____________________________________________________________________________________________________

Subject PSYCHOLOGY

Paper No and Title Paper No 3: Qualitative Methods

Module No and Title Module No 1: Introduction to qualitative research

& comparison between qualitative and quantitative research
methods

Module Tag PSY_P3_M1

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Learning Outcomes

2. Introduction

3. Part One: Introduction to qualitative research

3.1 The historical beginnings of qualitative research and the paradigm shift
from quanti to quali
3.2 Familiarizing with qualitative research
3.3 Sampling in qualitative research
3.4 Data collection; methods of qualitative research

PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No. 3: Qualitative Methods

MODULE No. 1 : Introduction to Qualitative Research
& Comparison Between Qualitative and Quantitative
Research Methods
____________________________________________________________________________________________________

3.5 Data analysis in qualitative research

3.6 Issues in qualitative research

4. Part Two: Comparison between qualitative and quantitative research methods

4.1 Quali Vs quanti; a cold war?! Some claims worth considering
4.2 A summarized table of differences between quantitative and qualitative
orientations to research

5. Summary

PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No. 3: Qualitative Methods

MODULE No. 1 : Introduction to Qualitative Research
& Comparison Between Qualitative and Quantitative
Research Methods
____________________________________________________________________________________________________

1. Learning Outcomes
After studying this module, you shall be able to

 Know the basic idea of what a qualitative research is.

 Learn the processes that qualitative research entails.
 Evaluate the importance of qualitative research in psychology and the issues concerning
it.
 Differentiate between qualitative and quantitative process of psychological research.

2. Introduction

Introduction to qualitative research

& comparison between qualitative and quantitative research methods

There are two main parts in this module:

PART ONE: INTRODUCTION TO QUALITATIVE RESEARCH. This section outlines the

process of qualitative research in psychology, beginning with its historical origins and the basic
tenets of the qualitative paradigm. It goes on to discuss the process of carrying out research,
including sampling, methods of data collection and data analysis. Lastly it contemplates the major
issues concerning qualitative studies in psychology.

PART TWO: COMPARISON BETWEEN QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE

RESEARCH METHODS. Here we analyze as to how the two paradigms differ, and through the
comparative study understand the pros and cons of both.

3. Part One: Introduction to qualitative research

3.1 The historical beginnings of qualitative research and the paradigm shift from
quanti to quali

Research in the discipline of psychology began with the quantitative paradigm, particularly with
experimentation. During the 1880s-1890s period Sigmund Freud was an important figure and his
method of study primarily entailed detailed case histories, narratives and the sort, basically
qualitative research. Freud and Piaget were then exceptions, who did not conform to the
experimental paradigm of their times.

By 1960s, the paradigm crisis had begun. There was growing evidence of awareness
within the psychological community that experiments were inadequate for the purposes of
PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No. 3: Qualitative Methods
MODULE No. 1 : Introduction to Qualitative Research
& Comparison Between Qualitative and Quantitative
Research Methods
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developing a proper understanding of humans (Dyer, 2006). By

the 1990s, it was clear that a new paradigm had begun to
emerge. A report of the British Psychological Society acknowledged that future developments
within psychology would be assisted by the increased use of qualitative approaches in teaching
and research.

Although the paradigm shift had not begun at that time, the origins of qualitative research
methods can be traced back as early as the 1890s when Booth and Webb used a combination of
several methods like observation, interview as well as surveys to study the life and labor of the
London poor. Then apart from Freud and Piaget who stuck to qualitative methods in the strictly
experimental regime, there were people like Ernest Dichter, a market researcher and a great
advocate of the interview technique.

Similarly the use of field research (an important method of qualitative research) saw a
growth, particularly due to the tremendous importance given to it by the Chicago school of
sociology. The technique went through revolutionary developmental stages throughout 1910 to
60s. And by the 1960s, the observation method was given great emphasis as a social research
method.

The 1990s also saw the emergence of new forms of qualitative data analysis like content
and the integrated phenomenological approach which greatly pushed the qualitative paradigm
further. It also saw the development of the focus group technique.

And from there on, there was an explosion of interest in qualitative methods. The shift in
paradigm is significant and is reflected in increasing number of qualitative research articles
appearing in journals, dissertations with qualitative projects and the establishment of psychology
courses teaching qualitative methodologies.

The latest trend in research, however, is shifting to a combination of quantitative and

qualitative approaches that has come with a better understanding about the pros and cons of both
the orientations.

3.2 Familiarizing with qualitative research

Smith (2003) defines qualitative psychology as concerned with describing the constituent
properties of an entity, while quantitative analysis is involved in determining how much of the
entity there is. It aims to provide rich descriptive accounts of the phenomenon under
investigation, while quantitative research is more generally concerned with counting occurrences,
volumes, or the size of associations between entities (Smith, 2003).

Qualitative approach is engaged with exploring, describing and interpreting the personal
and social experiences of participants. And researchers attempt to understand a small number of
participants’ own frame of reference rather than trying to test a preconceived hypothesis on a
large sample. The logic of research is not so much to test out given theories about what guides

PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No. 3: Qualitative Methods

MODULE No. 1 : Introduction to Qualitative Research
& Comparison Between Qualitative and Quantitative
Research Methods
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human behaviour, but instead to develop an appreciation of the

underlying motivations that people have for doing what they do
(Henn et. al., 2006).

A researcher must first try to understand the meanings that people assign to the world around
them, which is in line with the assumption of qualitative research. These meanings tend to govern
their actions and help in understanding their behaviour. The emphasis given by qualitative
researchers to their studies therefore involves an examination of the perspectives of the people or
groups that are of interest to them – their ideas, attitudes, motives, and intentions (Henn et. al.,
2006).

As Henn et. al. (2006) aptly point out, these are certain characteristics of qualitative research
methods:

 Research is carried out in ‘real-life’ settings. The researcher attempts to study human
behaviour as it naturally occurs, with as little disruption to people’s lives as possible.
 The objective is to take detailed descriptions of people’s behaviour and thoughts in order
to highlight their social meanings. This implies that the researcher adopts an insider
perspective in research, in which there is closeness between the researcher and the people
studied, rather than an impersonal and distanced relationship.
 The researcher is likely to adopt an approach in which the research issues and concepts
are not specified. The focus of the research may change during the course of collecting
data, as new ideas may develop and particular issues become important.
 The qualitative approach encompasses theory construction and not theory testing.
Theoretical ideas tend to develop from the initial data collected which then leads to future
data collection – a cumulative spiral of theory development and data collection thus
develops. There is an inductive approach. Qualitative researchers often begin with a
rather general topic of interest pertaining to some social phenomena. It is only during the
course of data collection and analysis that researchers narrow down their research
problem and begin to formulate and test hypotheses.
 The researcher studies one or a small number of cases, often over an extended period of
time. The data collection process is characterised as being intensive. It involves a very
detailed study with large quantities of data collected from a small number of informants
and settings.
 Unstructured interviews and observations are usually the main sources of data, but public
and private documents and even official statistics and questionnaire data may be used.
 There is minimal pre-structuring of the data that is collected. Therefore, the observations
and interviews used by qualitative researchers are often referred to as ‘unstructured’.
 Qualitative research data is generally reported in the form of verbal descriptions and
explanations. Statistical analysis and quantification is rarely used.

3.3 Sampling in qualitative research

Comparatively, there is less focus on sample’s representativeness when it comes to qualitative

research. The focus is rather on the representativeness of concepts in the research, and of being
PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No. 3: Qualitative Methods
MODULE No. 1 : Introduction to Qualitative Research
& Comparison Between Qualitative and Quantitative
Research Methods
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able to access the social processes in which the researcher is

interested; i.e.importance is given to how the sample or small
collection of cases, units, or activities illuminates social life. The primary purpose of sampling
here is to collect specific cases, events, or actions that can clarify and deepen understanding
(Neuman, 2006). The concern of qualitative researchers is to find cases that will enhance what
they learn about the processes of social life in a given context. Typically theoretical sampling or
snowball sampling is used. Snowball sampling is used where there is no obvious list to refer to in
order to generate a participant base for a study. It relies on the researcher to obtain a strategically
important contact who can then recommend other possible participants. These participants can
then be approached to take part in the study.

Theoretical sampling is entirely governed by the selection of those respondents who will
maximise theoretical development. The sampling should aim to locate strategic data which may
refute emerging hypotheses. Sampling stops when ‘theoretical saturation’ is reached, that is,
when no new analytical insights are forthcoming from a given situation (Arber, 1993).

3.4 Data collection; methods of qualitative research

The most established methods of qualitative data collection include:

 Interviews: They are in-depth one to one interactions where the interviewees talk about
the subject in terms of their own frames of reference, i.e. they are open ended.
 Observations or ethnography: in depth observations of people, behaviors, institutions,
cultures, and customs etc. Researchers take detailed field notes.
 Case studies: here the researcher examines, in depth, many features (including
psychological characteristics) of a few cases over time. Cases could be individual,
groups, organizations etc and data is collected through observations, interviews or
combination of both.
 Focus group discussions: Here a group of participants are brought together to share and
discuss their views on a topic. These are used when a researcher wants to assess how
several people work out a common view, or the range of views about a particular topic.
The intention is to stimulate discussion among people and bring to the surface responses
that otherwise might lay dormant.

3.5 Data analysis in qualitative research

In contrast to quantitative research the data collection in qualitative methods involve naturalistic,
textual or verbal reports. Hence data analysis involves interpretation of what these textual data
means or implies. There are several methods of qualitative data analysis like thematic/content
analysis, grounded theory analysis, discourse analysis, conversation analysis, interpretative
phenomenological analysis (IPA) and narrative analysis. The interpretation is conveyed to the
scientific community through detailed narrative reports of the participant’s perceptions, insights
of the researcher and understanding about the phenomenon. Visual presentation of data may be
possible like through maps, diagrams or photographs.

PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No. 3: Qualitative Methods

MODULE No. 1 : Introduction to Qualitative Research
& Comparison Between Qualitative and Quantitative
Research Methods
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3.6 Issues in qualitative research

Validity: The validity of qualitative researches has always been a question; whether the results
accurately reflect the phenomenon under study.

Reliability: qualitative research is criticised both for lacking structure and system, and for an
inability of researchers using this approach to generalise the findings to the larger population. The
replicability of studies is also poor.

Generalisability: implications from a study of few cases can never be generalised to human
behaviour per se. but many researchers feel that since the goal of qualitative research is to
describe a specific group in detail and to explain the patterns that exist, the question of
generalizability itself should not be raised.

The issue of reactivity: People may consciously or unconsciously alter the way they behave or
modify what they say if they are aware that they are being researched. This will most likely be the
case if the researcher is studying a sensitive area (Henn et. al., 2006).

The subjectivity of the researcher: ultimately it is in the hands of the researcher what to make of
the data collected. It dependents on the researcher what parts of the data should be considered
significant, what is to be filtered out and what implications is to be derived out of the compiled
data.

Over-identification with the subjects: this is especially applicable to the observation method,
wherein if the researcher over a long period of close association with the subjects begins to
identify with them then he/she may become biased and may not be able to analyse objectively.

Access to target subjects: often researchers face constraints in reaching out to the subjects of their
interest for e.g. studying juvenile delinquents. They may face a lot of political and legal barriers.

Ethical issues: researchers may have to resort to deception and often not overtly state their
objectives of research since it would compromise their study. And this betrayal of confidences
poses ethical considerations.

4. Part Two: Comparison between qualitative and quantitative research

methods

4.1 Quali Vs quanti; a cold war?! Some claims worth considering:

 Qualitative methods provide a more complete understanding of the subject matter of the
research. Some qualitative researchers argue that quantification fails to come to terms
with or misses crucial aspects of what is being studied. Quantification encourages
premature abstraction from the subject matter of research and a concentration on numbers
and statistics rather than concepts (Howitt & Cramer, 2011)
PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No. 3: Qualitative Methods
MODULE No. 1 : Introduction to Qualitative Research
& Comparison Between Qualitative and Quantitative
Research Methods
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 Human experience and interaction are far too complex

to be reduced to a few variables as is typical in
quantitative research.
 Qualitative methods are a preliminary stage in the research process which contributes to
the eventual development of adequate quantification. Quantification is, in this
formulation, the ultimate goal of research.
 Only the quantitative data lead to results in the actual sense of the word, whereas
qualitative data play a more illustrative part (Flick, 2009)
 Qualitative methods can live very well without the later use of quantitative methods,
whereas quantitative methods need qualitative methods for explaining the relations they
find.
 Now the conventional rigid dichotomy of quantitative–qualitative methodologies is
inadequate to differentiate different types of research. The dichotomy implies that
research inevitably falls into one or other of these apparently neat boxes. This is not
necessarily the case. Between these extremes of quantification and qualitative data
gathering are many intermediary possibilities (Howitt & Cramer, 2011)

4.2 A summarized table of differences between quantitative and qualitative

orientations to research:

QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
i. It measures objective facts i. It constructs social reality. It looks into
what is normal behavior and what is
abnormal. So there is a lot of
subjectivity.

ii. The focus is on variables, which are ii. Focus is on individual cases, interplay
properly and finely defined. of processes, events etc.

iii. Reliability is the key. iii. Authenticity is the key.

iv. It is value free. It is not based on any iv. Values are present and explicit. The
moral principles. researchers’ subjective principles
have a bearing on the research.

v. Theory and data are separate. There is a v. The theory and data are fused. There is
distinction between the two and a fine line between the two and
theory is stated before data is begun theory evolves along with the
to be collected. process of data collection.

vi. It is independent of context. The vi. It is situationally constrained. The

context of the society, events or context is critical.
history have no bearing.

PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No. 3: Qualitative Methods

MODULE No. 1 : Introduction to Qualitative Research
& Comparison Between Qualitative and Quantitative
Research Methods
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vii. There are many cases or subjects. vii. There are few individual cases done at
Research is done on a large scale a time and the data collected is in
and the method is equipped to deal detail and very exhaustive.
with large numbers.

viii. Statistical analysis is done on the data viii. Qualitative methods of analysis
and it uses tests like t and F tests and include thematic, discourse,
correlational analysis. grounded theory, narrative etc and
the main feature is the culling out of
the main emerging themes.

ix. The researcher is detached. Often data ix. The researcher is actively involved in
collection is carried out by assistants the data collection and interacts fully
who can be easily briefed about it. with the participant.

x. The major step involved are: selection x. The major steps are acknowledging the
of topic, focusing of the question, self, adopting a perspective, study
which involves formulation of design formation, data collection,
hypothesis and operatively defining analysis, interpretation and then
variables, then making the research reporting. There is no formulation of
design, data collection, analysis and hypothesis.
interpretation.

xi. The research question is preplanned. xi. The research question is emergent.

xii. The hypotheses are enumerated and xii. No hypothesis is stated. The researcher
stated along with the formulation of has no idea as to how the data will
the research question. emerge.

xiii. The concepts are in terms of variables xiii. The concepts are in terms of motifs,
and are concrete. themes, generalizations etc.

xiv. The data is hard and in the form of xiv. The data is soft since it is made up of
numbers which can be made into words, sentences, gestures, symbols,
computer readable formats. non verbal cues etc.

xv. The data is visually presented in terms xv. The data can’t be put into tables since
of charts, tables etc with statistical they take the form of verbatim,
implications. transcriptions etc. visual
presentation may include photos,
maps or diagrams.

xvi. Methods of data collection include xvi. Methods of data collection include

PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No. 3: Qualitative Methods

MODULE No. 1 : Introduction to Qualitative Research
& Comparison Between Qualitative and Quantitative
Research Methods
____________________________________________________________________________________________________

structured questionnaires, open ended interviews, observations,

instruments, scales like the likert etc. taking narrative accounts etc.

xvii. The theory is stated before hand and xvii. There is no theory to begin with. It is
the data sort of substantiates the an inductive approach and theory
theory. It is a deductive approach. emerges along with data and its
analysis.

xviii. The theory is mostly causal. xviii. Theory may be causal or non causal.

xix. There is a reconstructed logic xix. It uses logic in practice. There is

approach. There are precise rules, bricolage and a practical orientation
procedures, systematic and to completion of task. No norms or
standardized way of research. set rules exist.

xx. The way is linear, every step is clear xx. It is a non linear way of research. It is
cut, straight and defined. circular, iterative, back and forth.

xxi. Objectivity is the emphasis. The xxi. Emphasis is on the trustworthiness and
validity and reliability vouch for the integrity of the researcher.
research.

xxii. Ther is stress on detailed preplanning. xxii. The emphasis is on getting rich data.

xxiii. The concern is on the measurement of xxiii. Concern is on the richness, texture and
variables. feelings of the raw data.

xxiv. Procedures are standard and replication xxiv. Procedures are particular and
can be done. replication is rare.

xxv. There is a positivist approach to social xxv. There is a constructivist, interpretative

research. approach.

xxvi. An individual element has an xxvi. It is all about individual differences.

importance of next to nothing.

xxvii. Generalizations are easily made to the xxvii. Since emphasis is on individual
global human behavior. difference it is not equipped to make
generalizations.

xxviii. Certain things or phenomena that can’t xxviii. Such events can be studied only
be quantified can’t be studied by this through this approach. E.g. trauma

PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No. 3: Qualitative Methods

MODULE No. 1 : Introduction to Qualitative Research
& Comparison Between Qualitative and Quantitative
Research Methods
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method. due to a natural disaster.

xxix. It cannot provide causative xxix. It answers the why of behavior; the
explanations or the why of behavior. causes and the reasons.

5. Summary
 The qualitative paradigm of psychological research developed gradually after the
quantitative methods were established. The paradigm shift was fuelled by the growing
awareness that experiments were inadequate to capture the essence of psychological
study.
 Although less structured compared to the quantitative methods, qualitative research has
its own basic tenets and is a scientific procedure with proper methodology at every step
involved in the process.
 Evaluating the process of qualitative research, there are several issues that need to be
considered. But the pros of the method make it indispensible to psychological research.
 The two paradigms differ greatly in their approach to research but research in the field
would be at a loss if either of them were to be excluded. The best approach is perhaps to
use the two to complement each other and develop quali-quanti mixed researches.

PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No. 3: Qualitative Methods

MODULE No. 1 : Introduction to Qualitative Research
& Comparison Between Qualitative and Quantitative
Research Methods