Review on Heat Transfer

MO D U LE 1 . 2
A L L A N T ROY S A L A ZA R
Outline
Heat Transfer Terminologies
◦ Heat and Temperature, Heat and Work, Heat Flux

Mechanisms of Heat Transfer

◦ Conduction, Convection, Radiation

Heat transfer coefficient

Thermal conductivity, heat transfer coefficient, heat transfer of pipe wall, over-all heat transfer
coefficient
Heat transfer and thermodynamics, latent heat, change of state, Thermodynamics of change
Temperature0entropy of process for single flash plant
 Heat and Temperature
Temperature is a measure of the amount of energy possessed by the
molecules of a substance.
◦ It is a relative measure of how hot or cold a substance is and can be used to
predict the direction of heat transfer.

Heat is energy in transit. The transfer of energy as heat occurs at the

molecular level as a result of a temperature difference.
◦ Heat is capable of being transmitted through
▪ solids and fluids by conduction,
▪ through fluids by convection,
▪ and through empty space by radiation.

Q, Symbol of Heat (calorie in SI, Btu in English system)

 Heat and Work
Work is the transfer of energy resulting from a
force acting through a distance.
Heat is energy transferred as the result of a
temperature difference.
Neither heat nor work are thermodynamic
properties of a system. Heat can be transferred into
or out of a system and work can be done on or by a
system, but a system cannot contain or store either
heat or work.
When a temperature difference exists across a
boundary, the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
indicates the natural flow of energy is from the
hotter body to the colder body.
Heat Flux, Q
Heat flux or thermal flux, sometimes also referred to as heat flux density or heat flow rate
intensity is a flow of energy per unit of area per unit of time. In SI its units are watts per square
metre (W⋅m−2).
Mechanisms of Heat Transfer
Conduction or Diffusion
◦ Involves the transfer of heat by the interactions of atoms or molecules of a material through which the
heat is being transferred. The transfer of energy between objects that are in physical contact.

Convection
◦ Involves the transfer of heat by the mixing and motion of macroscopic portions of a fluid. The transfer
of energy between an object and its environment, due to fluid motion. The average temperature is a
reference for evaluating properties related to convective heat transfer.

Radiation, or radiant heat transfer

◦ Involves the transfer of heat by electromagnetic radiation that arises due to the temperature of a body.
Conduction
Heat conduction, also called diffusion, is the direct microscopic
exchange of kinetic energy of particles through the boundary
between two systems.
When an object is at a different temperature from another body
or its surroundings, heat flows so that the body and the
surroundings reach the same temperature, at which point they
are in thermal equilibrium.
Such spontaneous heat transfer always occurs from a region of
high temperature to another region of lower temperature, as
described in the second law of thermodynamics.
Convection
Heat convection occurs when bulk flow of a fluid
(gas or liquid) carries heat along with the flow of
matter in the fluid.
The flow of fluid may be forced by external
processes, or sometimes (in gravitational fields) by
buoyancy forces caused when thermal energy
expands the fluid (for example in a fire plume),
thus influencing its own transfer.
The latter process is often called "natural
convection". All convective processes also move
heat partly by diffusion, as well.
Another form of convection is forced convection.
In this case the fluid is forced to flow by use of a
pump, fan or other mechanical means.
Radiation
Thermal radiation occurs through a vacuum or any
transparent medium (solid or fluid). It is the transfer of
energy by means of photons in electromagnetic waves
(photons) in the infrared, visible, and ultraviolet ranges.
Such waves are constantly generated by substances as a
result of molecular and atomic vibrations due to internal
energy.
Heat transfer by radiation often becomes dominant in heat
transfer in optically transparent systems at temperatures
above 1000°C.
Radiative heat transfer involves the events of radiation,
transport, and absorption of thermal energy.
Thermal Conductivity, (k)
Thermal Conductivity (k) - is heat transfer
characteristics of a solid measured (W/(m ⋅K) or Btu/hr-
ft-degF. It is a measure of a substance’s ability to transfer
heat through a solid by conduction. The thermal
conductivity of most liquids and solids varies with
temperature. For vapors, it depends upon pressure.
◦ Heat transfer occurs at a lower rate in materials of low
thermal conductivity than in materials of high thermal
conductivity.
◦ Materials of high thermal conductivity are widely used in
heat sink applications
◦ materials of low thermal conductivity are used as thermal
insulation
◦ The thermal conductivity of a material may depend on
temperature.
 Heat Transfer Coefficient, (h)
The heat transfer coefficient or film
coefficient, or film effectiveness, in
thermodynamics and in mechanics is the
proportionality constant between the
heat flux and the thermodynamic
driving force for the flow of heat (i.e.,
the temperature difference, ΔT).
It represents the thermal resistance of a
relatively stagnant layer of fluid between
a heat transfer surface and the fluid
medium. It is the heat transfer due to
convection
 Heat transfer coefficient of pipe wall
The resistance to the flow of heat by the material of pipe wall can be expressed as a "heat transfer
coefficient of the pipe wall".
One needs to select if the heat flux on the pipe inner diameter, and assuming that the pipe wall thickness is
small in comparison with the pipe inner diameter, then the heat transfer coefficient for the pipe wall can be
calculated as if the wall were not curved
where k is the effective thermal conductivity of
the wall material and x is the wall thickness

If the above assumption does not hold, then the

wall heat transfer coefficient can be calculated
using the following expression:
 Combining convective heat transfer coefficients
For two or more heat transfer processes acting in parallel,
convective heat transfer coefficients simply add,

For two or more heat transfer processes connected in series,

convective heat transfer coefficients add inversely

Consider a pipe with a fluid flowing inside. The approximate

rate of heat transfer between the bulk of the fluid inside the
pipe and the pipe external surface is
 Over-all Heat Transfer Coefficient, (U)
The overall heat transfer rate for combined modes
is usually expressed in terms of an overall
conductance or heat transfer coefficient, U
In the case of combined heat transfer, it is common
practice to relate the total rate of heat transfer (Q ),
the overall cross-sectional area for heat transfer
(Ao), and the overall temperature difference (ΔTo)
using the overall heat transfer coefficient (Uo).
is a measure of the overall ability of a series of
conductive and convective barriers to transfer heat
Over-all heat transfer coefficient through the tube, htot
 Application in the understanding of heat transfer
evaluation in geothermal system for electricity
generation
Geothermal reservoir - Reservoir management
FCRS – condensation in pipelines and separator vessels
Power Plant – thermal conversion to work, to electricity and
effectiveness of cooling tower
 Heat Transfer Key Concept
➢ Heat is energy transferred as a result of a temperature difference.
➢ Temperature is a measure of the amount of molecular energy contained in a substance.
➢ Work is a transfer of energy resulting from a force acting through a distance.
➢ The Second Law of Thermodynamics implies that heat will not transfer from a colder to a hotter body without some external
source of energy.
➢ Conduction involves the transfer of heat by the interactions of atoms or molecules of a material through which the heat is
being transferred.
➢ Convection involves the transfer of heat by the mixing and motion of macroscopic portions of a fluid.
➢ Radiation, or radiant heat transfer, involves the transfer of heat by electromagnetic radiation that arises due to the
temperature of a body.
➢ Heat flux is the rate of heat transfer per unit area.
➢ Thermal conductivity is a measure of a substance’s ability to transfer heat through itself.
➢ Log mean temperature difference is the DT that most accurately represents the DT for a heat exchanger.
➢ The local heat transfer coefficient represents a measure of the ability to transfer heat through a stagnant film layer.
➢ The overall heat transfer coefficient is the measure of the ability of a heat exchanger to transfer heat from one fluid to
another.
➢ The bulk temperature is the temperature of the fluid that best represents the majority of the fluid which is not physically
connected to the heat transfer site.
Difference between thermodynamics and heat transfer.
"Thermodynamics" deals with the amount of energy in form of heat or work during a process and only
considers the end states in equilibrium. It will not give information about how long it will take to reach to the
final state in equilibrium.

"Heat Transfer" deals with the rate of energy transfer thus, it gives idea of how long a heat transfer will
occur? Heat transfer deals with time and non equilibrium phenomena. Heat can only transfer when there is
a temperature gradient exists in a body and which is indication of non equilibrium phenomena.

Thermodynamics Heat Transfer

◦ Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics ◦ Fourier's Law (Heat conduction)
◦ First law of Thermodynamics ◦ Newtons Law of Cooling (Heat convection)
◦ Second Law of Thermodynamics ◦ Planck's Law (Thermal Radiation)
◦ Third Law of Thermodynamics ◦ Stephan Boltzman's Law (Thermal Radiation)
◦ Wein's Law (Thermal Radiation)
◦ Kirchoff's Law (Thermal Radiation)
◦ Lambart's Law (Thermal Radiation)
 Phase Diagram of Water
In thermodynamics, the triple point of a
substance is the temperature and pressure at
which the three phases (gas, liquid, and solid) of
that substance coexist in thermodynamic
equilibrium

• A critical point (or critical state) is the end point

of a phase equilibrium curve.
• Prominent example is the liquid-vapor critical
point, the end point of the pressure-temperature
curve that designates conditions under which a
liquid and its vapor can coexist.
• At higher temperatures, the gas cannot be
liquefied by pressure alone.
• At the critical point, defined by a critical
temperature Tc and a critical pressure pc, phase
boundaries vanish.
Latent Heat
Thermal energy released or absorbed, by a
body or a thermodynamic system, during a
constant-temperature process — usually a
first-order phase transition.
Can be understood as heat energy in hidden
form which is supplied or extracted to change
the state of a substance without changing its
temperature.
◦ Examples are latent heat of fusion and latent
heat of vaporization involved in phase changes,
i.e. a substance condensing or vaporizing at a
specified temperature and pressure
 Heat and change of state

This diagram shows the heat energies needed to

convert 1 gram of ice at 0°C to its liquid and gaseous
states. The unit of energy used is the calorie, which is
defined as being the amount of heat energy needed
to raise the temperature of 1g of water by 1°C.
 Thermodynamics of the conversion process
The processes undergone by the geo fluid are
best viewed in a thermodynamic state diagram
in which the fluid temperature is plotted on
the y-axiz and the fluid specific entropy is
plotted on x-axiz.
A temperature-entropy diagram for the single-
flash plant is shown
 Temperature-entropy (T-s) process diagram
Flashing process
processes begins with geo fluid under pressure at state 1, close to the
saturation curve. The flashing process is modeled as one at constant enthalpy
(isenthalpic process)
Separation Process
The separation process is modeled as one at constant pressure, i.e., an
isobaric process, once the flash has taken place. The quality or dryness
fraction, x, of the mixture that forms after the flash

Turbine Expansion Process

The work produced by the turbine per unit mass of steam flowing through it
is given by assuming no heat loss from the turbine and neglecting the
changes in kinetic and potential energy of the fluid entering and leaving the
turbine

isentropic turbine efficiency, ηt, as the ratio of the actual

work to the isentropic work
 Temperature-entropy (T-s) process diagram
Condensing process
The First Law of thermodynamics
relates the required flow rate of
cooling water, to the steam flow rate

Cooling Tower process

The cooling tower must be designed to
accommodate the heat load from the
condensing steam.