CONTENTS

 Introduction
 AC-DC Converters

1. Study the performance of a single-phase AC-DC phase controlled bridge rectifier.

Record ac supply voltage and current waveform, harmonic spectrum, THD, crest factor,
rms value, distortion factor, displacement factor, power factor, output DC voltage,
average value, peak-peak ripple and ripple factor at two firing angles with (i) resistive (R)
(ii) inductive (R-L) and (iii) constant current loads.
2. Study the performance of three-phase AC-DC phase controlled bridge rectifier.
Record the ac supply voltage and current waveform, harmonic spectrum, THD, crest
factor, rms value, distortion factor, displacement factor and power factor, output DC
voltage average value, peak-peak ripple and ripple factor at two firing angles with (i)
resistive load (ii) inductive (R-L) and (iii) constant current loads.

3. Study the performance of a single-phase AC-DC uncontrolled bridge rectifier with

(a) Inductor (b) Capacitor and (c) LC filter. Record ac supply voltage and current
waveform, harmonic spectrum, THD, crest factor, rms value, power factor, output DC
voltage, average value, peak-peak ripple and ripple factor.
4. Study the characteristics of 12-pulse and 24-pulse uncontrolled three-phase bridge
rectifiers. Record ac supply voltage its current waveform, Harmonic spectrum, THD,
crest factor, rms value, distortion factor, displacement factor and power factor, output DC
voltage average value, peak-peak ripple and ripple factor in 12-pulse and 24-pulse
uncontrolled rectifiers with (i) resistive load (ii) dc shunt capacitor filter.
5. Study the performance of a bridgeless single-stage half bridge AC-DC converter.
Design and simulate a bridgeless single-stage half bridge AC-DC converter.
6. Study the performance of a three-phase MINNESOTA AC-DC converter. Design
and simulate a three-phase MINNESOTA AC-DC converter.
 DC-DC Converters

7. Study the performance of a dc-dc buck chopper. Control them in the open loop and
record the DC supply voltage, supply current, load voltage and load current, device
voltage and current in resistive and inductive loads.
8. Study the performance of a dc-dc boost chopper. Control them in the open loop and
record the DC supply voltage, supply current, load voltage and load current, device
voltage and current in resistive and inductive loads.
9. Study the performance of a dc-dc buck-boost power supply. Control in the open loop
and record the DC supply voltage, supply current, load voltage and load current, device
voltage and current in resistive load.
10. Study the performance of a dc-dc CUK converter. Control in the open loop and record
the DC supply voltage, supply current, load voltage and load current, device voltage and
current in resistive load.
11. Study the performance of a dc-dc flyback power supply. Control in the open loop and
record the DC supply voltage, supply current, load voltage and load current, device
voltage and current in resistive load.
12. Study the performance of a dc-dc push-pull power supply. Control in the open loop
and record the DC supply voltage, supply current, load voltage and load current, device
voltage and current in resistive load.
13. Study the performance of a dc-dc full bridge power supply. Control in the open loop
and record the DC supply voltage, supply current, load voltage and load current, device
voltage and current in resistive load.
14. Study the performance of a dc-dc SEPIC converter. Control in the open loop and
record the DC supply voltage, supply current, load voltage and load current, device
voltage and current in resistive load.
15. Study the performance of a dc-dc flyback power supply. Control in the open loop and
record the DC supply voltage, supply current, load voltage and load current, device

1
 voltage and current in resistive load.
16. Study the performance of a dc-dc half bridge power supply. Control in the open loop
and record the DC supply voltage, supply current, load voltage and load current, device
voltage and current in resistive load.
 DC-AC Converters

17. Study the performance of a single-phase DC-AC inverter with triangular carrier
PWM control and square wave operation. Record ac voltage and current waveform,
harmonic spectrum, THD, crest factor, rms value, distortion factor, displacement factor
and power factor, input DC current average value and waveform.
18. Study the performance of a three-phase DC-AC inverter with triangular carrier
PWM control and square wave operation. Record ac voltage and current waveform,
harmonic spectrum, THD, crest factor, rms value, distortion factor, displacement factor
and power factor, input DC current average value and waveform in DC-AC single-phase
inverter.
 AC-AC Converters

19. Study the performance of single-phase AC voltage controllers with (i) resistive (R),
and (ii) resistive-inductive (R-L) at two firing angles. Record ac supply voltage, load
voltage and current waveform, harmonic spectrum, THD, crest factor, rms value,
distortion factor, displacement factor, active power, reactive power and apparent power
and power factor for R and R-L loads.
20. Study the performance of three-phase AC voltage controllers with (i) resistive (R), (ii)
three-phase motor loads. Record ac supply voltage, load voltage and current waveform,
harmonic spectrum, THD, crest factor, rms value, distortion factor, displacement factor,
active power, reactive power and apparent power and power factor for R and motor loads.
21. Study the performance of single-phase step up and step down AC cycloconverters
with (i) resistive (R), and (ii) resistive-inductive (R-L) loads at two firing angles. Record
ac supply voltage, load voltage and current waveform, harmonic spectrum, THD, crest
factor, rms value, distortion factor, displacement factor, active power, reactive power and
apparent power and power factor for R and R-L loads.

 Others

22. Study the power quality of lighting devices. Performance of commercially available T-5
fluorescent tubes with (i) magnetic ballast (ii) electronic ballast and (iii) 18W CFL, and
(v) 100W incandescent bulb. Record lumens, AC supply voltage and current waveform,
harmonic spectrum, THD, crest factor, rms value, distortion factor, displacement factor,
active power, reactive power and apparent power and power factor at three voltage levels.
23. Study of a resonant converter. Control in the open loop and record the supply voltage,
supply current, output voltage and output current.
24. Obtain the I-V characteristics of power semiconductor devices such as diode, SCR,
Triac and MOSFET on CRO and study the devices.
25. Simulation of a Distribution Static Compensator

2
 EXPERIMENT NO. 1

SINGLE PHASE AC TO DC CONTROLLED RECTIFIER

AIM

To simulate and experimentally verify the performance of Single phase controlled rectifier.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Single phase half controlled Rectifier Single phase fully controlled Rectifier

WAVEFORM

3
THEORY

Controlled single phase rectifiers are used to get variable dc output voltage from a given
fixed ac input voltage.

Parameters of Output dc voltage

For single phase fully controlled bridge rectifier,

DC value of output voltage, Vdc =

Where α and β are the firing and extinction angles.

Rms value of output voltage, Vrms = (π - α) + ]1/2

Effective (rms) value of ac output voltage, Vac =

Form Factor, FF =

Ripple Factor, RF =

Peak to peak Ripple, Vpp = Vmax - Vmin

For single phase half controlled bridge rectifier,

DC value of output voltage, Vdc =

Rms value of output voltage, Vrms = (β - α) - ]1/2

Performance parameters of the input current

Displacement power factor, DPF = , where is the displacement angle.

Distortion Factor, DF = , where Is1 is the fundamental component of the input current,

Is is the peak of input current. Both are expressed in rms.

Harmonic Factor / Total Harmonic Distortion, HF =

Input power factor, pf = = DF*DPF

Crest Factor, CF =

4
SIMULATION USING MATLAB

Prepare the MATLAB models of single phase half controlled and fully controlled rectifiers.
Run the simulation and observe the waveform using scope.

5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
CALCULATIONS

For single phase fully controlled bridge rectifier,

DC value of output voltage, Vdc =

Where α and β are the firing and extinction angles.

Rms value of output voltage, Vrms = (π - α) + ]1/2

Effective (rms) value of ac output voltage, Vac =

Form Factor, FF =

Ripple Factor, RF =

Peak to peak Ripple, Vpp = Vmax - Vmin

For single phase half controlled bridge rectifier,

DC value of output voltage, Vdc =

Rms value of output voltage, Vrms = (β - α) - ]1/2

Performance parameters of the input current

Displacement power factor , DPF = , where is the displacement angle.

Distortion Factor , DF = , where Is1 is the fundamental component of the input current,

Is is the peak of input current.Both are expressed in rms.

Harmonic Factor / Total Harmonic Distortion , HF =

Input power factor , pf = = DF*DPF

Crest Factor , CF =

TABULATIONS

Single phase Half controlled rectifier

Load type α Β Vdc(obs) Vdc(calc) Vrms(obs) Vrms(calc)

R 0 -
30 -
R-L 0
30

13
Single phase Fully controlled rectifier

Load type α Β Vdc(obs) Vdc(calc) Vrms(obs) Vrms(calc)

R 0 -
30 -
R-L 0
30

EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION

PE1

PROCEDURE

1) Single phase half controlled and fully controlled rectifiers are designed and setup in
the laboratory using power electronics kit PE1 as per the circuit

2) Give an ac supply voltage of 12V using the inbuilt step-down transformer to the
rectifier and the corresponding load is connected. Triggering pulse is given to SCR.
All connections are made by patch cords.

3) Obtain the output waveform in CRO.

4) By varying the conduction angle, take different values of output voltages.

14
EXPERIMENTAL WAVEFORMS

EXPERIMENTAL RESULT

Rectifier Type Α VObserved VCalculated

Bridge Rectifier 45
90
Half wave Rectifier 45
90
Sample Calculation

Vm =

α=

Vdc = (1 + Cosα)

RESULT

The performance of single-phase fully controlled rectifier has been studied,

simulated using MATLAB and experimentally verified.

15
 EXPERIMENT NO. 2

THREE PHASE AC TO DC CONVERTER

AIM:

To Study the characteristics of a three-phase controlled rectifiers. Record the AC

supply voltage and current waveform, harmonic spectrum, THD, crest factor, rms value,
distortion factor, displacement factor and power factor, output DC voltage average value,
peak-peak ripple and ripple factor in 6-pulse uncontrolled rectifiers with resistive load and
constant current load.

PRINCIPLE:

To achieve the 6-pulse rectifier operation, the following connections are been done,

Bridge Rectifier: With R load

It is a six pulse rectifier, the upper group of thyristors T1,T3,T5 conduct at 1200
interval and the lower group of thyristors T6,T4,T2 conduct at 120º interval. But both are
shifted by 300. So the output will have six pulses or six ripples. The output ripples start at
π/6, π/2, etc at a slip of 600. The average output voltage is given as

Vo= Vmcosωtd(ωt)

= Vmcosα

16
Bridge Rectifier: With RL load

Relation between Vo and α for three phase full converter

17
EQUATIONS REQUIRED

Case 1. R Load:

Average output dc voltage, Vdc== Vmcosα

The rms value of the output voltage is found from

Vrms = Vm

Ripple factor can also be expressed as

RF = √( )2 – 1

Peak to peak ripple of vVpp):

Vpp = Vmax - Vm

Case 2. RL load

Average output dc voltage, Vdc== Vmcosα

The rms value of the output voltage is found from

Vrms = Vm

For constant load

Is1 = Ia = 0.7797Ia =

Is = Ia = 0.8165Ia =

HF =

DF = cosФ

Where Ф is the phase angle between the fundamental components of vs and is. Ф is called
the displacement angle

PF = cosФ

Distortion factor =

18
CALCULATION

α=

Average output dc voltage, Vdc= Vmcosα

Vrms = Vm

Ripple factor RF = √( )2 – 1

Vpp = Vmax - Vm

Constant current load

Load current Ia = 13A

Is1 = Ia = 0.7797Ia

Is = Ia = 0.8165Ia

HF =

DF = cosФ

Distortion factor =

19
PF = cosФ

OBSERVATION

R Load

α Vdc Vdc V rms Vrms

Calculated(V) Measured(V) calculated measured

30

RL Load

α Vdc Vdc V rms Vrms

Calculated(V) Measured(V) calculated measured

30

SIMULATION RESULTS

20
WAVE FORMS

R load with α=30

21
Constant current load

RESULT:

The performance of a three phase bridge rectifier with R load, RL load and
constant current load were studied using MATLAB software and performance parameters
were obtained.

22
 EXPERIMENT NO. 5

BRIDGELESS SINGLE-STAGE HALF-BRIDGE AC/DC CONVERTER

AIM

To design and simulate a bridgeless single-stage half-bridge ac/dc converter.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig.1. bridgeless single-stage half-bridge ac/dc converter.

THEORY

Bridgeless single-stage half-bridge ac–dc converter integrates the bridgeless boost

rectifier with the asymmetrical pulse-width modulation half-bridge dc–dc converter. The
proposed converter provides an isolated dc output voltage without using any full bridge
diode rectifier. Conduction losses are lowered by eliminating the full-bridge diode rectifier.
Zero-voltage switching of the power switches reduces the switching power losses. The
proposed converter gives a high efficiency, high power factor, and low cost. This converter
achieves a high efficiency of 93.0% and an almost unity power factor for 250W output
power at 90 Vrms line voltage.

DESIGN

The output filter inductor Lo should be large enough so that the output filter inductor
current iLo is continuous. For the maximum average output current io,max and output filter
inductor current ripple ΔiLo, during Ts , the following condition should be satisfied

23
By simplifying (19), the output filter inductor Lo should be determined as

The boost inductor Lb operates at DCM. Then, the peak boost inductor current iLb,peak
follows the line voltage vi with a fixed duty ratio to supply the output power for a constant
output voltage. Suppose that the converter is lossless and the duty ratio is fixed, the boost
inductor Lb should be determined as

where Po,max is the maximum output power.

Simulation Using MATLAB:

MODEL

24
 Fig 2.MATLAB/SIMULINK Model of Bridgeless Single Stage Half Bridge AC/DC
Converter

SIMULATION RESULT

Fig 3. Waveforms of Input Voltage and Input Current

25
 50

45 OUTPUT VOLTAGE

40

OUTPUT VOLTAGE AND OUTPUT CURRENT

35

30

25

20

15

10 OUTPUT CURRENT

0
0.1 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.2
TIME

Fig 4.Waveforms of Output Voltage and Output Current

16

14

12
BOOST INDUCTOR CURRENT

10

-2
0.1023 0.1023 0.1023 0.1023 0.1023 0.1024 0.1024 0.1024 0.1024 0.1024
TIME

Fig 5. Waveform of Boost Inductor Current

RESULT

A bridgeless single-stage half-bridge ac/dc converter is designed for the given

specifications and simulated using the MATLAB software and hence verified.

REFERENCES

[1] Woo-Young Choi ,Joo-Seung Yoo “A Bridgeless Single-Stage Half-Bridge AC/DC

Converter”, IEEE Transactions on power electronics, vol. 26, no. 12, December 2011.

26
 EXPERIMENT NO. 6

THREE PHASE MINNESOTA AC/DC CONVERTER

AIM

To design and simulate a Three phase Minnesota ac/dc converter.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Figure 1 Minnesota Rectifier

THEORY

It consists of two stages. The first stage is a six-pulse, diode-bridge rectifier. The second
stage consists of two step-up dc-dc (boost) converters which modulate the current in the dc-
link to be (Id+I3) and (Id-I3) . Id is the dc component of the current and I3 is the third-
harmonic modulation current flowing in the dc-link inductors.
The two step-up dc-dc converters on the dc side are represented by third-harmonic current
sources. The currents from these two sources add up, at the midpoint n, and the sum 2I3 is
circulated through the ac side of the rectifier by a zigzag autotransformer. The zigzag
connection presents a high magnetizing impedance for the fundamental frequency voltages
and a low leakage impedance for the third-harmonic (zero-sequence) current. The total third
harmonic current 2I3 splits equally in the three legs of the transformer and constitutes the
current Iaj flowing in each leg. This circulating current Iaj subtracts from the input current ‘i’
to the diode-bridge rectifier, and results in the line current. The resulting line current has a
nearly sinusoidal wave shape with a harmonic distortion of less than 5%.

27
Control Techniques of Minnesota Rectifier

Figure 2 Minnesota rectifier controller block diagram

Figure 2 shows the block diagram of a controller for Minnesota rectifier. The actual
dc link voltage Vdc is compared with reference Vdc * to generate Id * through a limiter using
proportional plus integral (PI) controller.
For proper operation of the circuit the dc voltage at the output of each step up dc dc
converter must be equal. This is achieved by comparing the output voltage of the two dc dc
converters using negative feedback to equalize them. The difference in two capacitors
voltage is compensated in generation of reference currents iL1* and iL2* to make equal
voltage across dc bus capacitors.
Ic* = Kp (Vc1 – Vc2 ) 1
The phase of reference third harmonic current i3h * is calculated with respect to the input
source voltage vas
u = vas/Vm = sin(ωt) 2
i3h * = KI3p sin(3ωt) 3
where, Vm is line peak source voltage, K is the optimal magnitude and phase of injected
third harmonic current i3h *.
*
The boost inductor reference currents iL1 and iL2 * are generated as given below
iL1 * = i3h *– IC * + Id * 4
* *
iL2 * = –i3h + IC * + Id 5
The boost inductor reference currents (iL1 *, iL2 *) and sensed currents (iL1, iL2) are compared
in the hysteresis band current controller to generate PWM pulses to the IGBTs S1 and S2.

28
DESIGN

The Minnesota rectifier is designed for a 200V output dc from a 100V line to line voltage
for a power of 500W.

As we know

The output of diode bridge rectifier = 6

= 135V

At the output of diode bridge rectifier two boost converter is connected. Two boost
converter are needed in order to obtain the midpoint through which the harmonic currents
are injected through zigzag transformer at the input side. Design of the both boost
converter are same. So we are considering only one boost converter for design.

For single boost converter

Where Vo is the output voltage and VD is the input voltage of boost converter which
is same as that of diode bridge rectifier.

Duty ratio D = .324

o/p current 8

Io = 1.25A

Diode current , Id = 1.85A 10

Design of Inductor

Here the inductor and the capacitor is designed for the frequency of 5kHz. Here we are
designed the inductance for current ripple of 5%.

Change in inductor current 11

The inductance = 47mH 12

29
Design of the Zig Zag Transformer

When a zig-zag transformer is used alone as a neutral current compensator, the rating of the
zig-zag transformer depends on the amount of imbalance and the harmonic content. From
the phasor diagram shown below
The Vza can be written in terms of per phase voltages Va and Vc as per equation
Vza = K1Va- K2Vc
where K1 and K2 are the fraction of winding in the phases and K1 = K2 =1

Figure 3 Phasor Diagram of Zigzag Transformer

For a line to line voltage of 100V = 57.73 13

Hence Va = Vb = Vc= = 33.33 14

So three single phase transformer with turns ratio 1:1 of rating 500VA 50v/50v are selected.
Simulation Using MATLAB:

MODEL

30
SIMULATION RESULT

Figure 4 Waveforms of Three Phase Minnesota Rectifier

Figure 5 Voltage Across The Capacitors And The Current Flowing Through The Inductors
RESULT

A Three phase Minnesota ac/dc converter is designed for the given specifications and
simulated using the MATLAB software and hence obtained THD less than 5 %.

REFERENCES

[1] Rajendra Naik, Mukul Rastogi, and Ned Mohan, “Third-Harmonic Modulated Power
Electronics Interface with Three-phase Utility to Provide a Regulated DC Output and
to Minimize Line-Current Harmonics ” IEEE Transactions On Industry Applications,
vol. 31, no. 3, pp.598 June 1995
[2] Bhim Singh and G. Bhuvaneswari, Sandeep Madishetti ” Power Quality Improvement
in DTC Based Induction Motor Drive Using Minnesota Rectifier” Power and Energy
Systems (ICPS), 2011 International Conference, pp 1-6 Dec. 2011

31
 EXPERIMENT NO. 7

BUCK CONVERTER

AIM

To study the design and simulation of a buck converter using MATLAB/simulink.

PRINCIPLE

A step down switched mode power converter is used to convert a dc voltage into another dc
voltage as per the equation ,V0=D x Vd where Vd is the input voltage,’D' is the duty ratio of
the switch that can be varied from 0 to 1. From Fig 1

The average value of the output voltage is calculated as,

V0avg=1/T ∫ Vindt

Over one cycle we have, VOavg=(TOn/T) x Vd = D.Vd

A practical buck converter is shown in below figure below. The inductor and capacitor are
used for filtering the ripple in the dc voltage.

32
DESIGN OF A BUCK CONVERTER

Let Vd=18 V; V0=8 V; Output Power, P=15 w ;Current ripple, Ir =5% ; voltage ripple,Vr
=1% ; Switching frequency,f=40 KHZ

Duty ratio , D= V0/Vd = 8/18 =0.44

Output current,I0 = P/V0 = 15/8 =1.875A

If Ir=0.05,

ΔI/I0 = Ir

ΔI = V0(1-D)/f.L

L= V0(1-D)/f.ΔI = V0(1-D)/f.Ir. I0 = 8(1-0.44)/(40x1000x0.05 x1.875) =1.19mH

If Vr=0.01,

ΔV0/V0=(1-D)/8L C f2

Vr=(1-D)/8L C f2

C=(1-D)/8LVrf2 = (1-0.44)/(400002x0.00119x0.01) = 3.68µF

R=V0/I0=8/1.875=4.27Ω

33
SIMULATION USING MATLAB:

1. Develop the MATLAB/Simpower system model of the buck converter as shown in

the fig.

2. Assign values for inductor, capacitor and the input voltage as designed.

3. The MOSFET switch is controlled using a pulse generator and set the gating pulse
for 40 KHZ with a duty ratio of 0.44.

4. Run the simulation and observe the Vd,V0 ,I0 and average value of the output voltage
in a scope.

5. Verify the designed system using the simulation result.

SIMULATION MODEL AND RESULT:

Model:

34
35
OBSERVATIONS:

Duty Average Average Ripple Average Ripple

ratio output Voltage current
voltage output Δ V0 output Δ I0
D Calculated voltage current
Observed (V) (A)
V0 (V) Vr (%) I0 (A) Ir (%)
V0 (V)

0.44

CALCULATIONS:

V0Calculated = D xVd =

Vr % = (∆V/V0) x100 =

Ir%= (∆I/I0) x100 =

HARDWARE VERIFICATION:

The buck converter is realized by connecting the circuit as fig.2 in the given power
electronics module ‘PE6’. The switch is controlled with a gate pulse.

The experimental setup for the buck converter is shown below;

PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit.

2. Note that 10ohm resistance from PE main unit is connected as load.
3. Keep SW3 selector switch on ‘Chopper’ mode.
4. Keep frequency switch SW5 on ’LOW’ position.
5. Keep frequency pot P1 in CCW position.
6. Keep duty cycle control pot P2 in CW position.

36
7. Connect oscilloscope channel 2 across 10ohm load.
8. Put ON 230V input to PE main unit. Also put ON ‘ON’ switch at the rear of PE main
unit.
9. The waveform will be seen on the oscilloscope with DC level of about 4.5V.
10. Take the readings according to table given for different duty cycle by setting pot P2
observing on channel 1. Set desired frequencies by P1 pot.
11. Now switch off PE main unit by putting OFF switch at the rear.
12. Change ‘Freq’ switch to ‘High’ position. Put On PE main unit.

13. The waveforms will be seen on the oscilloscope with DC level of about 5V. The ripple
now will be considerably less.
14. The waveforms can be observed in both the cases by changing the frequency using
‘frequency pot’ by turning it to CW position.
15. Take voltage readings as per following table for various frequencies.

OBSERVATIONS:

Input Voltage Vd= 10V; L=16.8mH; C=220µF

Frequency Duty Average Average

ratio
f (Hz) output Δ V0 output Δ V0
D voltage voltage
Observed (observed) Calculated (caculated)

V0 (V) (V) V0 (V) (V)

Low 344
frequency

High
frequency
2500

37
SAMPLE CALCULATION (for set 1):

V0 = Vd x D =

Δ V0 = V0(1-D)/8L C f2 =

RESULT:

A buck converter is designed for the given specifications and simulated using the
MATLAB software. The buck converter operation is verified using the hardware setup.

38
 EXPERIMENT NO. 8

DC- DC BOOST CONVERTER

AIM

To study the design and simulation of a boost converter using MATLAB/SIMULINK.

THEORY

In a boost circuit output voltage is greater than the input voltage hence the name boost.

The circuit operation can be divided into two modes.mode 1 begins when switch is on at
t=0. The input current will flow through inductor and switch. Mode 2 begins when switch is
switched off at t=t1. The current now flow through L diode D and load. Inductor current
falls untill the switch is turned on again. The energy stored in the inductor is transferred to
the load.

Since the steady state time integral of inductor voltage over one time is zero.

VDTON+ (VD-VO) TOFF= 0

VD D TS + (VD-VO)(1-D)TS=0

And

39
The peak- peak ripple is given by

DESIGN OF BOOST CONVERTER

Design of boost converter for

Input voltage,Vd=18v, output voltage,Vo=24 v,

Inductor current ripple Ir = 5% ,output voltage ripple Vr = 1%,

Switching frequency f= 40khz

We know for boost converter

D=.25

40
 Ω

PROCEDURE

1) Simulation using MATLAB

1.Develop the MATLAB/SIMPOWER system model for the boost converter.

2.Design the values for inductor, capacitor, resistor and dc supply voltage as per the
system.
3.The switch is controlled by using a pulse generator with desired switching frequency
and pulse width.
4.Run the simulation and observe Vo, Io and average values of output voltage and
output current in scope.
5.Verify the result
MATLAB model

41
SIMULATION RESULTS

OBSERVATIONS:

R=38.4, L=27Mh, C=16.2 µF

Output
Inductor
voltage
Duty Input current IL
(Vo) Average IR VR
ratio voltage Average Vo
current
of Vo calculated
D Vin Vo Vo IL (%) (%)

max min IL IL
MAX MIN

.25 18

42
 2) Experimental Verification

1. Make the connections as per the wiring diagram

2. Use 100Ω/2w resistances as load
3. Keep SW3 selector switch on chopper mode
4. Keep frequency pot P1 in low position
5. Keep frequency switch SW5 on low position
6. Keep duty cycle control pot P2 in CW position
7. Connect CRO across the load
8. Give 230 v input supply to PE main unit and observe the DC output of chopper on
CRO
9. Vary the frequency pot to vary the drive frequency and take readings for different
frequencies.

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

EXPERIMENTAL RESULT OF VOLTAGE RIPPLE FOR D=.469 AT

FREQUENCY 409Hz

43
OBSERVATIONS:

L=16.8mH; C=220 F .R=100Ω

Output voltage
Duty Input VR VR
(Vo) Average
frequency ratio voltage
Vo Vo of Vo (%) (%)
D Vin observed calculated
max min

Low
frequency

High
frequency

OBSERVED Vr =

RESULT:

A boost converter is designed for the given specifications and simulated using the
MATLAB software. The buck converter operation is verified using the hardware setup.

44
 EXPERIMENT NO. 9

BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER

AIM

To study the performance of a dc-dc buck-boost converter using MATLAB software and
verify using hardware setup.

THEORY

A buck-boost regulator provides an output voltage that is greater than or less than the input
voltage depending on the duty ratio. The output voltage polarity is opposite to that of input
voltage. This regulator is also known as inverting regulator.

Fig 1: Buck-Boost Converter

The circuit can be divided into two modes of operation. During mode1, switch is turned ON
and diode D is reverse biased. The input current flows through the inductor L and switch.
During mode 2 switch is turned OFF and the current flow through L,C,D and load. The
energy stored in L would be transferred to the load and the inductor current would flow
until switch is turned ON again in next cycle.

Fig 2: Buck-Boost Converter a)switch on b) switch off

45
Equating integral of inductor voltage over one time period to zero,

VdDTs – VO(1-D)TS = 0

Fig 3: Buck-Boost Waveforms

PROCEDURE

SIMULATION USING MATLAB

1. Develop the MATLAB power system for the buck-boost converter.

2. Assign the values for inductor, capacitor, resistor and dc supply voltage as per
design.

3. The pulse width of the pulse generator is assigned for buck converter design.

4. Run the simulation and observe IL and average values of IL and Vo on scope.

5. Pulse width of pulse generator is changed as per boost converter design.

6. Run the simulation and observe IL and average values of IL and Vo on scope.

7. Verify the result.

EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION

1. Make the connections as per circuit diagram.

2. Make SW4 selector switch ON down side.

3. Keep frequency switch SW5 ON, LOW position.

4. Keep set point (PWM Control) pot P3 in CCW position.

5. Connect the PWM across the load.

46
 6. Switch ON 230V input to P6 main unit.

7. Vary the duty ratio by moving P3 pot in CW direction and observe the DC output of
chopper in DWM, output voltage will have negative polarity with respect to input.

8. Vary the frequency pot P, to vary the drive frequency and take reading for different
frequencies and duty ratio.

DESIGN

P= 15W f=40Khz Ir= 5% Vr= 1% Vd =

18V

Case (i) Buck Converter

Vo1= 12V

= = , D= 0.4

Io= = = 1.25

IL= Io + Id

= Id =

IL=

IL= = 2.08

ΔIL= 0.05×2.08 =.104

L= = = 1.7mH

R= = = 9.6Ω

C= = 0.1 mF

Case (ii) Boost Converter

Vo2= 24V

= = , D= 0.57

Io= = = 0.625

47
IL= Io + Id

= Id =

IL=

IL= = 1.45A

ΔIL= 0.05×1.45 = .0725A

L= = = 3.53mH

R= = = 38.4Ω

C= = 37.1µF

OBSERVATIONS

0.4

0.57

CALCULATIONS

1) D=0.4

Vo =

IL =
ΔVo=

ΔIL = Vr = =

Ir = =

2) D=0.57

Vo =

IL =

ΔVo=
48
ΔIL =

Vr = =

Ir = =

MATLAB SETUP

49
SIMULATION RESULTS

50
51
HARDWARE VERIFICATION

HARDWARE SETUP

OBSERVATIONS

(mS) D f

= = =

RESULT

The BUCK BOOST converter is simulated using MATLAB and verified using hardware.

52
 EXPERIMENT NO. 10

CUK CONVERTER

AIM:

To design a CUK converter and simulate using MATLAB.

THEORY:

Fig. shows the circuit arrangement for a CUK dc-dc converter. This converter is a modified
buck-boost converter. Similar to the buck-boost converter, the CUK converter provides a
negative polarity regulated output voltage with respect to the common terminal of input
voltage. Hence the capacitor C1 acts as the primary means of storing and transferring
energy from input to the output.

In steady state the average inductor voltages VL1 and VL2 are zero. So we got

VC1 = Vd + Vo

In Fig. 2a, when T, is OFF, inductor currents iL1 and iL2 flow through diode D. Capacitor is
charged through, the diode by energy from both input and inductor L1. Current iL1 decreases
because VC1 is larger than Vd. Energy stored in the L2 feeds the output, thus iL2 also
decreases.

When the switch is on, Vc1 reverse biases the diode. The inductor currents iL1 and iL2 flow
through the switch. Since VC1 > Vo C1 discharges through the switch transferring energy to
the output and L2. Thus iL2 increases. The input feeds energy to L1 causing iL1 to increase.

53
The inductor currents iL1 and iL2 are assumed to be continuous.

If we assume the capacitor voltage VC1 to be constant, then equating the integral of the
voltages across L1 and L2 over one time period gives respectively:

VdDTs + (Vd – VC1)(1 – D)Ts = 0 and (VC1 – Vo)DTs + ( - Vo)(1 – D)Ts = 0

Thus VC1 = Vd / (1 – D) and VC1 =Vo / D

Therefore Vo / Vd = D / (1 – D)……………………………………..(1)

Assuming Pd = Po Io/Id = D / (1-D)……………………………….(2)

From fig 2. During off interval

54
ΔiL1 = (VC1 - Vd) (1 – D)Ts / L1……………………………………..(3)

ΔiL2 = Vo(1 – D)Ts / L2……………………………………………..(4)

If iL1 and iL2 are assumed to be constant, during off interval

ΔVC1 = (1 – D)Ts*iL1 / C……………………………………………(5)

DESIGN:

Let Vd = 18V, Vo1 = 12V, Vo2= 24V Po = 15W, V (ripple) = 1%, I (ripple) = 5%

Case1: Vo1 = 12V

From Eqn.1,

So, D = 0.4

Let switching frequency fs=40 KHz

Io = = = 1.25 A = IL2

From Eqn.2,

Id = Io = 0.8333 A = IL1

From Eqn.2,

ΔiL1 = 0.8333(5/100) = 41.665 mA

ΔiL2 = 1.25(5/100) = 62.5 mA

VC1 =Vo / D = 12/0.4 = 30V

Δ VC1 = 30(1/100) = 0.3 V

From Eqn.3,

L1 = 4.32 mH

From Eqn.4,

L2 = 2.88 mH

From Eqn.5,

55
C1 = 41.665µF

Output Resistance

Case2: Vo2 = 24V

From Eqn.1,

So, D = 0.5714

Let switching frequency fs=40 KHz

Io = = = 0.625 A = IL2

From Eqn.2,

Id = Io = 0.8333 A = IL1

From Eqn.2,

ΔiL1 = 0.8333(5/100) = 41.665 mA

ΔiL2 = 0.625(5/100) = 31.25 mA

VC1 =Vo / D = 24/0.5714 = 42V

Δ VC1 = 42(1/100) = 0.42 V

From Eqn.3,

L1 = 6.17 mH

From Eqn.4,

L2 = 8.23 mH

From Eqn.5,

56
C1 = 21.25µF

Output Resistance

Circuit Design Elements

L1 = 6.17 mH , L2 = 8.23 mH

C1 = 41.665µF

R= .

MATLAB SIMULATION:

Fig.3. SIMULINK Circuit

57
58
MATLAB OUTPUT: For D= 0.571

59
MATLAB OUTPUT: For D=0.4

60
OBSERVATIONS:

D = 0.4 Average Value Peak to Peak % Ripple

IL1 (A)

IL2 (A)

VC1 (V)

Vo (V)

D = 0.5714 Average Value Peak to Peak % Ripple

IL1 (A)

IL2 (A)

VC1 (V)

Vo (V)

CALCULATIONS

For D=

Current through inductor L1 IL1 =

Peak to peak current (∆I) =

Ripple current (Ir) = ∆I / IL1

Current through inductor L2 IL2 =

Peak to peak current ripple (∆I) =

Ripple current (Ir) = ∆I / IL2

Voltage across Capacitor C1, VC1 =

Peak to peak voltage ripple (∆V) =

Ripple voltage (Vr) = ∆V / VC1

RESULT:

Designed a CUK converter and simulated the circuit using MATLAB. The output
waveforms were plotted.

61
CONCLUSIONS:

The circuit has been derived on the assumptions that the current through Inductors L1 and
L2and the voltage across the Capacitor C1are constant.

The voltage ripple across Output and across Capacitor C1 is more than the designed value.
This can be reduced to less than 1% by increasing the capacitor value to about 80µF.

The ripple across output can further reduced by having a capacitor in parallel with the load
resistance R. It will form a low-pass filter with the inductor L2 thus the ripples are
eliminated.

62
 EXPERIMENT NO. 11

FLYBACK CONVERTER

AIM

To design a Flyback converter and simulate it using MATLAB.

PRINCIPLE

The flyback converter is based on the buck-boost converter. Its derivation is illustrated in
Fig. 1. Figure 1(a) depicts the basic buck-boost converter, with the switch realized using a
MOSFET and diode. In Fig. 1(b), the inductor winding is constructed using two wires, with
a 1:1 turn’s ratio. The basic function of the inductor is unchanged, and the parallel windings
are equivalent to a single winding constructed of larger wire. In Fig. 1(c), the connections
between the two windings are broken. One winding is used while the transistor Q1
conducts, while the other winding is used when diode D1 conducts. The total current in the
two windings is unchanged from the circuit of Fig. 1(b); however, the current is now
distributed between the windings differently. The magnetic fields inside the inductor in
both cases are identical. Although the two-winding magnetic device is represented using the
same symbol as the transformer, a more descriptive name is “two winding inductor”. This
device is sometimes also called a “flyback transformer”. Unlike the ideal transformer,
current does not flow simultaneously in both windings of the flyback transformer. Figure
1(d) illustrates the usual configuration of the flyback converter. The MOSFET source is
connected to the primary-side ground, simplifying the gate drive circuit. The transformer
polarity marks are reversed, to obtain a positive output voltage. A 1:n turns ratio is
introduced; this allows better converter optimization.

63
MATLAB CIRCUIT

64
RESULT:

A Flyback converter is simulated using MATLAB.

65
 EXPERIMENT NO. 12

PUSH-PULL CONVERTER

AIM:

To design a push-pull converter and simulate using MATLAB.

THEORY:

Fig.1 show the circuit arrangement for a push-pull dc-dc converter a push-pull inverter is
used to produce a square-wave ac at the input of the high-frequency transformer. The PWM
switching scheme described is used to regulate the output voltage. A center-tapped
secondary is used, which results in only one diode voltage drop on the secondary side.

In Fig. 1a, when T1, is on, D1, conducts and D2 gets reverse biased. This results in Voi =
(N2/N1)/Vd in Fig. 1b. Therefore, the voltage across the filter inductor is given as

and iL through D, increases linearly as shown by Fig. 1b.

During the interval ∆ when both the switches are off, the inductor current splits equally
between the two secondary half-windings and voi = 0. Therefore, during ton<t<ton+∆,

and

66
 Fig. 1. Push-pull converter waveforms

The next half-cycle consist of ton (during which T2 is on) and he interval ∆. The waveform
repeat with a period and

Also,

and

67
Equating the time interval of the inductor voltage during one repetition period to zero
using the equations above,

- (1)

where, 0 < D < 0.5

Output Voltage and Current Ripple:

Consider Fig. 2. It shows the inductor voltage, output current and output voltage
waveforms. From Fig.1, at ,

VL = -Vo.

In that case, peak to peak current ripple

So, the current ripple

- (2)

From Fig.2, peak to peak voltage ripple

Using equation for ∆IL,

The voltage ripple

- (3)

68
 Fig. 2. Output Voltage and Current Ripple

DESIGN:

Let Vd = 18V, Vo = 8V, Po = 15W, , VO (ripple) = 1%, Io (ripple) = 5%

From Eqn.1,

So, D = 0.4444

Let switching frequency fs=15 KHz

IL = = = 1.875 A

From Eqn.2,

L = 1.1 mH

69
From Eqn.3,

C = 1.4µF

Output Resistance

Average Output Current

MATLAB SIMULATION:

Fig.3. SIMULINK Circuit

70
MATLAB OUTPUT:

71
OBSERVATIONS:

O/P Voltage Peak to Peak Ripple O/P Current Peak to Ripple

Mean Voltage Voltage Mean Peak Current
Current
Vo (V) ∆Vo(V) Vr(%) Io(A) Ir(%)
∆Io(A)

CALCULATIONS:

Vodc =

Peak to peak voltage (∆Vo) =

Ripple voltage (Vr) = ∆Vo / Vodc

Iodc =

Peak to peak current (∆Io) =

Ripple current (Ir) = ∆Io / Iodc

RESULT:

Designed a push-pull converter and simulated the circuit using MATLAB. The output
waveforms were plotted.

72
 EXPERIMENT NO. 13

FULL BRIDGE DC-DC CONVERTER

AIM

To design and simulate a full bridge dc-dc converter.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig.1. Full bridge dc-dc converter with R load.

THEORY

The circuit diagram of a full bridge dc-dc converter is shown in the Fig.1.

The switches (T1, T2) and (T3, T4) are switched as pairs alternatively at the selected
switching frequency. Switches are on and off accordingly to produce a square wave ac at
the primary side of the transformer. When both switch pairs are off, inductor current splits
equally between the two secondary halves. The output voltage is stepped down, rectified
and then filtered to produce a dc output voltage.

The relation between the output and input voltage is given by,

When (T1, T2) or (T3, T4) are on, voi = (N2/N1)Vd, as shown in Fig. 2

73
 Fig.2. Waveform

DESIGN

Let Vd =18V, Vo= 8V, P=15W, Current ripple=5%, Voltage ripple=1%, N2:N1=1,
Switching frequency=1kHz.

For an output voltage of 8V from an input of 18V, the duty ratio, D=0.22 from the relation,

Now, P=VI and V=IR

Thus, IL=P/Vo and R=Vo/I

IL=15/8=1.875A and R=8/1.875=4.267Ω

Also, L=(Vo(1-D)Ts)/(ILx0.05) = (18(1-0.22)0.001)/(1.875x0.05) = 66.56mH

C= ((Ts2(1-D))/(8Lx0.01) = ((0.0012(1-0.22)))/(8x0.06656x0.01) = 146.48µF

OBSERVATIONS

Vo(V) Vo(V) Io(A) Io(A)

D Vo Vr(%) Io Ir(%)
(Calculated) (Observed) (Calculated) (Observed)

CALCULATIONS

Vo(Calculated) = 2(N2/N1)DVd =

IL= Io(Calculated) = P/Vo=

Vr= (∆Vo/Vo) x100 =

Ir= (∆Io/Io) x100 =

74
PROCEDURE

Simulation Using MATLAB:

Develop the MATLAB/simpower system model of the full bridge dc-dc converter as
shown. Let the inductor, capacitor and the input voltages are as designed. The MOSFET
switch is controlled using a pulse generator and set the gating pulse for 1000kHz with a
duty ratio of 0.22.Run the simulation and observe the Vd ,Vo ,Io and average value of the
output voltage in a scope. Verify the designed system using the simulation result.

MODEL

75
SIMULATION RESULT

RESULT

A full bridge dc-dc converter is designed for the given specifications and simulated using
the MATLAB software and hence verified.

76
 EXPERIMENT NO. 14

SEPIC CONVERTER

AIM

To design and simulate a sepic converter.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig.1. sepic converter.

THEORY

In a SEPIC (Single Ended Primary Inductance Converter) design, the output voltage can be
higher or lower than the input voltage. The SEPIC converter shown in Figure 1 uses two
inductors, L1 and L2. The two inductors can be wound on the same core since the same
voltages are applied to them throughout the switching cycle. Using a coupled inductor takes
up less space on the PCB and tends to be lower cost than two separate inductors. The
capacitor Cs isolates the input from the output and provides protection against a shorted
load. Figures 2 and 3 show the SEPIC converter current flow and switching waveforms.

Fig. 2. SEPIC Converter Current FlowTop: During Q1 On-Time, Bottom: During Q1 Off-
Time

77
 Fig.3. SEPIC Converter Switching Waveforms (VQ1: Q1 Drain to Source Voltage)

DESIGN

If L1 and L2 are wound on the same core, the value of inductance in the equation above is
replaced by 2L due to mutual inductance. The inductor value is calculated by

Output capacitor selected using the equation

78
Simulation Using MATLAB:

MODEL

SIMULATION RESULT

79
RESULT

A SEPIC converter is designed for the given specifications and simulated using the
MATLAB software and hence verified.

REFERENCES

[1] “Designing A SEPIC Converter”, National Semiconductor, Application Note 1484,

Wei Gu, June 2007

80
 EXPERIMENT NO. 17

SINGLE PHASE INVERTER

AIM

To study the performance of a DC-AC single-phase inverter with triangular carrier

PWM control and square wave operation. Record AC voltage and current waveform,
harmonic spectrum, THD, crest factor, rms value, distortion factor, displacement factor and
power factor, input DC current average value and waveform.

THEORY

A device that converts dc power into ac power at desired output voltage and frequency is
called an inverter. Inverters can be broadly classified into voltage source inverters (VSI)
and current source inverters (CSI). In VSI input to the inverter is a dc voltage source and in
CSI the input is dc current source. In VSIs the dc input voltage is essentially constant in
magnitude. Therefore the inverter must control the magnitude and the frequency of the ac
output voltages. This is achieved by the PWM of the inverter switches and hence such
inverters are called PWM inverters. In order to produce a sinusoidal output voltage
waveform at a desired frequency, a sinusoidal control signal at the desired frequency is
compared with a triangular waveform. The frequency of the triangular waveform
establishes the inverter switching frequency and is generally kept constant along with its
amplitude Vc. The carrier and reference waves are mixed in a comparator as shown in the
figure below.

TRIANGULAR WAVE

TRIGGER PULSES
COMPARATOR TRIGGER PULSE TO SCR’S
GENERATOR

SINE WAVE

Modulation index:

The ratio Vr/Vc is called the modulation index (MI), where Vr & Vc are the peak voltages
of reference & carrier signals respectively. Harmonic analysis of the output modulated
wave reveals that;

81
(i) For MI less than one, largest harmonic amplitudes in the output voltage are associated
with harmonics of order fc/f ±1 or 2N ±1. Thus by increasing the number of pulses per half
cycle, the order of dominant harmonic frequency can be raised, which can then be filtered
out easily. The highest order of significant harmonic of a modulated voltage wave is
centered around the carrier frequency, f.
(ii) For MI greater than one, lower order harmonics appear, since the pulse width is no
longer a sinusoidal function of the angular position of the pulse.
Realization of PWM in single - phase bridge Inverters

A single phase full bridge inverter is shown in figure 1.

Fig.1 Single-phase full bridge inverter

PWM with bipolar voltage switching

Here, the diagonally opposite switches, (T1, T2) and (T3, T4) from the two legs are
switched as switch pairs 1 and 2 respectively. The output voltage waveform of leg A is
determined by comparison of vcontrol and Vtri as shown in fig 2.

Fig.2. PWM with bipolar voltage switching.

82
 The output of leg A is negative of that of leg B, for example, when T1 is on and V Ao is
equal to +1/2 Vd, T2 is also on and VBo = - ½ Vd.

PWM with unipolar voltage switching

Here , the switches in the two legs are not switched simultaneously. For controlling the leg
A switches Vcontrol is compared with Vtri.

Vcontrol > Vtri T1 on VAN = Vd

Vcontrol < Vtri T2 on VAN=0

For controlling the leg B switches -Vcontrol is compared with Vtri.

- Vcontrol > Vtri T3 on VBN = Vd

- Vcontrol < Vtri T4 on VBN =0

Fig.3. PWM with unipolar voltage switching.

Square wave operation

Here, the switches (T1, T2) and (T3, T4) are operated as two pairs with a duty ratio of 0.5.
The output voltage magnitude given below is regulated by controlling the input dc voltage.

83
 V01=(4/π)Vd

Fig.4. Square-wave switching.

Single Phase Half Bridge Inverter

Fig.5. Half-bridge inverter.

Square wave switching scheme

Here each switch of the inverter leg is on for one half cycle (180°) of the desired output
frequency.
From Fourier analysis the peak values of the fundamental frequency and harmonics
contents in the inverter output waveform can be obtained for a given input Vd as

Where harmonics h takes on only odd values.

84
Performance Parameters of AC Output Voltage:

Power factor (PF):

Power factor is defined as the ratio of mean ac output power (real power) to the total
rms output volt amperes.

Vrms= rms value of the output voltage

Irms= rms value of output current including fundamental and harmonics.

I1= rms value of fundamental component of output current.

Ф1= phase angle between output voltage Vrms and fundamental component I1 of

the output current Irms

Displacement factor:

It is the cosine of the angle between output voltage and fundamental component of
output current, DF= cos Ф1

Current Distortion factor:

It is defined as the ratio of the rms value of fundamental component I1 of the output
current to the rms value of output current Irms.

CDF= I1/ Irms

Total harmonic distortion (THD):

It is equal to the rms value of all the harmonics divided by the rms value of the
fundamental component of the output current.

Ih= rms value of all the harmonic components combined = √(I²– I1²)

THD= Ih/ I1 = √(I²– I1²)/I1

Crest factor:

It is defined as the ratio of peak output current Ip to its rms value Irms.

CF=Ip/Irms

85
PROCEDURE

1. Single phase full bridge inverter is modeled using MATLAB/SIMULINK.

2. The output voltage, current, input current waveforms are plotted for PWM operation.
3. The triangular carrier PWM control is used to get sin PWM voltage output.
4. The output voltage waveform is observed and the rms value is calculated. It is tested
for unipolar and bipolar PWM operation.
5. Single phase full bridge inverter is modeled and simulated for square-wave operation
and the output voltage, current, input current waveforms are plotted.
6. Single phase half bridge inverter is modeled and simulated for square-wave operation.
7. The performance parameters are calculated for the dc output voltage for the square
wave output voltage.

SIMULATION

Fig.6.Bipolar full bridge inverter

86
 Fig.7. Unipolar full bridge inverter

OBSERVATIONS

ma Vdc Idc Vopeak Vorms Vo1rms Ф1 THD THD

(without (with filter
(V) (A) (V) (V) (V) filter) L=1H)

(%) (%)

PWM 1 325.269 32.526 325.2 325.204 325.41 -0.14 99.2 2.5

bipolar
inverter

Bipolar 4 255.466 25.54 255.4 255.41 321.78 -0.13 50.99 10.8

square
wave
inverter

PWM 1 325.269 32.53 325.2 260.67 324.4 -0.93 53.2 2.8

unipolar
inverter

Unipolar 4 255.466 25.5 255.5 244.3 321.67 -0.54 39.2 10.5

square 5
wave
inverter

87
 PF DPF Distortion CF
factor

PWM .99 .990 1 .99

bipolar
inverter

Bipolar 1.238 .991 1.25 .99

square
wave
inverter

PWM .742 .597 1.244 1.24

unipolar
inverter

Unipolar 1.122 .857 1.31 1.04

square
wave
inverter

88
SIMULATION RESULT-WAVEFORMS

PWM Inverter with Unipolar Voltage Switching

89
PWM Inverter with Bipolar Voltage Switching

90
SQUARE WAVE INVERTER

RESULT

The performance of a DC-AC single-phase inverter with triangular carrier PWM control
and square wave operation have been studied. Also the AC voltage and current waveform,
harmonic spectrum, THD, crest factor, rms value, distortion factor, displacement factor and
power factor, input DC current average value and waveform have been recorded.

91
 EXPERIMENT NO. 18

THREE PHASE INVERTER

AIM

To study the performance of a DC-AC three-phase inverter with PWM control and square
wave operation. Record AC supply voltage and current waveform, THD, crest factor, rms
value, distortion factor, displacement factor and power factor, input DC current average
value and waveform.

PRINCIPLE

A device that converts dc power into ac power at desired output voltage and frequency is
called an inverter. Inverters can be broadly classified into voltage source inverters (VSI)
and current source inverters (CSI). In VSI input to the inverter is a dc voltage source and in
CSI the input is dc current source.
In VSI the DC input voltage is essentially constant in magnitude. Therefore the inverter
must control the magnitude and the frequency of the ac output voltages. This is achieved by
the PWM of the inverter switches and hence such inverters are called PWM inverters. In
order to produce a sinusoidal output voltage waveform at a desired frequency, a sinusoidal
control signal at the desired frequency is compared with a triangular waveform. The
frequency of the triangular waveform establishes the inverter switching frequency and is
generally kept constant along with its amplitude Vc. The carrier and reference waves are
mixed in a comparator as shown in the Fig.1

Fig. 1 Pulse width modulator block diagram

92
The most frequently used three phase inverter circuit consists of three legs, one for each
phase, as shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Three-phase inverter

The objective in the pulse width modulated three phase inverter is to shape and control the
three phase output voltages in magnitude and frequency with an essentially constant input
voltage Vd. To obtain balanced three phase output voltages in a three phase PWM inverter,
triangular voltage waveform is compared with three sinusoidal control voltages that are
120° out of phase. From the Fig 3(a) it is seen that an identical amount of average dc
component is present in the output voltages VAN and VBN, which are measured with
respect to the negative dc bus. These dc components are cancelled out in the line to line
voltages.

93
 Fig 3 Three-phase PWM waveforms

In three-phase inverters, only the harmonics in line to line voltages are of concern, where
only the odd harmonics exists as sidebands centered around the frequency modulation ratio
mf and its multiples, provided mf is odd, where mf=fc/f. Only considering the harmonics at
mf, the phase difference between the mf harmonic in VAN and VBN is (120mf)°. This
phase difference will be equivalent to zero (a multiple of 360°) if mf is odd and a multiple
of 3. As a consequence, the harmonic at mf is suppressed in the line to line voltage VAB.

94
The same argument applies in the suppression of harmonics at the odd multiples of mf if mf
is chosen to be an odd multiple of 3 (where the reason for choosing mf to be an odd multiple
of 3 is to keep mf odd and hence eliminate even harmonics). Thus some of the dominant
harmonics in the one leg inverter can be eliminated from the line to line voltage of a three
phase inverter.

LINEAR MODULATION (ma≤1.0)

In the linear region (ma≤1.0), the fundamental frequency component in the output voltage
varies linearly with the amplitude modulation ratio ma. From the figure, the peak value of
the fundamental- frequency component in one of the inverter leg is

|VAN |1=

Where ma= Vr/Vc

Therefore the line to line rms voltage at the fundamental frequency, due to 120° phase
displacement between phase voltages, can be written as

VLL1 = √3/√2 (|VAN |1)

=√

≈ 0.612

OVER MODULATION (ma>1.0)

In PWM over modulation, the peak of the control voltages is allowed to exceed the
peak of the triangular waveform. Unlike the linear region, in this mode of operation the
fundamental frequency voltage magnitude does not increase proportionally with m a.This is
shown in the Fig 4 below, where the rms value of the fundamental frequency line to line
voltage VLL1 is plotted as a function of ma. For sufficiently large values of ma, the PWM
degenerates into a square wave inverter waveform.

In the over modulation region compared to the region with ma≤1.0, more
sideband harmonics appear centered around the frequencies of harmonics mf and its
multiples. However, the dominant harmonics may not have as large amplitude as with
ma≤1.0. Therefore, the power loss in the load due to the harmonic frequencies may not be

95
as high in the over modulation region as the presence of additional sideband harmonics
would suggest. Depending on the nature of the load and on the switching frequency, the
losses due to these harmonics in over modulation may be even less than those in the linear
region of the PWM.

Fig 4 VLL1(rms)/Vd as a function of ma

SQUARE WAVE OPERATION

If the input dc voltage is controllable, the inverter can be operated in a square wave
mode. Here, each switch is on for 180º (duty ratio is 50%). The fundamental frequency
line-line rms voltage component in the output is given by;

VLL1 (line-line, rms) = (√3/√2)( 4/π)Vdc/2

≈ 0.78

The voltage waveforms are shown in the Fig 5.

96
 Fig 5 Square-wave waveform

PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

Power Factor (PF):

Power factor is defined as the ratio of mean ac output power (real power) to the total rms
output volt amperes.

Vrms= rms value of the output voltage

Irms= rms value of output current including fundamental and harmonics.

I1= rms value of fundamental component of output current.

97
Ф1= phase angle between output voltage Vrms and fundamental component I1 of

the output current Irms

PF =

Displacement Power Factor:

It is the cosine of the angle between output voltage and fundamental component of output
current

DF= cos Ф1

Distortion Factor:

It is defined as the ratio of the rms value of fundamental component I1 of the output
current to the rms value of output current Irms.

CDF= V1rms / Vrms

Crest Factor:

It is defined as the ratio of peak output current Ip to its rms value Irms.

CF=Vp/Vrms

Total Harmonic Distortion (THD):

It is equal to the rms value of all the harmonics divided by the rms value of the fundamental
component of the output current.

Ih= rms value of all the harmonic components combined

THD = √(V² – V1²)/V1

DESIGN

1. Three Phase PWM Inverter

Output voltage, Vo1= 415V

VLL1 (line-line, rms) = = 0.612

Assuming = 1: Vcontrol = Vtri = 1

98
 =

= = 678.10V

2. Square Wave Inverter

Assuming = 4: Vcontrol =4 Vtri: Vtri=1, Vcontrol = 4.

Output voltage, Vo1= 415V

VLL1 (line-line, rms) = = 0.78

= 532.05V

PROCEDURE

1. Three-phase full bridge inverter is modelled by using simulink/MATLAB software.

2. The triangular carrier PWM control is used to get sin PWM voltage output

3. The output voltage, current waveforms are plotted for PWM operation.

4. Three-phase inverter is plotted for square wave operation

5. The performance parameters of output voltage is calculated for both PWM and
square wave operation

99
SIMULATION DIAGRAM

Three Phase PWM Inverter without Filter

Three Phase PWM Inverter with Filter of 800µH and 400µF

Square Wave Inverter

For square wave inverter the value of is put 532 according to design and the amplitude
of sine wave is made to 4.

100
SIMULATION RESULT

Three Phase PWM Inverter without Filter

101
Harmonic Spectrum

102
Three Phase PWM Inverter with Filter of 800µH and 400µF

103
Harmonic Spectrum

104
Square Wave Inverter without Filter

105
Harmonic Spectrum

106
Square Wave Inverter with Filter of 800µH and 400µF

107
Harmonic Spectrum

108
OBSERVATIONS

1. Three Phase PWM Inverter

Observed Output Observed Output

PWM Vp Vrms V1rms Ø1
voltage THD voltage THD
Inverter
Without filter With filter of
Without
filter 800µH and 400µF

2. Square Wave Inverter

Observed Output Observed Output

Square Vp Vrms V1rms Ø1 voltage THD voltage THD
Inverter Without filter With filter of
Without filter 800µH and 400µF

CALCULATION

1. Three Phase PWM Inverter without Filter

i. Displacement power factor, DPF = cosØ1

ii. Distortion factor, DF = V1rms / Vrms

iii. Power factor, PF =

iv. Crest factor, CF = Vp / Vrms

v. Total harmonic distortion, THD =

109
2. Square Wave Inverter without Filter

i. Displacement power factor, DPF = cosØ1 =

ii. Distortion factor, DF = V1rms / Vrms

iii. Power factor, PF =

iv. Crest factor, CF = Vp / Vrms

v. Total harmonic distortion, THD =

Inverter type Observed THD Calculated THD

PWM operation without filter

Square wave operation without filter

RESULT

The performance of a DC-AC three-phase inverter with PWM control and square-
wave operation has been studied. Also the AC supply voltage and current waveform, THD,
crest factor, rms value, distortion factor, displacement factor and power factor, input DC
current average value and waveform have been recorded.

INFERENCES

From the observations it is inferred that THD of the three-phase inverter is improved.

110
 EXPERIMENT NO. 19

SINGLE-PHASE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER

AIM:

To study the performance of AC voltage controllers with (i) Resistive (R), (ii) resistive
inductive (R-L) and (iii) single-phase motor loads at two firing angles. Record AC supply
voltage, load voltage and current waveform, harmonic spectrum, THD, crest factor, rms
value, distortion factor, displacement factor, active power, reactive power and apparent
power and power factor for R and RL loads.

THEORY:

AC voltage controllers are thyristor based devices which convert fixed alternating
voltages to variable alternating voltage without a change in the frequency.

Single-Phase Voltage Controller with R load

Fig. 1. Single-phase full wave controller feeding power to a resistive load R.

Fig.1. shows a single phase voltage controller feeding power to a resistive load R. Two
thyristors are connected in anti-parallel. During positive half cycle, T1 is triggered at a
firing angle α .T1 starts conducting and source voltage is applied to load from α to π. At π
both vo, io fall to zero. Just after π, T1 is subjected to reverse bias, it is therefore turned off.
During negative half cycle, T2 is triggered at (π+α). T2 conducts from (π+α) to 2π. Soon
after 2π, T2 is subjected to reverse bias, it is therefore commutated.

From 0 to α, T1 is forward biased, VT1=Vs. From α, T1 conducts, VT1 is about 1v. After
π, T1 is reverse biased and VT1 =Vs from π to (π+α). From (π+α) to 2π, T2 conducts; T1 is

111
reverse biased by voltage drop across T2 which is about 1 to 1.5V. Vs is the rms value of
output voltage.

1/2
Vrms =

= Vm/ [ 1/π (π-α+(sin2α)/2)]1/2

Single Phase Voltage Controller with RL load

Fig.2. Single-phase voltage controller with RL load.

Fig.2. shows a single phase Voltage controller with RL load. During 0 to π, T1 is forward
biased. AT wt=α, T1 is triggered and io=iT1 starts building up through the load. At π, load
and source voltages are 0 but the current is not 0 because of the presence of inductance of
the load circuit. At β >π, load current reduces to 0. After π, T1 is reverse biased but does
not turn off because io is not 0. At β only, when io is zero, T1 is turned off as it is already
reverse biased. After the commutation of T1 at β, a voltage of magnitude Vmsinβ at once
appears as reverse bias across T1 and as forward bias across T2. From β to (π+α), no
current exist in the power circuit, therefore vo=0, vT1=-vs and vT2=Vs. T2 is turned on at
(π+α)>β. Current io=iT2 starts building up in the reversed direction through the load. At 2π,
vo=0 and vs=0 but iT2 is not zero. At (π+α+γ), iT2=0 and T2 is turned off, T1 is forward
biased. From (π+α+γ) to (2π+α), no current exists in the power circuit. As before vo =0,
vT1=vs and vT2=-vs. At (2π+α), T1 is turned on and the current starts building up as
before.

The load current, io= Vm/Z[sin (wt-Φ)-sin (α-Φ)exp{R/L(α/w-t)}]

112
Performance parameters of AC output voltage:

Power factor (PF):

Power factor is defined as the ratio of mean ac output power (real power) to the total
rms output volt amperes.

Vrms= rms value of the output voltage

Irms= rms value of output current including fundamental and harmonics.

I1= rms value of fundamental component of output current.

Ф1= phase angle between output voltage Vrms and fundamental component I1 of

the output current Irms

PF= Vrms I1 cos Ф1 = I1 cos Ф1

Vrms Irms Irms

Displacement factor

It is the cosine of the angle between output voltage and fundamental component of output
current,

DF= cos Ф1

Current Distortion factor

It is defined as the ratio of the rms value of fundamental component I1 of the output
current to the rms value of output current Irms.,

CDF= I1/ Irms

Total harmonic distortion (THD)

It is equal to the rms value of all the harmonics divided by the rms value of the
fundamental component of the output current.

Ih= rms value of all the harmonic components combined = √(I²– I1²)

THD= Ih/ I1 = √(I²– I1²)/I1

Crest factor

It is defined as the ratio of peak output current Ip to its rms value Irms.

CF=Ip/Irms

113
OBSERVATIONS

Output voltage (V) Input Current

(A)
Load α β Φ
Vopeak Vorms Vo1rms Ispeak Isrms Is1rms
(degree) (degree)
(degree)

R= 5Ω 0

R=5Ω 30

R=10Ω 0

L=10mH

R=10Ω 30

L=10mH

Vrms(V) VTHD ITHD

L oad α DPF PF CF
CDF
Vobs Obsvd caltd Obsvd caltd
Vcal

R=5Ω 0

R=5Ω 30

R=5Ω

114
L=10mH 0

R=5Ω

L=10mH 30

Sample Calculations

1. R load (α=0)

Vrms = Vm/ [ 1/π (π-α+sin2α)/2]1/2

Iorms = Vorms/R =

Φ =00

DPF = cos Φ =

CDF= I1/ Irms =

PF = ( Is1cosΦ )/ Irms =

Voltage THD = √(Vorms²– V01r²) / V01r

Current THD = √(I²– I1²)/I1

Crest factor CF = Ip/Irms =

2. RL load (α=30)

Φ= β= Vs =

Is = Vs / Z =

Vorms = Vm/ [ 1/π( (β-α)+1/2(sin2α- sin2β))]1/2

Iorms = Vorms/Z =

DPF = cosΦ =

CDF= Is1/ Isrms =

115
 PF = ( Is1cosΦ )/ Isrms =

Voltage THD = √(Vorms²– V01r²) / V01r

Current THD = √(Is²– Is1²)/Is1

Crest factor CF = Isp/Isrms =

PROCEDURE

Single phase ac voltage controller is modelled by using two anti parallel thyristor. Pulse
generator is connected to the gate terminal of each thyristor. Firing angle for each thyristor
is set by changing the pulse delay of pulse generator. Voltage and current measurement
units are connected in series and parallel respectively. The waveforms of output voltage and
current are observed using the scope. Fundamental current is observed using Fourier block.
Harmonic distortion is measured using the signal THD block.

SIMULATION MODEL

R Load

116
RL Load

Motor Load

117
R Load

118
RL Load

119
Motor Load

RESULT:

The performance of AC voltage controllers with (i) Resistive (R), (ii) resistive inductive
(R-L) and (iii) single-phase motor loads at two firing angles has been studied. Also the AC
supply voltage, load voltage and current waveform, harmonic spectrum, THD, crest factor,
rms value, distortion factor, displacement factor, active power, reactive power and apparent
power and power factor for R and RL loads have been recorded.

120
 EXPERIMENT NO. 20

THREE PHASE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER

AIM

To design and simulate a three-phase ac voltage controller.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig.1. Three-phase full-wave voltage controller feeding power to an R load.

THEORY:

The circuit diagram of a three-phase full-wave controller is shown in the Fig.1.

The firing sequence of thyristors is T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6.

If we define instantaneous input phase voltages as

ʋAN = √2Vs sinωt

ʋBN = √2Vs sin(ωt-2π/3)

ʋCN = √2Vs sin(ωt-4π/3)

the instantaneous input line voltages are

ʋAB = √6Vs sin(ωt + π/6)

ʋBC = √6Vs sin(ωt - π/2)

ʋCA = √6Vs sin(ωt - 7π/6)

121
The waveforms for the input voltages, conduction angles of thyristors, and output phase
voltages are shown in Fig.2 below.

Fig.2.

The expression for the rms output phase voltage depends on the range of delay angles.

For 0 ≤ α < 60°

Vo= √6 Vs [ 1/π ( π/6 –α/4 + (sin2α)/8]1/2

For 60° ≤ α < 90°

Vo= √6 Vs [ 1/π ( π/12 + (3sin2α)/16 + (√3 cos2α)/16]1/2

For 90° ≤ α < 150°

Vo= √6 Vs [ 1/π ((5π/24) – α/4 + (sin2α)/16 + (√3 cos2α)/16]1/2

122
PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS:

Power factor (PF):

PF = Real Power
Apparent Power
= Vs IS1 cos Ф = IS1cos Ф
Vs Irms Irms
Vs = rms value of the output voltage

Irms = Ior = rms value of load or source current

IS1= rms value of fundamental component of load or source current.

Ф= phase angle between Vs and IS1

Displacement factor:

It is the cosine of the angle between voltage and fundamental component of load or
source current.

DF= cos Ф

Current Distortion factor:

It is defined as the ratio of the rms value of fundamental component IS1 of the load
or source current to the rms value of load or source current ISrms.

CDF = IS1/ ISrms

Total harmonic distortion (THD):

It is equal to the rms value of all the harmonics divided by the rms value of the
fundamental component of the load or source current.

THD= Ih/ IS1 = √(I² – IS1²)/IS1

Ih= rms value of all the harmonic components combined.

= √(I² – IS1 ² )

Crest factor:

It is defined as the ratio of peak output current Ip to its rms value ISrms

CF = Ip/ISrms

123
SIMULATION MODEL AND RESULT:

Model:

124
WAVEFORMS

125
OBSERVATIONS

R Load:

Output Voltage (V) Input Current (A)

α Ø VOpeak VOrms VO1rms ISpeak ISrms IS1rms

60

VOrms (V) VTHD ITHD

observed calculated DF CDF PF CF observed calculated observed calculated

CALCULATIONS:

R Load with α=60° and R=10Ω

VL=

VS= VL/√3=

Vo = √6 Vs [ 1/π ( π/6 –α/4 + (sin2α)/8]1/2

DF= cosø=

CDF = IS1/ ISrms

PF = CDFxDF =

VTHD = √( VOrms ² – VO1rms ²)/ VO1rms

THD =√( ISrms ² – IS1rms ²)/ IS1rms

CF = ISpeak /ISrms =

126
PROCEDURE

Three-phase ac voltage controller is modeled and simulated. The output voltage, output
current and input voltage waveforms are plotted.
The rms value of output voltage waveform is observed and verified with calculated value.
RESULT

The performance of AC voltage controller with R load and firing angle 60° has been
studied. The AC supply voltage, load voltage and current waveforms have been recorded.
Harmonic spectrum, THD, crest factor, rms value, distortion factor, displacement factor,
power factor of the input current were measured and verified.

127
 EXPERIMENT NO. 21

CYCLOCONVERTERS

AIM

To study the design and simulation of a step up and step down cycloconverter using
MATLAB/simulink.

PRINCIPLE

A device which converts input power at one frequency to output power at different
frequency with one stage conversion is called cycloconverter. Basically, cycloconverters
are of two types
1. Step down cylcoconverters
2. Step up cylcoconverters
In step down converters the output frequency fo is lower than the input frequency fs, in step
up converter fo> fs .

Fig.1 single phase cycloconverter midpoint type

Above midpoint type cycloconverter consists of a single phase transformer with mid-tap on
the secondary winding and four thyristors. Two of these thyristors P1 and P2 are positive
group and N1 and N2 are negative group. The load is connected between mid pont 0 an
terminal A.

Step up cycloconverter

P1 and N2 are forward biased for ωt= 0 to π, P2 and N1 are forward biased for ωt= π to 2π.
At ωt1 P1 is force commutated and N2 is turned on. At ωt2 N2 is force commutated and P1
is tunred on and so on.

128
 Fig.2 waveform for step up cycloconverter

In fig 2 fs is the supply frequency and f0 is the output frequency. Also f0= 6fs

Step down cycloconverter

SCR P1 is triggered at ωt=α, where the load current starts building up. At ωt=π, P1 is
reversed biased. As the load current is continuous P1 is not turned off at ωt=π.When P2 is
turned on in sequence at ωt=π+α, a reverse voltage appears across P1 and it is naturally
commutated. When P1 is commutated the load current has to build up to a value. With the
turning on of P2 at ωt=π+α, is again positive as it was when P1 was on.

Fig.3 waveform for step down converter

129
 DESIGN

Step Up Converter

Let output frequency = 10 x fsupply

= 10x50 = 500Hz

Therefore time period T= 1/f0

=1/500 = 0.002sec

Step Down Converter

Let output frequency= 1/3 fsupply

= 50/3 Hz

Therefore time period T= 1/f0

= 3/50 = 0.06 sec

OBSERVATIONS:

Type of Firing angle V0 peak (v) V0 rms (v) Output frequency

cycloconverter (Hz)

Step down

30

Step up 0

130
MATLAB MODEL

Cyclo Step Down Converter

Cyclo Step Up Converter

131
Waveforms of Step Down Converter (for α=300)

132
Waveforms of Step Up Converter

PROCEDURE

Cycloconverter is modeled and simulated. The output voltage, waveforms are plotted.
The rms value of output voltage waveform is observed.

RESULT:

The performance of cycloconverter with step up and step down configuration has been
studied. The output voltage waveforms have been recorded.

133
 EXPERIMENT NO. 22

POWER QUALITY TESTING OF LIGHTING DEVICES

AIM

To study the performance of the following commercially available lighting devices for
power quality in current (i) Incandescent lamp (ii) Fluorescent lamp with magnetic ballast
and (iii) Compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) and to record:

a) Displacement factor (DPF)

b) Current Distortion factor (DF)

c) Input power factor (PF)

d) Total harmonic distortion (THD)

e) Harmonic spectrum

f) Crest factor (CF)

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED: Power Analyzer, incandescent lamp, fluorescent lamp with

electromagnetic ballast, CFL.

PRINCIPLE

For any electrical distribution system, power quality is the extent to which line voltage is a
sine wave of constant amplitude. Any serious power quality problem such as voltage drops,
transients, etc can reduce the life of the lighting systems and other electrical equipments.
High levels of distortion (deviation from a sine wave) in the distribution also harm the
electrical equipments. Unlike voltage drops and the transients, distortion is often caused by
the electric device operating on the system. For a specific electric device, the term power
quality describes the extent to which the device both distorts the voltage waveform and
changes the phase relationship between the voltage and the current.

Most incandescent lamp systems do not reduce the power quality of a distribution system
because they have sinusoidal current waveforms that are in-phase with the voltage
waveforms. Fluorescent lighting systems which use electromagnetic ballasts, have distorted
current waveforms and those which use electronic ballasts, like CFLs, have highly distorted
current waveforms. Such devices draw current in short bursts (instead of drawing it
smoothly), which creates distortion in the voltage. The current waveforms in such devices
may also be out of phase with the voltage waveform. Such a phase displacement can reduce
the efficiency of the alternating current circuit. During the part of the cycle where current is
positive and the voltage is negative, or vice versa, the current and the voltage work against
each other, creating reactive power which does not distort the voltage but requires the
distribution system to have a capacity to carry reactive power, though it accomplishes no
useful work.
134
 In incandescent lamps, light is produced by sending a current through a filament to
make it glow. These lamps have a low efficiency and a short lifetime. In compact
fluorescent lamps (CFLs), light is generated by sending a current through ionized gas. CFLs
are more efficient and last longer. Classical incandescent lamps have a very low efficiency.
About 5% of the consumed energy is emitted in the form of visible light. The remaining
95% is turned into heat. They also have a short lifetime: 1000 hours on average. The
advantages of incandescent lamps are the low price and the high quality of the light, whose
spectrum resembles that of natural sunlight. Halogen lamps are incandescent lamps that are
about 5 to 10% more efficient than classic incandescent lamps. Halogen lamps with a heat-
reflecting infrared coating (IRC) are 1.5 to 3 times more efficient than classic lamps. The
lifetime of these lamps is 2000 hours or longer. CFLs (also known as energy-saving lamps)
are energy-efficient alternatives to incandescent lamps. They have similar shapes and can
be placed in the same fittings. CFLs are compact versions of the fluorescent tube, with
built-in electronic ballast. Because of the different mechanisms of light production
(electrical discharge) the power required for equal light production is four to five times
lower than that of incandescent lamps. The lifetime of a CFL is eight to twelve times longer
than that of an incandescent lamp, i.e. 8000 to 12 000 hours. CFLs are more expensive, but
due to the lower consumption and fewer replacements, the overall cost is lower.

A fluorescent lamp is a gas-filled glass tube, through which a discharge current is sent to
produce light. The impedance of the lamp (i.e. the impedance of the electric arc) is non-
linear. If a sinusoidal voltage is applied directly to the lamp, a non-sinusoidal current flows.
In order to limit and control this current, fluorescent lamps are equipped with ballast. Two
kinds of ballasts are used, electromagnetic ballast and electronic ballast. Three types of
fluorescent lighting systems exist: the fluorescent lamp with electromagnetic ballast, the
fluorescent lamp with electronic ballast and the CFL. Fluorescent lamps with
electromagnetic ballast are inexpensive and have a simple design. The electromagnetic
ballast is a series inductor as shown in the Figure1 below.

Figure 1: Fluorescent lamp with electromagnetic ballast (L) and starter (S)

The combination of the series inductor and the lamp results in an impedance that is more
linear than the lamp’s impedance. As a result, the current is more sinusoidal, with a small
amount of harmonic distortion. The current lags the supply voltage. The current waveform
of a fluorescent lamp can contain more distortion if saturation and hysteresis occur in the
ballast’s iron core. The disadvantages of the electromagnetic ballast are its weight, its large
size and the occurrence of the stroboscopic effect. The circuit of a fluorescent lamp with
electronic ballast is shown in Figure 2.

135
 Figure 2: Fluorescent lamp with electronic ballast, consisting of an a.c. filter, a rectifier, a
Capacitor, a high-frequency oscillator, an inductor and a capacitor.

The principal elements of electronic ballast are a rectifier, a d.c. filter, an oscillator (or
high-frequency inverter), a capacitor and an inductor. The mains voltage is rectified and the
d.c. voltage is converted to an alternating voltage with a high frequency, e.g. 30 kHz. This
voltage is applied to the series circuit of the inductor and the lamp. For large lamps, used in
commercial and professional environments, separate electronic ballasts are used. Here it is
possible to supply high-frequency voltage to multiple lamps. These external ballasts are
equipped with a filter or wave-shaping controls to keep the THD minimal. In domestic
lighting applications, however, considerations of cost, aesthetics and available space are
more important than in professional environments. Therefore CFLs, with integrated ballast,
are used in residential environments. The main disadvantage of the electronic ballast is the
distorted current drawn by the rectifier. The extent of this distortion depends on whether the
rectifier is a standard diode bridge rectifier or a rectifier in combination with a passive filter
or active control. A passive filter can be added to the a.c. side to filter out harmonic current.
In case the rectifier is equipped with active control, a nearly sinusoidal current is drawn
from the grid, resulting in a high power factor. This type of ballast is more expensive than
ballasts with a simple rectifier. Two systems for current control are possible. If the line
voltage is used as the reference for the current waveform, the ballast and the lamp behave
as linear impedance. As a consequence distorted voltage results in distorted current. If a
perfect sine wave is used as a reference, the current is sinusoidal under every circumstance.
In order to limit the size and the cost of CFLs, the integrated electronic ballast contains a
standard rectifier, resulting in current spikes on the a.c. side, which correspond to a high
level of harmonic currents. The fundamental current leads the voltage by a small angle.

Because of the high frequency of the current, the lamp’s efficiency is higher than with
electromagnetic ballast. Additionally the inductor can be much smaller than the equivalent
electromagnetic ballast, resulting in a lighter and more compact system. Other advantages,
compared to the electromagnetic ballast, are the absence of the stroboscopic effect, high
power factor, the possibility of dimming and quick start-up. A lamp with electromagnetic
ballast can also have a high power factor if it is equipped with a compensation capacitor.
Dimming a lighting unit reduces its efficiency.

Performance parameters of input current

Displacement factor: It is the cosine of the angle between voltage and fundamental
component of source current

136
Current Distortion factor: It is defined as the ratio of the rms value of fundamental
component of the source current to the rms value of source current.

Power factor (PF): It is defined as the ratio of real power to apparent power.

Where,

Vs = rms value of the supply voltage

Is = rms value of supply current

Is1 = rms value of fundamental component of supply current

Ф = phase angle between Vs and Is1

Total harmonic distortion (THD): It is defined as the ratio of rms value of all the harmonic
component of the supply current to the rms value of the fundamental component of the
supply current.

Where,

Ih = rms value of all the harmonic components of the supply current combined.

Is = rms value of supply current

Is1 = rms value of fundamental component of supply current

Crest factor (CF): It is defined as the ratio of peak value of supply current, Ip, to its rms
value, Is.

137
PROCEDURE:

A. Connection

1. The circuit is set as shown in the connection diagram.

2. The clip of the voltage terminal cords of the Power Analyzer is clutched to the
phase and the neutral terminals of the lighting device (making a conductive contact
with the terminals). The phase and neutral terminals are connected to the sockets
marked L1 and N, respectively, on the panel provided for voltage terminals of the
analyzer.

3. The current measurement clamp is clamped-on to the phase or the neutral wire
connecting the lighting device to the supply such that the arrow marking on the
current clamp is in the direction of the current flow. The clamp cord is connected to
the socket marked L1 on the panel provided for current terminals of the analyzer.

B. Settings

1. The selection switch on the clamp-on for the current measurement is put at
10mv/A, 40A marking.

2. On the set-up screen of the analyzer, the following settings are done: Supply: 1ϕ,
Phase clamp: 10mV/A, Phase current range: 40A, P.T and C.T ratios: 1:1.

C. Measurement

1. The lighting device is switched-on to the supply and the analyzer is powered-on.

2. The MENU button is pressed and the power quality parameters; Displacement
Power Factor, Distortion Power Factor, Power Factor, Total Harmonic Distortion
are recorded by selecting them from the menu list.

3. The voltage and current waveforms and the harmonic spectrum are also recorded.

4. The readings are recorded and saved in the memory.

5. The same procedure is repeated for each lighting device.

6. The circuit and the analyzer are switched off.

138
CONNECTION DIAGRAM:

OBSERVATIONS:

( Note: the neutral terminal of the current clamp is not connected to the analyzer due to
unavailibility of any such arrangement. Hence the neutral current readings measured is not
taken into consideration).

1) Power Analyzer set-up screen

139
2) Incandescent lamp (100 W):

a) RMS and peak values of supply voltage, voltage b) Supply current waveform is in-phase with c) - RMS value of fundamental component of
Crest factor, supply frequency, RMS and peak supply voltage waveform. supply voltage,
values of supply current, current Crest factor
- Supply frequency,
measurements.
- Phase angle of the fundamental component
of the voltage,

- Phase angle of the fundamental component

of the current (leading the voltage by an
angle of 3.2°, nearly in-phase),

- RMS value of the fundamental component of

supply current

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Incandescent lamp (100 W) (contd.):

d) Total Harmonic Distortion for supply voltage e) Harmonic Spectrum of the supply current f) -Real Power,
and current in percentage.
(Current total harmonic distortion is 2.7% of -Apparent Power,
fundamental component)
-Reactive Power,

-Power factor,

-Displacement Power factor,

-RMS value of fundamental component of

supply current and supply voltage
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3) Fluorescent lamp [(40W+10W choke) x 3]

(The power utilized in the choke (maximum up to 10W) is also considered as the choke inductance contributes to the lagging current.)

b) Supply current waveform is lagging the supply c) - RMS value of fundamental component of
a) - RMS and peak values of supply voltage,
voltage waveform. supply voltage,
- Voltage Crest factor,
- Supply frequency,
- Supply frequency,
- RMS and peak values of supply current, - Phase angle of the fundamental component
of the voltage,
- Current Crest factor
- Phase angle of the fundamental component
of the current (lagging the voltage by an
angle of 52.8°),

- RMS value of the fundamental component of

supply current
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d) Total Harmonic Distortion for supply voltage e) Harmonic Spectrum of the supply current f) -Real Power,
and current in percentage. (Current Total Harmonic Distortion is 9.8% of
-Apparent Power,
fundamental component)
-Reactive Power (inductive load),

-Power factor (lagging),

-Displacement Power factor,

-RMS value of fundamental component of

supply current and supply voltage

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(3) Compact Fluorescent Lamp (15 W):

b) Supply current waveform and supply voltage c) - RMS value of fundamental component of
a) - RMS and peak values of supply voltage,
waveform. supply voltage,
- Voltage Crest factor,
- Supply frequency,
- Supply frequency,
- RMS and peak values of supply current, - Phase angle of the fundamental component
of the voltage,
- Current Crest factor
- Phase angle of the fundamental component
of the current (leading the voltage by an
angle of 25.1°),

- RMS value of the fundamental component of

supply current

Compact Fluorescent Lamp (15 W) (contd.):

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d) Total Harmonic Distortion for supply voltage e) Harmonic Spectrum of the supply current f) -Real Power,
and current in percentage. (Current Total Harmonic Distortion is 136.3%
-Apparent Power,
of fundamental component)
-Reactive Power (capacitive load),

-Power factor (leading),

-Displacement Power factor,

-RMS value of fundamental component of

supply current and supply voltage

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OBSERVATION TABLE (from the observations):

Sl Lighting Real Current Displaceme Current Power Crest

. Power Total nt Power Distortion
N device Harmonic Factor Power Factor Factor
o. Distortion Factor
W THD CDF
DPF PF CF
(watts (%)
) (cos ϕ) (= (= DPF x
CDF)
)

(= )

1 Incandescent
Lamp

(100 W)

2 Fluorescent

Lamp

(40W+10W)
x3nos

3 Compact

Fluorescent

Lamp

(15W)

RESULT: The power quality parameters for the supply current are studied and recorded for
the following lighting devices

(i) Incandescent lamp

(ii) Fluorescent lamp with electro-magnetic ballast and
(iii) Compact fluorescent lamp (CFL).

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