CHAPTER ONE

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1.1 Background to the problem

Education is a fundamental human right and a catalyst for economic growth and human
development (Okumuet al., 2008). According to the report by the Republic of Kenya(2005),
education is valued because it contributes to the national development through the provision
of appropriate human resource that helps to stimulate productivity and eliminate hunger,
poverty, disease, ignorance as well as creation of opportunities for making and participating
in decision making The study by UNESCO (1994) revealsthat decentralization of planning,
management and control of' resources is often perceived as a means to improve the quality of
education and introduce an element of accountability in the school system to the . It is
expected to result in improvement of school enrolment rates and increased human resources.
Similarly, decentralization has become popular in the education sector because different
governments of the world have experienced problems providing centralized education
services, including financial inefficiencies, inadequate management capacity, and lack of
transparent decision making, poor quality and access to education services (World Bank,
2005)

Also, Magari (2005) points out that,review of school governance reveals that school
Committees are becoming an increasingly important integral part of the school management
as educators begin to appreciate how crucial it is to empower the participants in educational
processes. In the United States of America (USA) for instance, the provision of school
Committees became a requirement in Massachusetts laws of 1827 and 1989 and was required
to exercise general supervision over schools. The Committees were responsible for;
disbursement of funds, certification of teachers, recommendation of curricula, supervising
buildings and maintenance of schools. Similarly, the study conducted by Hess (2002) in the
USA indicates that the greatest challenge confronting school Committees is to ensure that
every child has the opportunity to learn. Therefore Committees must provide that opportunity
while meeting the needs of the communities they serve and taking care not to micromanage
or to invade the appropriate realm of professional educators.
In England, Wales and Northern Ireland, every state school has a School Governing Board
(SGB) which operates under the article of government or instruments of management. They
consist of various categories of governors depending on the type and the size of the school,
namely; the voluntary aided, voluntary controlled and the country schools (Allan, 2006).
They are in charge of school administration, strategic planning, staff appointment and
dismissal, accountability, staff review and appraisal. They further monitor and evaluate
performance, approve the school budget, set strategic vision and aims, appoint the head
teacher, act as a critical friend by providing setting support and challenge and cohesions and
the school, among others.

The study conducted by Mahlangu (2008) in South Africa indicated that, amongst other
things the school governing body was responsible for provisional maintenance and
administrative functions with regard to provincial educational institutions at the local level. It
also assisted the education department with regard to administrative work at the local level.
The findings show that the efforts made by the department of education to provide training
was regarded as inadequate to address the complex problems experienced by SGB‟s hence
the call for further study.

Furthermore, in South Africa, a number of educators felt that SGBs lacked confidence and
also were not sure about their duties and therefore depended on the principal who uses his or
her professional power and information advantage to the SGB. This made them less effective
in discharging their duties. Their lack of effectiveness was attributed to lack of interest in the
school, low levels of literacy and lack of training (Van Wyk, 2007).

In Kenya, the management of education is done by different bodies at different levels. For
instance, at the institutional levels, school management committees (SMC) and centre
management committees (CMCs) manage primary schools while board of governors (BOG)
manage Public schools and tertiary institutions and at the university levels, the university
council manage their universities (Mulai, 2011). The study recommended that, despite the
absence of explicitness in the law, review of literature reveals that BOG is almost involved in
every aspect of the school lifelike in school finance management, recruitment of staff,
maintenance of discipline, improvement of school performance, salary review, quality
standard assurance, curriculum implementation, school development, raising funds for school
project and school welfare, among others (Onderi and Makori, 2012).
The study byKindiki (2009) reportsthat, in many schools BOG members were incompetent in
school management because majority of them had low level of education and lacked the
necessary skills and experience in education and therefore were compromising their services
to the schools. The establishment of schools in Tanzania is one of the major educational
reform in Public education during the 1980s and 1990s.The 1995 educational and training act
No 10 defined a Public school as a school owned by local or owned by an institution on
behalf of a (URT 1995). In this case, Public schools are basically established by the people
at the ward, division or District level before being transferred to central government for
supply of teaching and learning materials, teaching staff and administrators. In addition,
management of the schools is done by school committees for the primary schools, and by
school Committees for the Public schools. The two organs are legally established by the
Educational Act of 1978 as amended from time to time (URT, 1995.)

The school Committees are legally mandated by the ministry of education under the National
Educational Act, 1978 No. 25 section 38. Under this act, the school board means a board
established under section 38 for the purpose of supervising and advising on the management
of national schools. The Act was amended in the 1995 Education Act No. 10 whereby the
name, national schools, was renamed as post primary schools at the same time the concept of
school was introduced to refer to schools owned by a local or by an institution on behalf of
the (Education Act, 1978 (25) and 1995 (10) ).

With the decentralization of the management and administration of Public schools, the school
board is responsible for approving Whole School Development Plans (WSDP) and budgets,
and overseeing their implementation, advising District Public Education Officer (DSEO) on
schools management, advising DSEO and Teachers Service Department(TSD) on
disciplinary cases of teachers; demanding, on a regular basis, accountability for students‟
performance; dealing with disciplinary cases of students; and deliberating on quarterly school
performance reports both financial and physical.

The findings of the study by Masanja (2003) and Etuttu (2004) reveals that school
Committees were performing minimally in advising the heads of schools in day to day
running of the school and were not involved in advising the commissioner of education on
educational policies.They do not function effectively, and are not viewed by stakeholders as
institutions that can be engines for change or agents for management of change. This study,
therefore, attempts to assess the magnitude of this problem so as to examine the challenges
faced by school board in managing Public schools and suggests on appropriate strategies to
be employed to redress the challenges in order to improve the roles of school Committees in
managing Public schools.

1.2 statement of the research problem

Like many other developing countries, Tanzania has recently embarked on major reforms in
the education sector to enable local communities play an active role in managing their
schools. To achieve this goal, the government came up with the policy of decentralisation by
devolution enshrined in the general government decentralization framework called the Local
Government Reform Program (LGRP) (Masue, 2010). Under this framework, various service
provision responsibilities have been transferred to the Local Government Authorities (LGAs)
through the Prime Minister‟s Office-Region al Administration and Local Government (PMO-
RALG).

These reforms envisage mainstreaming local communities into the management of education
that had for many years been centralised. Under the reforms, school Committees have the
task of managing schools on behalf of the . However, their effectiveness has been questioned
by many studies indifferent countries. For example in Kenya, Kindiki (2009) reports that,
Public schools Board of Management (BOM) lack management skills and therefore lack
supervisory competencies in utilizing available resources for managerial purposes. Further,
Mulaireport (2011) reveals that, educational institutions in Kenya are weak because most of
the BOM lack quality management capabilities In Tanzania, Masanja (2003), Etuttu (2004)
and Mrope (2011)reports that, school Committees are performing minimally in advising
heads of schools on the matters regarding the day to day running of the school.They report
further that, school Committees are not involved in advising the commissioner of education
on educational policies and in approving the WSDPs and budget.The incompetence of the
school Committees in managing Public schools as by such scholars implies that, there are
certain challenges that accelerate the situation. Thus, the study at hand intends to investigate
such challenges in Public schools in Tanzania with a focus of Nzega District.
 1.3 objectives of the study

General Objective of the Study

The purpose of this study was to examine the challenges faced by school Committees in
Public schools in Nzega District.

1.3.1 Specific Objectives of the Study

Specific objectives of the study were to:

i. Assess the awareness of school board members of their roles of managing Public
schools in Nzega District
ii. Identify challenges faced by school Committees in managing Public schools
iii. Suggest appropriate strategies that can be used to address the challenges faced by
school Committees in order to improve their roles in managing Public schools

1.3 significance of the study

By exploring challenges faced by school Committees in managing Public schools, this study
has generated knowledge that will be of relevance to different stakeholders. Education policy
makers in Tanzania are among the beneficiaries of the results of this research. The findings
will provides valuable information to education policy makers on some factors hindering
school board in the management of Public schools. This will help the policy makers in terms
of coming up with intervention measures such as induction courses, in- service courses for
school Committees, reviewing the mode / criteria of selecting the school board members to
ensure a competent and committed board that fully represents the Ministry for effective
management.

Secondly, as subjects of inquiry, members of school Committees will use the results to
improve their performance through the understanding of challenges they face. Thirdly, the
findings could enable the school heads in Nzega District and other parts of Tanzania to
understand the influence of school board as a crucial stake holder in management and hence
strive to work in harmony for the betterment of the school.

In addition, since parents, students and at large are the key stakeholders in the school, the
study findings could help them comprehend the role and influence of the school board
members in school management. Finally, this study is to generate knowledge and add to the
existing body of literature on how to improve education quality in based Public schools that
are managed by school Committees. In this regard, researchers and academicians will have
the opportunity to use this information in their teachings and further research activities.
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

This chapter describes the views of various scholars to the subject matter of inquiry in this
study. It analyzes theoretical and empirical literature related to challenges faced by school
Committees in managing Public schools in Nzega district, Manyara-Tanzania.Specifically it
discusses the literature on the governance of schools through school Committees globally and
nationally, challenges associated with managing schools through school Committees. It also
explains the management theories that link to the subject matter of inquiry for this study such
as scientific management and system theories. Conceptual frame work was as well presented
at the end of this chapter.

2.1 Theoretical Framework of the Study

According to Aurbach and Silverstain (2003), theoretical framework is a set of beliefs about
psychological and formal process with which the researcher approaches the study. The
subject matter of inquiry in this research concerns the management of based schools through
school Committees. Specifically, the study investigates the challenges faced by school
Committees that have a direct management function. From the theoretical point of view, it is
envisaged in this study that, management theories provides an appropriate explanation on
how institutions like schools could be managed. Further, the theory provides the opportunity
to analyzethe challenges and strategies associated with the management of these schools.
Specifically, this study adopted the scientific management and systems theories in explaining
the subject matter of the research.

2.1.1 The Scientific Management Theory

Many of the classical writers were concerned with the improvement of management as a
means to increasing productivity. A major contributor to this approach was Fredrick Taylor
(1856-1917) who is considered the father of scientific management. Taylor considered that
all work processes could be analyzed into discrete tasks and that in scientific method, it was
possible to find the best way to perform each task (Dublin, 1989). Each job was broken down
into component parts where each part was timed and rearranged into the most efficient
method of working. Taylor was concerned with finding more efficient methods and
procedures for coordination and control of work. He set out a number of principles to guide
management. These were the development of true science for each person‟s work, the
scientific selection, training and development of the workers, co-operation with the workers
to ensure work is carried out in the prescribed way and the division of work and
responsibility between management and workers (Dublin, 1989).

He further believed that the workload would be evenly shared between the workers and
management with management performing the science and instruction and the workers
performing the labour, each group doing the work for which it was best suited This theory is
applicable in the current study in that school board members in Public schools in Nzega
District could be compared to workers in an organization, whose participation should lead to
efficient and effective operations of the organization. For school Committees to perform their
roles effectively there was a need for careful selection/ appointment of members, orientation
and training as well as co-operation as the theory emphasizes. In addition, the school
Committees being the governing arm of the school, they should have a positive relationship
with the school management team, teachers, parents, and the entire for efficient and effective
running of the school. School Committees will apply this theory in managing Public schools
to strengthened cooperation among different educational stake holders such as parents,
students, teachers and at large.

In addition, the theory will enable heads of schools to adapt the principle of scientific
selection of competent school board members who will perform their work effectively.
Similarly, the theory reminded the government to deliver orientation and training to school
board members for them to efficiently and effectively perform their roles in managing Public
schools. However, the theory was criticized as it treats organizations as closed system
emphasizing its technical requirement and needs (Jude, 2015). Therefore, school as an open
system, interacts with the external environment.

2.2 Review of Empirical Literature

This section discusses the empirical works of other scholars who have attempted to explore
the subject matter from different angles and countries. It draws from the global perspective to
the national level in Tanzania. Very importantly was that, the section attempts to find out
how much was known regarding the subject matter of inquiry in this research and what is not
yet known. The section winds up with a design of a conceptual framework which draws
together ideas from different scholars on the challenges that school boards face in managing
community secondary of schools.

2.2.2 School Board Structures

The school board is the ultimate decision making authority for a school. Although a board‟s
power is limited by legal requirements and regulations, the board is the most powerful entity
within a school. Through their actions, policies, structures, procedures and words, boards
have all the power required to determine whether a school succeeds or fails (Carver et al,
2006). According to Codrington (2014) boards typically operate through a number of
committees such as finance, compensation, nominating and governance, audit and risk,
facilities and advancement committees, to name a few.

The purpose of committees is to scrutinise, research and develop proposals and data in order
to frame recommendations for consideration by the school board. When the committee
structure functions well and when committees have earned the trust of the board as a whole,
board meetings can operate quickly and efficiently, thus avoiding becoming bogged down in
tedious minutiae. However, it is important to remember that committees do not make formal
decisions. They review information and data in order to make recommendations to the board,
which has authority for decision making on governance matters.

2.2.3 Accountability and Responsibility Structure of the Board

Each Board committee will usually receive reports from at least one member of the Senior
Management Team (SMT) at each meeting and will ask relevant questions. This is how board
committees exercise their role in governance. For instance, the school bursar reports to
finance committee on financial matters in school. School boards ultimately run the school and
determine its direction. The role of the head and the management team is to run the day -to
-day operations of the school in compliance with the vision and direction established by the
board. The work of the head and the management team is conducted under what is in effect
and the delegated authority of the board (Codrington, 2014).

2.2.4 Global Overview on the Use of School Boards in Managing Local Schools The
governance of schools by school boards started in the USA almost 200 years ago. In
Massachusetts, local committees were set up to be responsible for education in order to
separate this authority from other municipal responsibilities (Danzberger,
1994). In addition, Beckham and Wills (2011) affirm that, local school boards have been an
integral feature of the USA public education system for nearly 200 years, and are widely
regarded as the principal democratic body capable of representing citizens in local education
decisions. The formal institutional roles assigned to school boards, and the designated
position board members play as representatives of the community, would lead one to believe
that the school board has a decisive role in public education policy and school system
administration. In the minds of many lay citizens, school boards have considerable influence
over educational decisions and provide a key social and political connection to the schooling
process.

Beckham (2011) further point out, that although research has affirmed the important role that
local school boards played in implementing educational reforms such as student testing and
graduation requirements, some critics have contended the traditional leadership and
policymaking roles that local school boards have been compromised by bureaucratic
intransigence, a tendency to micromanage school system operations, and divisiveness caused
by special interest groups. Powers usually granted or implied to local school boards include
the power to act as follows: Obtain revenue; maintain schools; purchase sites and buildings;
organize and provide programmes of studies; employ necessary workers and regulate their
services; admit and assign pupils to schools and control their conduct; and purchase material
and supplies (Johnson at al, 1996).

Compared to countries like Tanzania, in America the powers and duties of school boards vary
from state to state. Also the powers and duties granted to boards of education are granted to
the boards as an entity, not to individual members.

Individual members of a board have no more authority in school matters than other citizens
of the community unless the school board legally delegates a task through official action to
specific members. In addition, the study by Cowell (2004) reveals that school boards are
responsible for planning, policymaking, monitoring, communicating, and advocating, and for
hiring the superintendent to whom they should delegate responsibility for the day-to-day
management of schools. According to Galway(2013), inCanada, the authority of school
boards is established by provincial legislation which sets out the parameters, mandate, duties,
and powers of the boards. School boards are responsible for directing the activities of the
school District in terms of organization, strategic planning and operations, and accountability
for finances and student learning (Seel and Gibbons, 2011). School board members do not
hold administrative positions, but are members and representatives of the public and are
legally responsible for the organization (Shields, 2007).

The school board functions as a legal entity which exercises its authority as a single corporate
body. Therefore, individual board members do not possess any authority as individuals
(Carpenter, 2007). In addition, Carpenter (ibid) reveals that school board roles and
responsibilities have changed and continue to be shaped and marginalized by new
accountabilities and new arrangements with provincial governments Similarly, in Scotland,
school boards were created so as to involve parents in school education matters at the
individual school level. They provide an official forum for the expression of parental views
and give parents the opportunity to ask for information about their school. School boards are
composed of elected parents, staff members and co- opted members from the local
community (Briseid and Coillods, 2004).

In China, local communities that are organized by villages have responsibilities for school
management and finance as part of the rural responsibility system which liberalized the
village economy and allowed rural communities, with their increased income, to take over the
funding and its control (UNDP, 1989). According to Alexander et al (2001), school boards
play vital roles in ensuring that school academic performance is up held. The authors point
out that, in most countries, it is the local board that is charged with the responsibility to
establish and maintain a basic organizational structure for the local school system, develop
curriculum, appoint a superintendent and key members of the central office staff, adopt an
annual budget, and create a climate that promotes educational excellence. Consequently,
school boards initiate educational policies at the local level and have a responsibility for
implementing a variety of state and federal policies. These boards provide important
administrative oversight relative to the educational policies and programs they institute; play
a central role in establishing systems and processes to ensure the school system's fiscal,
programmatic, and outcome accountability; and undertake broad human resource functions
that include making crucial decisions regarding the district's top-level leadership and key
staff. Finally, school boards provide leadership for the local school system, adopt a unifying
vision and mission, solicit and balance the participation and input of members of the
community, and advocate on behalf of the educational needs of children at the local, state and
national levels. The Indonesian Education Act 20/2003 describes a school council as an
independent body established to provide technical advice, directions and support for
personnel, facilities and equipment, and monitoring of a school (Article 56). The power and
authority of a school council relates to its four major roles, which are: to be an advisory
agency in determining and/or approving educational policies at the school level; serving as
supporting agency in the school both in financial and non-financial matters; functioning as
controlling agency both for the purpose of transparency and accountability at school level and
to be a mediator between school, government, and community on educational matters
(Agustinus, 2008).

In Tanzania, the Tanzanian‟s Education and Training Policy (ETP) of 1995 put emphasise on
establishment of school boards and committees for management and administration of
schools and colleges. This is found in ETP (1995), Section 4.0 on Management and
Administration of Education and Training‟ whereby subsection 4.9 demands that „all
education and training institutions shall have school or college committees/ boards‟. In
addition to that, subsection 4.10 says „Boards and committees of education and training
institutions shall be responsible for management, development, planning, discipline and
finance of institutions under their jurisdiction‟. Critical review of the above mentioned policy
statements show that school boards and committees are vital in enhancing good governance
in education and training institutions. It should be noted that the local school board or
committee is a vital connection between community members and education institution.
School boards or committee members, whether they are elected or appointed by their
communities, serve their communities in several important ways, including representing the
community‟s beliefs and values. It is these representatives who are viewed by community
members as able to shoulder the responsibility for planning and executing education and
training programmes that are geared toward preparing children and other community
members to be responsible community members, as well as live productive and satisfying
lives. There are a number of reasons that the school board/ committee, which represent
community‟s beliefs and values, should be the decision maker in today‟s education and
training institutions.

Firstly, the main agenda for school boards and committees is to ensure that education and
training provision is relevant to the needs of relevant community. It ensures that children who
go through such education and training obtain skills and knowledge relevant to community
needs. Secondly, as a representative of community, a school board is the advocate for
community when decisions are made about children‟s education. The school board represents
the public voice in education, provides citizen governance for what the public schools need
and what the community wants. Thirdly, school board sets the standard for achievement in
the district, incorporating the community‟s view of what students should know and be able to
do at each grade level. Fourthly, school board is responsible for working with the
superintendent to establish a valid process for measuring students‟ success and, when
necessary, shifting resources to ensure that the district‟s goals are achieved. Fifth, the school
board is accountable for the performance of the schools in a district. If the schools are not
producing, it is the duty of community members to select new board members who will
ensure that students‟ and schools succeed and lastly, school board is the community‟s
education watchdog, ensuring that taxpayers get the most for their tax dollars. In other
countries, school boards have taxing authority. That is direct oversight, and responsibility,
should not be given to politicians whose first priority is something other than education.