Components of Road Structure | Methods of

Construction of Road Structure

 
 

A road structure consists of the following components:

1. Sub Grade:
Subgrade is the foundation of the road, thus its the lowest and most important component of road
structure.

Construction:

 If natural surface is above the formation level then the surface is cut down to proposed
sub grade surface
 If natural surface is below the formation level then the sub grade will be above the
ground level
 It should be constructed at least 60 cm (2ft) high from highest flood level of the area

Function of Sub grade:

 Bears all the load thus acts as a foundation of road

 Transfer load through grain to grain contact
Material:

Material of sub grade should be strong enough to bear the loads, easily accessible and available
in the vicinity and cheap.

2. Sub Base:
Consists of:

1. Upper Base Course

2. Sub or Lower Base Course

Construction:

 Constructed above the sub grade

 Not needed if the sub grade is of very high strength
 In case of flexible pavement upper and lower base courses are separated having different
materials
 In case of rigid pavement only upper base course is provided
 Thickness varies from 7.5 (3in) to 15cm (6in)

Functions of sub base:

 Prevent rise of water or capillary action

Material:

 Should be better than the material of Sub Grade

 The Upper Base Course is made up of sand, gravel, and stone
 The Lower Base Course is made up of cheaply available material i-e rock and stone
fragments

3. Road Base:
Due to quality of material used in the road base it is divided into

1. Upper Road Base

2. Lower Road Base

Construction:

 Constructed above the Sub Base

Functions of Road Base:

 To avoid the distortion of wearing course due to its sufficient density

 Supports the wearing course

Material:

 In case of Upper Road Base the material is of high quality as the load intensity is high
 In case of Lower Road Base the material is of high quality as the load intensity decreases

4. Surfacing:
It is the upper most layer of road cross section. It can be provided in one or two layers:

Construction:

Constructed usually in two layers

 Binder Course
 Wearing Course (It is the layer which is in direct contact with the tyres of the vehicle)

Functions of Surfacing of Road:

 Prevent penetration of water in to the pavement

 Binder Course binds the Wearing Course with the Road Base
 Wearing Course provide a smooth riding
 Saves the lower layers from abrasion and weathering effects of the moving vehicles

Material:

 Made up of bituminous material

 For Flexible Pavement asphalt concrete is used
 For Rigid Pavements Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) is used

Flexible Pavement Definition and

Explanation
Definition and Explanation :
Flexible Pavements are constructed from bituminous or unbound material and the stress is
transmitted to the sub-grade through the lateral distribution of the applied load with depth.

Flexible pavement is composed of a bituminous material surface course and underlying base and
subbase courses. The bituminous material is more often asphalt whose viscous nature allows
significant plastic deformation. Most asphalt surfaces are built on a gravel base, although some
'full depth' asphalt surfaces are built directly on the subgrade. Depending on the temperature at
which it is applied, asphalt is categorized as hot mix asphalt (HMA), warm mix asphalt, or cold
mix asphalt. Flexible Pavement is so named as the pavement surface reflects the total deflection
of all subsequent layers due to the traffic load acting upon it. The flexible pavement design is
based on the load distributing characteristics of a layered system.

It transmits load to the subgrade through a combination of layers. Flexible pavement distributes
load over a relatively smaller area of the subgrade beneath. The initial installation cost of a
flexible pavement is quite low which is why this type of pavement is more commonly seen
universally. However, the flexible pavement requires maintenance and routine repairs every few
years. In addition flexible pavement deteriorates rapidly; cracks and potholes are likely to appear
due to poor drainage and heavy vehicular traffic. Also See: Road Distresses
Stress Distribution in Flexible Pavement

A valuable advantage of flexible pavement is that it can be opened for traffic within 24 hrs after
completion. Also the repair and maintenance of flexible pavement is easy and cost effective.

Today 96% of all paved roads and streets in Pakistan are surfaced with asphalt. Almost all
paving asphalt used today is obtained by processing crude oils. Man-made asphalt consists of
compounds of hydrogen and carbon with minor proportions of nitrogen, sulfur and oxygen.

Typical Road Structure Details

Composition of Road Structure:
Road Structure Cross Section is composed of the following components:

1. Surface/Wearing Course
2. Base Course
3. Sub Base
4. Sub Grade
1. Surface/Wearing Course in pavement cross section:
The top layers of pavement which is in direct contact with the wheel of the vehicle. Usually
constructed of material in which bitumen is used as binder materials.

a. Bituminous Pavement:

Consists of combination of mineral aggregate with bituminous binder ranging from inexpensive
surface treatment ¼ in or less thick to asphaltic concrete. For good service throughout the full
life bituminous pavement must retain following qualities.

 Freedom from cracking or raveling.

 Resistance to weather including the effect of surface water heat and cold.
 Resistance to internal moisture, particularly to water vapors.
 Tight impermeable surface or porous surface (if either is needed for contained stability of
underlying base or subgrade).
 Smooth riding and non skidding surface.

The design should be done so that to meet the above requirements for considerable number of
years (need proper design and construction supervision). Pavement meeting all the requirements
above have been product if six distinctly different construction processes as follows:

 Heat a viscous bituminous binder to make it fluid, then in a plant mix it with heated
aggregate place and compact the mixture while it is hot.
 Use fluid bituminous binder, mix it with aggregate at normal temperature. Mixing may be
done at a plant (plant mix) or on the prepared roadway base (road mix). Spread and
compact the mixture at normal temperature.
 Add solvent such as naphtha or kerosene to a viscous bituminous binder to make it fluid
with aggregate at normal temperature by either plant or road mix methods. Spread and
compact at normal temperature before solvent evaporates.
 Use fluid emulsion of viscose bituminous binder in water, mix it with aggregate at
normal temperature by either plant or road mix method. Spread and compact at normal
temperature before the emulsion breaks down with its components.
 Spread and compact clean crushed aggregate as for water bound macadam. Over it spray
heated dissolved or emulsified bituminous binder which penetrates open areas of the rock
and binds the aggregate together. Thus is commonly called “Penetration Method”.
  Spread bituminous binder over the roadway surface then cover it with properly selected
aggregate. This is commonly called the “Inverted Penetration Method”.

Selections based on the requirements and economy, large volume of heavy vehicles, low traffic
volume etc.

2. Base course
It is the layer immediately under the wearing surface (Applies whether the wearing surface is
bituminous or cement concrete and or more inch thick or is but a thin bituminous layer). As base
course lies close under the pavement surface it is subjected to severe loading. The material in a
base course must be of extremely high quality and its construction must be done carefully.

Types of Base Course

1. Granular Base Course

2. Macadam Base
3. In-water bound Macadam
4. Treated Bases

3. Sub Base:
It is layer of granular material provided above subgrade generally natural gravel. It is usually not
provided on subgrade of good quality. It is also called granular subbase.

a. Function of Sub base in Road Cross Section

 It enables traffic stresses to be reduced to acceptable levels in sub-grade in the Road

Cross Section so that excessive deformation is prevented.
 It acts as a working plate form for the construction of upper pavement layers.
 Acts as a drainage layer, by protecting the sub grade from wetting up.
 It intercept upward movement of water by capillary action.
 It acts as a separating layer b/w subgrade and road base. By this it prevent the two layers
from mixing up.

b. Characteristics of materials used in Sub Base:

The subgrade material should be clean and free from organic matter and should be able to be
compacted by roller, to form stable sub-base. The material should have following characteristic.

 Well graded uniformity coefficient (D60/D10) should not be less than 3.

 Fraction passing sieve #200 shall not be greater than 2/3rd of the fraction passing sieve
#40.
 Should have a L.L not greater than 25%.
 P.I not greater than 6
 CBR should not be less than 25. See also: CBR Test Procedure
 In coarse grain, aggregate retained by #10 sieve, %age of wear shall not be greater than
5%.
  The max dia of any particle shall not be greater than 2/3ed of the layer thickness of sub-
base.
 Typical particle size distribution for the sub-base (granular) when will meet strength
requirement are:

B.S Sieve Size % By mass of total Aggr. passing test sieve

50 100

37.5 80 - 100

20 60 - 100

5 30 - 100

1.15 170 - 75

0.3 9 - 50

0075 5 - 25

* To avoid intrusion of silt and clay material in sub-base from subgrade

D15 (sub base) < 5 D15 (sub grade)

 Recommended plasticity characteristic for granular Sub Base (Road Note 31) are;

Climate Liquid Limit (L.L) Plasticity Index (P.I)

Moist or wet tropical < 35 <6
Seasonal wet tropical < 45 < 12
Arid & Semi Arid < 55 < 20

4. Sub Grade:
Consists of the naturally occurring material on which the road is built, or the imported fill
material used to create an embankment on which the road pavement is constructed. Subgrades
are also considered layers in the pavement design, with their thickness assumed to be infinite and
their material characteristics assumed to be unchanged or unmodified. Prepared subgrade is
typically the top 12 inches of subgrade.

Typical Cross Section of Roads and

Highways
The typical cross section of roads provided by AASHTO for a two lane highway is given below.

Also See: Road Structure

Elements in Cross Section of Roads

Highway Cross Section Elements:

Road Cross-Section elements are those features of a roadway which forms its effective width.
There are two types of road cross section elements:

Basic Elements of Cross Section of Roads

 Width of carriageway (including no. of lanes)

 …Central reservation (or median strip)
 …Shoulders
 Camber of the carriageway (cross slope)…
 Side-slopes of cuttings and embankments

Ancillary Elements

 Safety fences…
 Crash attenuation devices
 …Anti-dazzle screen…
 Noise barriers

1. Lane Width or Highway Travel Way:

The width of the surfaced road and the no of lanes should be adequate to accommodate the type
and volume of traffic anticipated, the assumed design speed of vehicles and in meeting oncoming
vehicle or passing slower ones. As traffic density, vehicle speed and truck widths have increased,
two lane highway have also increased in width from 16’ to the current recommended value of
24’ width.

Urban Lane Width

Lane width is normally not less than 3.5m. Narrower lanes are used for economic or
environmental reasons. Two-way local distributor route can be as narrow as 6.1m in carriageway
width, provided that kerb (curb) parking is is restricted. In urban areas width of the near side lane
is often increased, to:„

 Improve conditions for cyclists

 „Allow more space for commercial„
 Allow more space for commercial vehicles

Rural Lane Width

Rural Lane Width

In rural roads, recommended lane width is 3.65m to:reduce accidents and increase capacity.
Standard edge treatment on normal two-lane single carriageways consists of a 1m strip of the
same construction as the carriageway on both sides with a solid white line so that total width
becomes 9.3m.

Standard for the interstate system set lane width at 11’ for rural roads when traffic density is less
than 200 vehicles per lane per hour. For other rural and all urban facilities widths are set to be
22’. For primary highway carrying over 200 vehicles, lane widths are 11’ per 12’ depending on
design speed and no of commercial vehicles. For secondary roads desirable lane is 10’.

2. Median Strip for Divided Highway:

A median is the element of a divided roadway that separates the lanes in opposing directions. In
order to provide positive protection against a conflict with opposing traffic median strop are
provided on divided highways. The width of these median strip varies from 4’ to 60’.

Where median strips are narrow separation, is merely provided by raised curbs and, where
greater widths are available curbs may (or may not) be used. Often in rural areas the wide
division alone serves the purpose and no raised barrier is employed. Median is an important
component of cross section of roads.

Advantages of Median of a road

Are given as:

1. The chance of accidents which might produce head on collision over a narrow median is
reduced. So road medians provide separation between the two directional traffic.
2. Headlights glare from opposing traffic is less troublesome.
3. At intersection, a wide median provides refuge from crossing traffic and a safe waiting
place for traffic taking turns.
4. Space for road furniture
5. …Storage lanes

Due to high cost of land, narrow width is provided at normal sections and added widths where
right turn or x-traffic are to be accommodate are used. Medians are often narrowed at grade
separation in order to reduce the length or width of the structure. Median width of 60’ or wide
are inadvisable at signalized intersection locations because extra time is required.

Interstate Median Road (Desirable Minimum)

Rural Urban

40’ 12’

15’ 4’

3. Shoulders in Highway Cross Section:

In the cross section of roads it is that portion of the roadway between the outer edge of the outer
traffic lane and the inside edge of the ditch, gutter, curb or slope. Shoulders are provided for the
safe operation and to allow the development of full traffic capacity. Shoulder also provides a
place for vehicle to park in emergency e.g. for changing tires. Shoulders also function to laterally
support the pavement structure.

Dimensions of the Road Shoulder:

1. Outside shoulders are width of at least 10’ and preferably, 12’ that is clear of all
obstructions is desirable for all heavily traveled and high speed highways.
2. Inside shoulder are often not as wide (often 4’)
3. Mountainous areas: due to extra cost, the width is kept less, the use of partial shoulder
may be permitted (protrude 1’-4’ into adjacent lane) under these conditions, emergency
parking pull outs are provided.
4. In section with guardrails or other vertical elements, an additional 2’ of shoulder
widening should be provided.

It is common to pave it inside from 18” to 3’ with bituminous material or at least to apply
bituminous surface treatment. In some instances, full width is paved or treated. Turfed shoulders
are provided in areas with sufficient rainfall. It is common practice to mark the line between
roadway and shoulder as guide.
Slope of the shoulder should be greater than that of pavement shoulder with high type surface.
Slope form 2 to 6%, gravel 4 to 6% and turf 6 to 8% to assure efficient drainage away from
pavements.

 One argument for wide, continuous shoulder is that they add structural strength to the
pavement.
 Outside shoulder increase horizontal sight distance on curve.

4. Road Camber or Cross-Slopes:

Definition of Road Camber

Pavements on straight sections of two-lane and multi lane roadways without medians are sloped
from the middle downward to both sides of the roadway. This provides a cross slope, whose road
cross section can be either curved or plane or a combination of the two.

The slope provided to road surface in the traverse direction to drain off rainwater from road
surface is called cross-slopes. It is introduced in all tangent sections of the roadway except at
curves where super elevation directs all water toward the inside.

Importance of Camber

1. To prevent entry of surface water into the sub grade soil through pavement.
2.  

Shape of Road Camber

The different shapes of cross-slopes are given below:

i. Parabolic
ii. Straight line
iii. Combination of straight and parabolic line

Rate of Camber

The rate of caber depends upon:

i. The type of pavement surface.

ii. Amount of rainfall.

For high pavement 1/8in per ft. Whereas for steep slopes camber should be avoided.

4. Side Slopes in Roadway Cross Section:

The graded area immediately adjacent to the graded roadway shoulder is called side slope. Side
slopes are provided on embankments and fills to provide stability for earthworks. „They also
serve as a safety feature by providing a recovery area for out-of-control vehicles.

Highway Cross Section - Types of Side slopes:

BACKSLOPE: Slopes back to natural topography are known as back slope.

FARESLOPE: Slopes down to ditch are called fare slope.

FLAT SLOPES are preferred because it provide:

1. Safe operation.
2. Decreased road maintenance.

STEEP SLOPES in cross section of roads erode badly, require high maintenance cost and slopes
will be unsightly.

DIMENSIONS: or width or requirement for different side slope conditions are;

 Recommended side slope in cut, not steeper than 2 to 1 except in solid rock.
 For fill <10’ height, side slope are set at 4 to 1 or flatter where height of cut or fill doesn’t
exceed 6’, 6 to 1 slide slop is recommended.
 Guard rail, where guard rails are provided slope may be as high as 1.5 to 1.

When cut or fill slope intersects the ground surface, slop should be rounded to blend with the
natural ground surface. It is often preferable to contain the embankment with a suitable retaining
wall (because in rural steep country slopes does not usually catch natural ground and in urban
areas there is narrow right of way.