BCT 613: ADVANCED CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

TOPIC 1 : CONCRETE

Building Materials
Great architecture are derived from fundamental building materials...
LEARNING OUTCOME
Upon completion of this lecture, the student will be able to:

• Explain the definition of concrete

• Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of concrete

• Describe the manufacturing process of concrete

• Identify the properties of fresh and hardened concrete

LECTURE CONTENT

1. What is concrete?
2. Constituents of material for concrete
3. Advantages and disadvantages of concrete
4. Process of Manufacture of Concrete
5. Properties of fresh concrete
6. Properties of hardened concrete
WHAT IS CONCRETE?

• Concrete is one of the most commonly used building materials.

• Concrete is a composite material made from several readily available constituents
(aggregates, sand, cement, water).
• Concrete is a versatile material that can easily be mixed to meet a variety of special
needs and formed to virtually any shape.
• Concrete as building material
• maybe cast into bricks, blocks, and other relatives small buildings units which are
used in the construction
• Formed all important elements in building – foundation, floor slab, column, beam,
walls, etc
CONSTİTUENTS

Constituents of concrete
• Cement
• Water
• Fine Agg.
• Coarse Agg.
• Admixtures

• Fine and coarse aggregate mix are the inert/inactive ingredients

• Cement and water are the active materials
• As soon as water is added, chemical reaction begins between water and cement
• The reaction called hydration cause concrete to harden
CHARACTERISTICS

Strength of concrete
• Compressive strength of concrete (ability to stand /resist compression) is very high
• But, tensile strength is very low (ability to resist stretching, bending or twisting)

Durability of concrete
• Refers to the extend which material is capable of resisting deterioration cause by
exposure to service condition
• Strong and fireproof, structural concrete that exposed to elements must be weather
resistance and watertight
• Factors that control the durability of concrete is its strength.
• Stronger the concrete, more durable it is
ADVANTAGES

• Ability to be cast
• Economical
• Durable
• Energy efficient
• On-site fabrication
• Excellent resistance to water
• High temperature resistance – withstand heat for 2-6 hours
• Less maintenance required
• Ability to consume waste i.e woodash, flyash, rice husk ash, plastic and etc
DISADVANTAGES

• Low tensile strength

• Quasi brittle failure mode
• Low ductility
• Volume instability a) Brittle – i.e b) Quasi-brittle
glass – i.e concrete
• Low strength to weight ratio
• Formwork is needed
• Long curing time
• Working with cracks

c) Ductile – i.e
concrete + steel
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE

1. Storing of Concrete Materials

Proper storing are critical to protect materials from intermingling, contamination or
degradation and to maintain consistent aggregate gradation throughout the project
Common problem
 Segregation of aggregate
 Degradation of aggregate
 Contamination of materials by deleterious substances
 Inconsistent / undesired MC
 Lumps in cementation materials –
due to heat / moisture
 Frozen lumps of aggregate due to lack of
precautions in cold weather
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE
2. Concrete Batching
Measuring concrete mix ingredients and introducing them into mixer
Concrete batching plant need to be well maintain
Common problems
• Aggregate segregation
• Varying moisture content
• Too much water affect the strength of concrete
• Admixture overdose – resulting poor workability and retardation
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE
3. Concrete Mixing
• Objective – to coat aggregate surface with cement paste and blend material in uniform mass
• Large volume of concrete – required stationary mixing ( concrete batching plant)
 Ready-Mix concrete: In this type ingredients are introduced into a mixer truck and mixed
during transportation to the site.
• Wet – Water added before transportation
• Dry – Water added at site
 Mixing at the site
• Hand mixed
• Mixer mixed
Ready Mix Concrete
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE

3. Concrete Mixing

The advantages of ready-mixed concrete are as follows :

1. it provide concrete with better quality due to specialized operation
2. Mass production
3. eliminations of storage space for basic materials at site
4. basic materials can be fully utilized
5. it reduces the labor requirement
6. Reduces noices and dust pollution on the construction site
7. it reduces the production cost of concrete
 PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE

3. Concrete Mixing

Mixing at Site
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE

3. Concrete Mixing

Mixing time should be sufficient to produce a uniform concrete. The time of mixing
depends on the type of mixer and also to some properties of fresh concrete.

 Undermixing → non-homogeneity
 Overmixing → danger of water loss, brekage of aggregate particles
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE

4. Concrete Delivery

 Depends on the job condition

 Could be handled and transported in various method such as chutes, buggies operated,
bucket, cranes, cables way, truck pumps and etc
 Standard pump trucks / agitor trucks are used to transport ready mix concrete. Relatively
short distance from batch plant to the placement site.
 Method used to transport depends on the cost and the easiest for the job.
 For small job, wheel barrows were used. Always transport concrete as little as possible to
reduce segregation and wastage
Process of Manufacture of Concrete

4. Concrete Delivery
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE
5. Concrete Placing
• Method of placing on final place have important effect on its homogeneity, density and behavior
• The concrete should not be dropped from a large height but placed from the minimum height . The
maximum free fall should not be more than about 1.5 m
• Preparation of formwork before placing :,
1. It should be strong enough to withstand all types of dead and live loads.
2. The formwork must be erected in accordance with the approved drawings
3. It should be rigidly constructed and efficiently propped and braced both horizontally and
vertically, so as to retain its shape and avoid distortion of concrete elements.
4. The joints in the formwork should be water-tight against leakage of cement grout.
5. Erection of formwork should permit removal of various parts in desired sequences without
damage to the concrete.
6. The formwork should be set accurately to the desired line and levels (correctly aligned and
leveled). It should have plane surface.
7. Clean and free from rubbish
8. The release agents been applied on surface of formworks
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE

5. Concrete Placing
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE

6. Compacting & Finishing

Inadequate consolidation can result in:
 Honeycomb
 Excessive amount of entrapped air voids (bugholes)
 Sand streaks
 Placement lines (Cold joints)
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE

6. Compacting & Finishing

 A process to expelling entrapped air in the concrete

 Lower workability, higher entrapped air
 Method of compaction –
 Hand Compaction (Rodding, ramming, tamping)
 Vibration (Needle Vibrator, Formwork, Table, Platform, Surface (screed), Vibratory
roller
 By pressure and jolting
 Spinning
 Must be done as concrete is place , while it is still plastic

 Types of vibrator
 Internal vibrator: The poker is immersed into concrete to compact it. The poker is
easily removed from point to point.
 External vibrators: External vibrators clamp direct to the formwork requiring strong,
rigid forms.
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE

6. Compacting & Finishing

Internal Vibration

Vibrator

1½ R

Radius of Action
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE

6. Compacting & Finishing

Internal Vibrators Adapted from ACI 309

Diameter Recommended Approximate Rate of

of head, frequency, radius of action, placement, Application
(mm) (vib./min.) (mm) (m3/h)

Plastic and flowing concrete in

20-40 9000-15,000 80-150 0.8-4 thin members. Also used for lab
test specimens.

Plastic concrete in thin walls,

30-60 8500-12,500 130-250 2.3-8 columns, beams, precast piles,
thin slabs, and along construction
joints.

Stiff plastic concrete (less than 80-

50-90 8000-12,000 180-360 4.6-15 mm slump) in general construction
.
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE

6. Compacting & Finishing

Systematic Vibration
CORRECT
Vertical penetration a few inches into previous lift (which
should not yet be rigid) of systematic regular intervals will
give adequate consolidation

INCORRECT
Haphazard random penetration of the vibrator at all angles
and spacings without sufficient depth will not assure
intimate combination of the two layers
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE

6. Compacting & Finishing

Internal Vibrators

• To aid in the removal of trapped air the vibrator head should be

rapidly plunged into the mix and slowly moved up and down.

 The actual completion of vibration

is judged by the appearance of the
concrete surface which must be
neither rough nor contain excess
cement paste.
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE

6. Compacting & Finishing

• Form vibrators
• Vibrating tables (Lab)
• Surface vibrators
• Vibratory screeds
• Plate vibrators
• Vibratory roller screeds
• Vibratory hand floats or trowels
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE

6. Compacting & Finishing

External Vibrators

 External vibrators are rigidly clamped to the formwork so that both the form &
concrete are subjected to vibration.
 A considerable amount of work is needed to vibrate forms.
 Forms must be strong and tied enough to prevent distortion and leakage of the grout.
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE

6. Compacting & Finishing

External Vibrators

 Vibrating Table: used for small

amounts of concrete
(laboratory and some precast
elements)
Process of Manufacture of Concrete

6. Compacting & Finishing

• Overvibration can cause the coarse aggregate have sunk below the surface
(segregation) and surface may have a frothy appearance.
• The purpose of finishing is to make a smooth surface on concrete member and to
achieve a denser, compact and properly graded surface layer to prevent water
evaporation and increase wear resistance.
• Fishing technique – using steel trowel (manual) or trowel machine
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE

7. Curing

• Properties of concrete can improve with age as long as conditions are favorable for the
continued hydration of cement. These improvements are rapid at early ages and
continues slowly for an indefinite period of time.
• Curing is the procedures used for promoting the hydration of cement and consists of a
control of temperature and the moisture movement from and into the concrete (Define as
to cover so its stays moist)
• Concrete curing – stopping freshly poured concrete from drying out too fast. If
concrete dry out too fast, will lead to cracks and strength will drop (weaker)
• Curing process also intended to control the temperature of the concrete during
hardening process.
• Concrete should be cured for at least 3 days – 7 days. Curing time depend on the
temperature of the concrete.
• The length of the time depend on the cement content, mix proportions, required
strength, size shape of the concrete mass, weather and further exposure condition
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE

7. Curing
 The primary objective of curing is to keep concrete saturated or as nearly saturated
as possible.
 Hydration reactions can take place in only saturated water filled capillaries.
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE

7. Curing

Curing Methods

1. Methods which supply additional water to the surface of

concrete during early hardening stages.
• Using wet covers
• Sprinkling
• Ponding
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE

7. Curing
2. Methods that prevent loss of moisture from concrete by sealing the surface.
• Water proof plastics
• Use liquid membrane-forming compounds
• Forms left in place
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE

7. Curing

3. Methods that accelerate strength gain by supplying heat & moisture to the concrete.
• By using live steam (steam curing)
• Heating coils.
Propertıes Of Fresh
Concrete
PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE

• Stages where concrete in the plastic state and can be moulded. Also called as green
concrete. Another term – consistence (the ease concrete will flow)
• Concrete is in plastic state during placing and compaction
• The important properties – workability and cohesiveness.
• Those who work during concreting may sink in the concrete during this stage.
PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE

The properties of fresh concrete depend on :

• Workability
• Consistency
• Segregation
• Bleeding
• Setting Time
• Hydration
• Unit Weight
• Uniformity
 Workabılıty

• It is desirable that freshly mixed concrete be relatively easy to transport, place, compact and finish
without harmful segregation.
• A concrete mix satisfying these conditions is said to be workable.
• Workability is the most important property of freshly mixed concrete.
• There is no single test method that can simultaneously measure all the properties involved in
workability.
• It is determined to a large extent by measuring the “consistency” of the mix.
Workabılıty

Factors Affecting Workability

• Method and duration of transportation

• Quantity and characteristics of cementing materials
• Aggregate grading, shape and surface texture
• Quantity and characteristics of chemical admixtures
• Amount of water
• Amount of entrained air
• Concrete & ambient air temperature
 Consıstency

• Consistency is the fluidity or degree of wetness of concrete.

• It is generally dependent on the shear resistance of the mass.
• It is a major factor in indicating the workability of freshly mixed concrete.
• Test methods for measuring consistency are:
 Flow test → measures the amount of flow
 Kelly-Ball test → measures the amount of penetration
 Slump test (Most widely used test!)
Consıstency

• Slump Test is related with the ease with which concrete flows during placement (TS 2871, ASTM
C 143)
 10 cm

30 cm

20 cm
The slump cone is filled in 3 layers. Every layer is evenly rodded 25
times.

Measure the slump by determining the vertical difference between the top of the mold and the
displaced original center of the top surface of the specimen.
Segregatıon

• Segregation refers to a separation of the components of fresh concrete, resulting in a non-uniform

mix .
• The primary causes of segregation are differences in specific gravity and size of constituents of
concrete. Moreover, improper mixing, improper placing and improper consolidation also lead to
segregation.
• A good concrete – homogeneous concrete
• Type of segregation
• Coarse aggregate separating out / setting down
• Paste separating away from coarse aggregate
• Water separating out from the rest of material being a material of lowest specific gravity

Sp.Gr. Size

Cement 3-3.15 5-80 mm

C.Agg. 2.4-2.8 5-40 mm

F.Agg. 2.4-2.8 < 5 mm

Segregatıon

Some of the factors affecting segregation:

• Larger maximum particle size (25mm) and proportion of the larger particles.
• High specific gravity of coarse aggregate.
• Decrease in the amount of fine particles.
• Particle shape and texture.
• Water/cement ratio.

Fine
Aggregate Cement paste

Coarse
Aggregate
 Segregatıon

To avoid segregation
• Concrete not too wet not too dry
• Properly mix the concrete (important concrete to be mixed at correct speed
• Placed concrete as soon as possible
• When transporting concrete, load carefully. Placing concrete straight from the truck, pour
vertically and never let concrete fall more than 1 ½ m
• Always pour new concrete into the face of concrete already in place
• Use poker vibrator carefully
 Bleeding

• Bleeding is the tendency of water to rise to the surface of freshly placed concrete.
• It is caused by the inability of solid constituents of the mix to hold all of the mixing water as they
settle down.
• A special case of segregation.
Bleeding

Undesirable effects of bleeding are:

• With the movement of water towards the top, the top portion becomes weak & porous (high w/c).
Thus the resistance of concrete to freezing-thawing decreases.

• Water rising to the surface carry fine particles of cement which weaken the top portion and form
laitance. This portion is not resistant to abrasion.

• Water may accumulate under the coarse agg. and reinforcement. These large voids under the
particles may lead to weak zones and reduce the bond between paste and agg. or paste and
reinforcement.
• The tendency of concrete to bleeding depends largely on properties of cement. It is decreased
by:
 Increasing the fineness of cement
 Increasing the rate of hydration (C3S, C3A and alkalies)
 Adding pozzolans
 Reducing water content
Setting Time

Setting of concrete related to setting of cement (cement properties greatly affect setting
time)

Factors that affecting the setting of concrete

• W/C ratio
• Suitable Temperature
• Cement Content
• Type of cement
• Finesse of cement
Setting Time

• Hydration in concrete
• Derives its strength in hydration of cement particles.
• Hydration of cement is a process continuing long time
• Extra water must be refill to replace the loss of water (absorption and evaporation) –
curing process
• During hydration – release high heat of hydration. The heat is harmful for volume
stability
• Contributes to shrinkage of concrete –
Setting Time

Process of hardening of concrete before hydration / before gain strength / transaction process
from plastic to hardened state

 On first contact with water, calcium ions and hydroxide ions are rapidly released from the
surface of each C3S grain.
 The induction (dormant) period is caused by the need to achieve a certain concentration of
ions in solution before crystal nuclei are formed for the hydration products to grow from.
 At the end of dormant period, the thickness of the hydrate layer increases and reach the
growing crystals
 Initial set of cement paste is defined as the time when the paste has gained enough rigidity to
no longer be in a fluid state. In another word initial set indicates the beginning of forming of
gel or beginning of solidification.
 The final setting time is when rigidity has increased to a point that the paste becomes a solid
of very low strength.
 In general, cement exhibit initial set in 2 to 4 hours and final set in 5 to 8 hours.
 Final set is then followed by substantial increases in strength, referred to as the hardening
stage
Unıformıty Of Concrete

• Concrete uniformity is checked by conducting tests on fresh and hardened concretes.

 Slump, unit weight, air content tests
 Strength tests
• Due to heteregeneous nature of concrete, there will always be some variations. These variations
are grouped as:
 Within-Batch Variations : inadequate mixing, non-homogeneous nature
 Variations : type of materials used, changes in gradation of aggregates, changes in
moisture content of aggregates
Propertıes Of Fresh Concrete

Hot Weather Concrete

• Rapid hydration  early setting  rapid loss of workability
• Extra problems due to :
• Low humidity
• Wind, excessive evaporation
• Direct sunlight

Solutions
• Windbreaks
• Cooled Concrete Ingredients
• Water ponding (cooling due to evaporation)
• Reflective coatings/coverings
Propertıes Of Fresh Concrete

Cold Weather Concrete

Keep concrete temperature above 5 °C to minimize danger of freezing

Solutions
• Heated enclosures, insulation
• Rely on heat of hydration for larger sections
• Heated ingredients --- concrete hot when placed
• High early strength cement
Propertıes Of Hardened
Concrete
PROPERTIES OF HARDENED CONCRETE

 The principal properties of hardened concrete which are of practical

importance can be listed as:
1. Strength
2. Permeability & durability
3. Shrinkage & creep deformations
4. Response to temperature variations

 Of these compressive strength is the most important property of

concrete. Because;
PROPERTIES OF HARDENED CONCRETE

Of the abovementioned hardened properties compressive strength is

one of the most important property that is often required, simply
because;

1. Concrete is used for compressive loads

2. Compressive strength is easily obtained
3. It is a good measure of all the other properties.
PROPERTIES OF HARDENED CONCRETE
PROPERTIES OF HARDENED CONCRETE

• Strength of concrete
• Ability of concrete to carry applied compression load
• Factors influencing the strength of concrete
1. Type of cement, age, type of aggregate and admixture
2. Degree of compaction
3. Concrete mix proportion (cement, aggregate , water)
4. Type of curing and temperature of curing
What Affects
Concrete Strength

What
Doesn’t?
 Factors Affecting Strength

• Effect of materials and mix proportions

• Production methods
• Testing parameters
 STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

 The strength of a concrete specimen prepared,

cured and tested under specified conditions at a
given age depends on:
1. w/c ratio
2. Degree of compaction
 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

Compressive Strength is determined by loading properly prepared and

cured cubic, cylindrical or prismatic specimens under compression.
 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

• Cubic: 15x15x15 cm
Cubic specimens are crushed after rotating them 90° to decrease the
amount of friction caused by the rough finishing.
• Cylinder: h/D=2 with h=15
To decrease the amount of friction, capping of the rough casting surface is
performed.
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

Cubic specimens Cylindrical specimens

without capping with capping
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

Bonded sulphur capping Unbonded neoprene pads

 Factors Affecting the Strength of Concrete

1) Factors depended on the 2. Factors independent of

test type: test type:
• Size of specimen
– Type of cement
• Size of specimen in relation
with size of agg. – Type of agg.
• Support condition af – Degree of compaction
specimen – Mix proportions
• Moisture condition of – Type of curing
specimen
– Type of stress situation
• Type of loading adopted
• Rate of loading
• Type of test machine
 STRENGTH CLASSES
(TS EN 206-1)
• The compressive strength value depends on the shape and size of the
specimen.
TENSILE STRENGTH

Tensile Strength can be obtained either by direct methods or indirect

methods.
Direct methods suffer from a number of difficulties related to holding the specimen
properly in the testing machine without introducing stress concentration and to the
application of load without eccentricity.
DIRECT TENSILE STRENGTH
 SPLIT TENSILE STRENGTH

Due to applied compression load a fairly uniform

tensile stress is induced over nearly 2/3 of the
diameter of the cylinder perpendicular to the
direction of load application.
 2P P: applied compressive load
σst =
πDl
D: diameter of specimen
Splitting Tensile
Strength l: length of specimen
• The advantage of the splitting test over the direct tensile test is the
same molds are used for compressive & tensile strength determination.

• The test is simple to perform and gives uniform results than other
tension tests.
FLEXURAL STRENGTH

The flexural tensile strength at failure or the

modulus of rupture is determined by loading a
prismatic concrete beam specimen.

The results
obtained are useful
because concrete
is subjected to
flexural loads more
often than it is
subjected to
tensile loads.
 P

d
bd3
I=
c 12
b
M=Pl/4

Mc (Pl/4) (d/2) 3 Pl
σ= = =
I bd3/12 2 bd2

P/2 P/2

(Pl/6) (d/2) Pl
σ= =
bd3/12 bd2
M=Pl/6
STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS IN CONCRETE

σ-ε relationship for

σult concrete is
nonlinear. However,
specially for
(40-50%)
cylindrical
σult specimens with
h/D=2, it can be
εult assumed as linear
upto 40-50% of σult
 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY OF CONCRETE

Due to the nonlinearity

of the σ-ε diagram, E is
the defined by:
1. Initial Tangent Method
2. Tangent Method
3. Secant Method

ACI → E=15200 σult½ → 28-D cylindrical comp.str.

(kgf/cm2)
TS → E=15500 W ½→ 28-D cubic comp.str. (kgf/cm2)
 PERMEABILITY OF CONCRETE
 Permeability is important because:
1. The penetration of some aggresive solution may result in
leaching out of Ca(OH)2 which adversely affects the
durability of concrete.
2. In R/C ingress of moisture of air into concrete causes
corrosion of reinforcement and results in the volume
expansion of steel bars, consequently causing cracks &
spalling of concrete cover.
3. The moisture penetration depends on permeability & if
concrete becomes saturated it is more liable to frost-action.
4. In some structural members permeability itself is of
importance, such as, dams, water retaining tanks.
 PERMEABILITY OF CONCRETE

 The permeability of concrete is controlled by capillary pores. The

permeability depends mostly on w/c, age, degree of hydration.
 In general the higher the strength of cement paste, the higher is the
durability & the lower is the permeability.
 DURABILITY

A durable concrete is the one which will withstand in a satisfactory

degree, the effects of service conditions to which it will be subjected.
Factors Affecting Durability:
External → Environmental
Internal → Permeability, Characteristics of ingredients, Air-Void
System...
Structure of “un-damaged” Concrete
• Macrostructure
• Aggregates (CA, FA)
• Hydrated cement paste (hcp)
• Entrapped air voids
• Microstructure
• Hydrated cement paste (Hydration products: C-S-H, ettringite, monosulfate;
porosity: gel, capillary pores entrained/ entrapped air voids)
• Transition zone (TZ)
Structure of “un-damaged” Concrete

Macrostructure Microstructure
Structure of “damaged” Concrete
Macrostructure Microstructure
Visible cracks in hcp and  Alkali-silica reaction:
aggregates due to Reaction product forms
volume changes at TZ and expands
(to understand cause  Frost action: Water
of cracks, freezes in capillary
microstructure should pores and expands
be examined)  Sulfate attack: reaction
products form in hcp
and expand
 Leaching & Efflorescence

When water penetrates into concrete, it dissolves the non-hydraulic CH

(and various salts, sulfates and carbonates of Na, K, Ca)

Remember C-S-H and CH is produced upon hydration of C3S and C2S

These salts are taken outside of concrete by water and leave a salt
deposit.
 Sulfate Attack

Ground water in clayey soils containing alkali

sulfates may affect concrete.
These solutions attack CH to produce gypsum.
Later, gypsum and calcium alumina sulfates
together with water react to form “ettringite”.
Formation of ettringite is hardened cement paste
or concrete leads to volume expansion thus
cracking.
Moreover, Magnesium sulfate may lead to the
decomposition of the C-S-H gel.
 Sulfate Attack

 Seawater contains some amount of Na and Mg

Sulfates. However, these sulfates do not cause severe
deleterious expansion/cracking because both gypsum
and ettringite are soluble in solutions containing the
Cl ion. However, problem with seawater is the
frequent wetting/drying and corrosion of reinforcing
steel in concrete.
 To reduce the sulfate attack
1. Use low w/c ratio→ reduced permeability & porosity
2. Use proper cement → reduced C3A and C3S
3. Use pozzolans → they use up some of the CH to
produce C-S-H
 Acid Attack

Concrete is pretty resistant to acids. But in high concentrations:

• Causes leaching of the CH

• Causes disintegration of the C-S-H gel.
 Carbonation

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O

Accompanied by shrinkage → carbonation shrinkage

Makes the steel vulnerable to corrosion (due to reduced alkalinity)

 Alkali-Agg. Reactions

Alkalies of cement + Reactive Silica of Aggs → Alkali-Silica Gel

Expansions in volume

Slow process

Don’t use aggs with reactive silica or use cements with less alkalies.
 Corrosion

Electrochemical reactions in the steel rebars of a R/C structure results in

corrosion products which have larger volumes than original steel.

Thus this volume expansion causes cracks in R/C. In fact, steel is protected
by a thin film provided by concrete against corrosion. However, that shield is
broken by CO2 of air or the Cl- ions.
 Freezing and Thawing

Water when freezes expands in volume. This will cause internal hydraulic
pressure and cracks the concrete.

 To prevent the
concrete from this
distress air-entraining
admixtures are used
to produce air-
entrained concrete.
 Abrasion

Aggregates have to be hard & resistant to wear.

Bleeding & finishing practices are also important.

 PROPORTIONING CONCRETE MIXTURES

 W+C+C.Agg.+F.Agg.+Admixtures → Weights / Volumes?

 There are two sets of requirements which enable
the engineer to design a concrete mix.

1. The requirements of concrete in hardened state.

These are specified by the structural engineer.

2. The requirements of fresh concrete such as

workability, setting time. These are specified by the
construction engineer (type of construction, placing
methods, compacting techniques and
transportation)
 PROPORTIONING CONCRETE MIXTURES

Mix design is the process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete &

determining their relative quantities with the objective of producing as
economically as possible concrete of certain minimum properties such as
workability, strength & durability.

So, basic considerations in a mix design is cost & min. properties.

  Cost → Material + Labor

Water+Cement+Aggregate+Admixtures

Most expensive (optimize)

Using less cement causes a decrease in shrinkage
and increase in volume stability.
Min.Properties →Strength has to be more than..
Durability→Permeability has to be
Workability→Slump has to be...
 In the past specifications for concrete mix design prescribed the
proportions of cement, fine agg. & coarse agg.
1 : 2 : 4

Weight of Fine Coarse

cement Agg. Agg.

 However, modern specifications do not use

these fixed ratios.
Modern specifications specify min compressive strength,
grading of agg, max w/c ratio, min/max cement content,
min entrained air & etc.

Most of the time job specifications dictate the following

data:
• Max w/c
• Min cement content
• Min air content
• Slump
• Strength
• Durability
• Type of cement
• Admixtures
• Max agg. size
 PROCEDURE FOR MIX DESIGN

1. Choice of slump (Table 14.5)

 PROCEDURE FOR MIX DESIGN

2. Choice of max agg. size

• 1/5 of the narrowest dimension of the mold
• 1/3 of the depth of the slab
• ¾ of the clear spacing between reinforcement
• Dmax < 40mm
 PROCEDURE FOR MIX DESIGN

3. Estimation of mixing water & air content (Table 14.6 and 14.7)
 PROCEDURE FOR MIX DESIGN

4. Selection of w/c ratio (Table 14.8 or 14.9)

 PROCEDURE FOR MIX DESIGN

5. Calculation of cement content with selected water

amount (step 3) and w/c (step 4)
6. Estimation of coarse agg. content (Table 14.10)
 PROCEDURE FOR MIX DESIGN

7. Calculation of fine aggregate content with known volumes of coarse

aggregate, water, cement and air
8. Adjustions for aggregate field moisture
 PROCEDURE FOR MIX DESIGN

9. Trial batch adjustments

 The properties of the mixes in trial batches are checked
and necessary adjustments are made to end up with the
minimum required properties of concrete.
 Moreover, a lab trial batch may not always provide the
final answer. Only the mix made and used in the job can
guarantee that all properties of concrete are satisfactory
in every detail for the particular job at hand. That’s why
we get samples from the field mixes for testing the
properties.
Example:
• Slump → 75-100 mm
• Dmax → 25 mm
• f’c,28 = 25 MPa
• Specific Gravity of cement = 3.15
• Non-air entrained concrete

Coarse Agg. Fine Agg.

SSD Bulk Sp.Gravity 2.68 2.62
Absorption 0.5% 1.0%
Total Moist.Content 2.0% 5.0%
Dry rodded Unit Weight 1600 kg/m3 –
Fineness Modulus – 2.6
1. Slump is given as 75-100 mm
2. Dmax is given as 25 mm
3. Estimate the water and air content (Table 14.6)

Slump and Dmax → W=193 kg/m3

Entrapped Air → 1.5%
4. Estimate w/c ratio (Table 14.8)

f’c & non-air entrained → w/c=0.61 (by wt)

5. Calculation of cement content

W = 193 kg/m3 and w/c=0.61

C=193 / 0.61 = 316 kg/m3

6. Coarse Agg. from Table 14.10
Dmax and F.M. → VC.A=0.69 m3

Dry WC.A. = 1600*0.69 = 1104 kg/m3

SSD WC.A. = 1104*(1+0.005) = 1110 kg/m3
 7. To calculate the F.Agg. content the volumes of other ingredients
have to be determined.

V= M
Vwater = 193 = 0.193 m3 Sp.Gr.*rw
1.0*1000
Vcement = 316 = 0.100 m3
3.15*1000

VC.Agg. = 1110 = 0.414 m3

2.68*1000
Vair = 0.015 m3 (1.5%*1)
SV = 0.722 m3 → VF.Agg = 1-0.722 = 0.278 m3
WF.Agg = 0.278*2.62*1000 = 728 kg/m3
Summary of Mix Design

• Based on SSD weight of aggregates

8. Adjustment for Field Moisture of Aggregates

WDry = WSSD /(1+a) WField =WDry *(1+m)

Correction for water

From coarse aggregate: 1127-1110 = 17 48 kg
From fine aggregate: 759-728 = 31 extra
Corrected water amount : 193 – 48 = 145 kg
Summary of Mix Design

• Based on field weight of aggregates

9. Trial Batch
Usually a 0.02 m3 of concrete is sufficient to verify the slump and air
content of the mix. If the slump and air content are different
readjustments of the proportions should be made.