to the base of mold. Stretching the sheet freely in
rial distribution (thin in the middle the mold. air without
and thick around the edges) that

Form #760-04501-0906X 29 of 34
touching anything allows the
material to thin out uniformly. As a
result, the sheet’s surface area is
also increased so that it more
closely matches that of the mold.
Snapback vacuum forming, as
shown in Figure A-10, utilizes a
vacuum box to prestretch the sheet.
The vacuum box is mounted to the
platen opposite the male mold.
Heated sheet is sealed against the
box. Then a partial vacuum,
sufficient to achieve the desired
amount of stretching, is applied to
the box. The mold is pushed into
the concave sheet. The box is
vented to the atmosphere, and a
vacuum is drawn on the mold. The
atmospheric pressure forces the
material against the mold.
Billow/air-slip vacuum
forming, illustrated in Figure A-11,
utilizes a pressure box with a male
mold positioned inside it. The
heated sheet is sealed against the
box. The box is pressured with
compressed air and the sheet
billows up to form a bubble that
provides the appropriate stretching.
The mold is pushed up into the
convex bubble. Then the box and
mold are evacuated, and the sheet
is forced against the mold.

Form #760-04501-0906X 30 of 34
 Billow drape is a reverse-draw
vacuum forming technique that
utilizes a pressure box to blow a
bubble, as shown in Figure A-
12. The male mold, mounted
opposite the box, is pushed into
the convex bubble. The air in the
bubble is vented to the
atmosphere in a controlled
manner. By matching the
amount of air being vented to
that being displaced by the
mold, the sheet material is
wiped or draped against the
mold. When the mold
completely penetrates the sheet,
a vacuum is applied to the mold
and the box is vented to the
atmosphere to complete the
forming operation.
Plug-assist and
billow/plugassist/ snapback are
multistep vacuum forming
techniques designed to improve
the wall thickness uniformity of
parts produced with female
molds. They utilize mechanical
assists (plugs) to force more
material into high draw areas of
the part. Shaped plugs prestretch
the sheet and can preferentially
cool the sheet to minimize
thinning in high draws.
Plug-assist, which is shown
in Figure A-13, is used in
conjunction with straight
vacuum or drape vacuum
forming techniques.

Form #760-04501-0906X 31 of 34
The plug is mounted on the platen against a female mold. The mold is Pressure Forming
opposite the mold. Heated sheet is pressurized to stretch the sheet by
sealed against the mold, and the blowing a bubble. A plug mounted Pressure forming, shown in Figure
plug pushes the material into the opposite the mold is forced into the A-15, uses compressed air in
mold prior to drawing a vacuum. convex bubble, and controlled addition to atmospheric pressure.
When the mold is evacuated, the venting of the displaced air in the Applications involving 50 psi (3.5
material is forced off the plug and bubble causes the material to be bar) are common. Others have
up against the mold cavity. draped over the plug. When the employed pressures up to 150 psi
Billow/plug-assist/snap-back plug is fully extended, the mold is (10 bar) – and even higher in some
forming combines several different evacuated and the material is specialized cases. Pressure forming
forming techniques, as shown in pushed off the plug and onto the requires special equipment with
Figure A-14. Sheet is sealed mold. platens and/or molds and pressure
boxes capable of locking up and
holding the necessary operating
pressure. Pressure forming can be
incorporated into any of the
vacuum forming techniques
previously described.

Twin Sheet Forming

The twin sheet forming process,
shown in Figure A-16, produces
hollow parts. Two heated sheets are
positioned between two female
molds with matching perimeters or
contact surfaces. The mold cavity
contours may or may not be
identical. The molds come together
and heat seal the two sheets
together where the molds meet. The
two sheets may be either pressure
formed simultaneously or vacuum
formed sequentially utilizing
conventional forming techniques.

Form #760-04501-0906X 32 of 34
Form #760-04501-0906X 33 of 34
 For more information on the products, innovations, expertise, and other services
available from Dow’s Plastics business group in your region, please visit our web site
at www.dowplastics.com or contact us as indicated below.

North America Europe/Middle East +800-3694-6367

U.S. & Canada 1-800-441-4369 +32-3-450-2240
1-989-832-1426
South Africa +800-99-5078
Mexico +1-800-441-4369

Asia Pacific +800-7776-7776

Latin America
+60-3-7958-3392
Argentina +54-11-4319-0100
Brazil +55-11-5188-9000
Colombia +57-1-319-2100
Mexico +52-55-5201-4700

Our belief in the principles of Responsible Care® and Sustainable Development influenced the production of this literature.
To help protect our environment, this document was printed in small quantities on paper containing recovered/post-
consumer fiber and using 100 percent soy-based ink whenever possible.

NOTE: The photographs of end-use applications in this document represent potential end-use applications but do not
necessarily represent current commercial applications, nor do they represent an endorsement by The Dow Chemical
Company of the actual products. Further, these photographs are for illustration purposes only and do not reflect either
an endorsement or sponsorship of any other manufacturer for a specific potential end-use product or application, or for
The Dow Chemical Company, or specific products manufactured by The Dow Chemical Company.

NOTICE: No freedom from infringement of any patent owned by Dow or others is to be inferred. Because use conditions
and applicable laws may differ from one location to another and may change with time, the Customer is responsible
for determining whether products and the information in this document are appropriate for the Customer’s use and for
ensuring that the Customer’s workplace and disposal practices are in compliance with applicable laws and other gov-
ernmental enactments. Dow assumes no obligation or liability for the information in this document. NO WARRANTIES
ARE GIVEN; ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
ARE EXPRESSLY EXCLUDED.

NOTICE: If products are described as “experimental” or “developmental”: (1) product specifications may not be fully
determined; (2) analysis of hazards and caution in handling and use are required; and (3) there is greater potential for
Dow to change specifications and/or discontinue production.

DOW MEDICAL APPLICATION POLICY: Dow will not knowingly sell or sample any product or service (“Product”) into any
commercial or developmental application that is intended for:
a. permanent (Long term) contact with internal body fluids or internal body tissues. Long term is a use which exceeds
72 continuous hours (except 30 days for PELLETHANE™ polyurethane elastomers);
b. use in cardiac prosthetic devices regardless of the length of time involved; (Cardiac prosthetic devices include, but are
not limited to, pacemaker leads and devices, artificial hearts, heart valves, intra-aortic balloons and control systems,
and ventricular bypass assisted devices);
c. use as a critical component in medical devices that support or sustain human life; or
d. use specifically by pregnant women or in applications designed specifically to promote or interfere with
human reproduction.

Additionally, all Products intended for use in pharmaceutical applications, other than pharmaceutical packaging, must
pass the current Pharmaceutical Liability Guidelines.

• For the products sold by the Plastics Portfolio, new business opportunities require a business assessment prior to
sale or sampling of Dow products.
• Authorized distributors and resellers will adhere to this medical policy.
• The Dow Chemical Company does not endorse or claim suitability of their products for specific medical applications.
It is the responsibility of the medical device or pharmaceutical manufacturer to determine that the Dow product is
safe, lawful, and technically suitable for the intended use. DOW MAKES NO WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED,
CONCERNING THE SUITABILITY OF ANY DOW PRODUCT FOR USE IN MEDICAL APPLICATIONS.

Published September 2006

® ™ Trademark of The Dow Chemical Company (“Dow”) or an affiliated company of Dow Printed in U.S.A.
® Responsible Care is a service mark of the American Chemistry Council.
34 of 34 Dow is a partner in the American Chemistry Council Responsible Care initiative. Form No. 760-04501-0906X SMG
SMG 11125