Dorota TYPAŃSKA, Łukasz PUTZ

Poznan University of Technology, Institute of Industrial Electrotechnology and Electronics

Testing of an electronically controlled engine with a gasoline

direct injection system
Abstract. The article presents a detailed analysis of the TSI (Turbo Straight Injection) gasoline direct injection system used in the vehicles
manufactured by Volkswagen Group. The work presents the characteristic construction elements of this type of engine together with the descriptions
of their influence on its operation. Next, it presents the results of engine power, torque, pollution emission levels, and fuel consumption tests
conducted for the Skoda Superb 1.8 TSI and a comparison of the results with the results obtained for an equivalent engine with indirect fuel
injection – Skoda Superb 1.8 T.

Streszczenie. W artykule zaprezentowano szczegółową analizę systemu bezpośredniego wtrysku benzyny TSI (Turbo Straight Injection)
stosowanego w samochodach koncernu Volkswagen Group. W pracy przedstawiono charakterystyczne elementy budowy z opisem ich wpływu na
działanie tego typu silnika. Następnie przedstawiono wyniki badań mocy silnika, momentu obrotowego, emisji zanieczyszczeń oraz zużycia paliwa,
przeprowadzonych na modelu Skoda Superb 1.8 TSI oraz porównano z wynikami badań odpowiednika o wtrysku pośrednim – Skoda Superb 1.8 T.
Badania sterowanego elektronicznie silnika z bezpośrednim wtryskiem benzyny

Keywords: direct fuel injection, electronic engine control, TSI, uniform mixture, petrol engine.
Słowa kluczowe: bezpośredni wtrysk paliwa, elektroniczne sterowanie silnikiem, TSI, mieszanka jednorodna, silnik benzynowy.

doi:10.12915/pe.2014.08.31

Introduction (depending on the load), and directs the excess of fuel to

The TSI engine is the next generation of engines with the low pressure circuit. Maximum regulator pressure is 20
direct fuel injection developed in the Volkswagen Group MPa. The fuel supply system is presented in the fig. 1 [5].
concern. The first representative of this type of engines is
3
the engine with the capacity of 1.8 dm with turbo injection
used successfully in Skoda Superb manufactured in the
Czech Republic. The constructors placed the main focus on
achieving the highest performance possible with optimal
fuel consumption. During the engine design phase, the
following assumptions were followed:
a) achieving high mechanical and thermodynamic
performance in combination with compact structure,
b) meeting the requirements with respect to
environmental protection, noise level, and fume content,
c) meeting the requirements of safety regulations
regarding, for example, pedestrian safety or passenger
compartment deformation resulting from a head-on crash,
d) reasonable price thanks to the reduction of
manufacturing costs,
e) ease of performing repairs and technical servicing,
f) the possibility of longitudinal and transverse
positioning in different car model.
The concept of the operation of a TSI engine was
inherited from its predecessor (TFSI engine). However, a
few minor changes that improve its performance were
introduced. The new drive unit is fueled with a uniform Fig. 11. Fuel system diagram in 1.8 TSI engine [5]
mixture at the whole range of rotational speed values. Only
The high pressure pump has a one-piston structure and
the start is performed with the use of lean mixture. Thanks
it is powered with a quadruple cam from the exhaust
to the construction changes introduced in TSI engines, it
camshaft. The pump piston is moved by means of a roll
was possible to reduce fume emission and meet the
pusher. This solution assures lower power losses which
requirements of EURO 5 standard even [1].
leads to quieter operation, reduced part wear, and fuel
savings. Thanks to the use of a quadruple cam, it was
Fuel supply system in the TSI system
possible to reduce the dimensions of the pump.
The fuel supply system was slightly changed in
In one engine operation cycle, four forcing strokes which
comparison to the TFSI version. It consists of a fuel tank, a
produce the same level of pressure as a bigger pump
low-pressure line, a high-pressure pipe, fuel collector and
powered with a dual cam in the FSI engine are possible.
four injectors. The pressure sensor as well as the safety
This has considerably reduced pressure pulsation and
valve and the check valve were removed from the low
improved the regulation dynamics (faster achievement of
pressure circuit. The necessary pressure is calculated by
the desired pressure level). What is more, it became
the engine controller which controls the pump in the fuel
possible to regulate the pressure in the fuel collector tank
tank. The pump can generate pressure in the range of
after every injection which means that injection optimization
0,4÷0,8 MPa. There is no overpressure valve in the high
can occur separately for every cylinder. In this way, it is
pressure circuit as it was replaced with a fuel pressure
possible to improve lambda regulation and reduce fuel
regulating valve integrated with the high-pressure pump. It
consumption [5].
maintains the pressure within the range of 5÷15 MPa

132 PRZEGLĄD ELEKTROTECHNICZNY, ISSN 0033-2097, R. 90 NR 8/2014

 The fuel collector tank is made of high-grade stainless the mixture in the cylinders. The flaps are controlled by
steel and it distributes fuel to every injector. Its dimensions means of a pneumatic actuator through a double
and shape are designed in such a way so as to minimize electrovalve. The actuator changes the position of the shaft
pressure pulsations after every injection. A high-pressure to which the intake manifold flaps are fitted and a
sensor is installed inside the collector. On the basis of the potentiometer that transmits information about the position
signal from the sensor, the controller manages the of the flaps to the controller. The position of the flaps is
operation of the regulation valve. dependent on the rotational speed of the engine. They are
New injectors in the TSI engine have 6 openings in the raised when the speed is below 3000 r/min, and they are
nozzle through which the fuel is injected in a cone-shaped lowered when the speed is higher in order not to obstruct
stream (fig. 2). The total apex angle of the stream is 50° (in the air flow [5].
TFSI, there is one opening with the angle of 10°). Such a
way of spraying fuel is supposed to assure better mixture
formulation in the combustion chamber. It also reduces the
emission of hydrocarbons and solid particles (soot) and
practically eliminates knocking. The control voltage of the
injectors is still 65 V, and 15 V is enough to keep the
injector open. The injection can still happen both during the
intake stroke as well as during the compression stroke [5].

Fig. 3. Air intake manifold module in1.8 TSI engine [5]

Fig. 2. The shape of the atomized fuel stream in 1.8 TSI engine [5] 1 – throttle valve control module, 2 – intake air temperature (IAT)
sensor, 3 - evaporative (EVAP) emission canister purge regulator
Power supply system in the TSI system valve, 4 – vacuum motor for intake manifold flap changeover, 5 –
fuel port, high-pressure pump, 6 – fuel port, high-pressure fuel rail,
The air supply system is very similar to the system used 7 – double check valve for EVAP system, 8 – high-pressure fuel
in the TFSI engine. It consists, respectively, of an air filter, a rail, 9 – fuel pressure sensor, 10 - intake manifold flaps, 11 - intake
flow meter integrated with a temperature sensor, an manifold runner position sensor
electronically controlled throttling valve, and an intake
manifold with flaps that control the air flow.
An anemometric flow meter integrated with an intake air
temperature sensor is used to measure the amount of air.
The frequency modulated signal from it is provided to the
controller. The air mass is determined on the basis of a
value table recorded in the controller memory. The
frequency can change from 1,2 kHz (which corresponds
with the air flow value of 4 kg/h) to 3,6 kHz (640 kg/h). The
temperature sensor informs about the air temperature which
is used to correct the air mass set [5].
The intake manifold is made as a two-part polyamide
cast. The throttling valve, the fuel collector, the fuel tank
deaeration check valve, and the pneumatic actuator
controlling the air flow are fitted to it. The construction of the
inlet manifold is presented in the fig. 3.
Fig. 4. Exhaust system in 1.8 TSI engine [5]
Control of the air flow is performed by means of the flaps
with the shape of flat pans which are placed out of the axes
Exhaust and reduction system in TSI engine
of the intake tunnels. This makes it possible to improve the
The fume exhaust and reduction system in the TSI
intake air flow, especially when the flaps are lowered. When
engine is constructed in a relatively simple way. A
the flaps are raised, the air starts to flow through the upper
preliminary catalytic converter is placed directly behind the
part of the intake tunnels which improve the production of

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engine, then a two-step Lambda probe is fitted, and the timing chain is placed on the toothed stator. The pin is used
main three-way catalytic converter is placed directly behind to lock the rotor and the stator when the oil pressure is
it (fig. 4). A broadband probe before the preliminary catalytic lower than 50 kPa (engine start). The control signal induces
converter was not used, as it was replaced with a set of a shift in the position of the diverter valve anchor. In this
characteristics programmed in the controller memory. Such way, motor oil fills different shifter chambers.
a solution became possible thanks to the use of uniform When the rotational speed is lower than 1800 r/min, the
mixture (λ=1) for the full range of engine speed (with the shifter remains in the rest position. Above this value, the
exception of the start of a cold engine). In this way, Lambda position of the intake camshaft is shifted by the angle
regulation was considerably simplified [5]. selected on the basis of the characteristics programmed in
the controller memory. The opening and closing angles are
1.8 TSI engine supercharging selected in such a way so that the filling of the cylinders is
The level to which the cylinders are filled with fresh air in optimal. In the case of a failure in the camshaft shifting
the TSI engine is increased by means of a supercharger. It system, the lock pin locks the rotor with the stator and the
is designed in such a way so as to increase the dynamics camshaft operates in the same way as in systems without a
and, at the same time, to reduce fuel consumption. The shifter. The torque reached by the engine is lower in such
supercharger makes it possible to achieve the highest conditions [5].
torque value when it is needed the most, that is in any The air supply system is very similar to the system used
range of rotational speed values. 80 % of maximum torque in the TFSI engine. In consists, respectively, of an air filter,
can be achieved as early as at 1250 r/min, and 100 % - at a flow meter integrated with a temperature sensor, an
1500 r/min. This is achieved thanks to the fact that the electronically controlled throttling valve and an intake
moment of inertia of the moving parts of the supercharger is manifold with flaps which control the air flow.
maintained on the lowest possible level. The most
significant difference in comparison to the existing turbo
charging systems is the use of an intake air cooler cooled
with water from the engine cooling circuit, placed in the
intake [2, 5].
The supercharger is built into the exhaust manifold. It is
equipped with two connections on the intake side: to the
crankcase deaeration system and to the fuel vapor exhaust
from the fuel tank. It is cooled with water from the engine
cooling circuit, and it is greased with motor oil. An
interference muffler which reduces the noise produced as a
result of pressure pulsations is fitted at the supercharger
exhaust. Two valves are connected with the supercharger:
a) the charge pressure control electrovalve connected with
a pneumatic actuator that opens the fume bypass tunnel,
b) closed air circuit electrovalve that opens the connection
between the intake side and the compression side of the
turbocharger during engine braking.
The operation of the supercharger is relatively simple.
The fumes flowing from the cylinders power the turbine
which is connected with the wheel of the supercharger Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of all supercharging components in 1.8
increasing the intake air pressure. Charge air pressure is TSI engine [5]
controlled by means of a charge pressure control valve on
the basis of the signals from intake air pressure and Direct fuel injection control in the 1.8 TSI engine
temperature sensors. The maximum charge air pressure The 1.8 TSI engine uses the Bosch MED 17.5 engine
can reach 0,18 MPa. The supercharge charging system is control module (fig. 6). The hardware and software
presented in the fig. 5 [2, 5]. components have been developed so that they can be used
for future projects both for gasoline and diesel engine
Variable engine timing phases in the 1.8 TSI engine applications. This allows maximum use with regards to
In the TSI engine, identically to the earlier generations of functions and vehicle interfaces independent of the engine
direct fuel injection systems manufactured by the combustion configuration. Examples of this include the
Volkswagen concern, it is possible to shift the position of Electronic Pedal Control and radiator fan activation
the intake camshaft. It is only the construction of the Shift strategies.
system that is different. By shifting the camshaft, it is A new feature of the MED 17.5 is the deletion of the
possible to adjust the torque to the engine operation phase continuous-duty oxygen sensor. Now, a nonlinear oxygen
and improve the composition of the fumes. The intake shaft sensor is installed. The sensor is located between the
can be shifted by 30 ° or 60 ° in relation to the crankshaft. close-coupled pre-catalyst and the underbody catalytic
Three values influence the possibility of shifting converter. The function of the continuous-duty pre-cat
camshaft position and the extent to which it can be shifted: sensor has been mapped by the new functions of the
the intake air mass, the rotational speed of the crankshaft engine control module. These maps are generated by
and the temperature of the engine (as a correction conducting appropriate tests during engine development.
parameter). The engine controller controls the operation of Advantages [5]:
the camshaft shift electrovalve which generates pressure a) fewer potential sources of fault,
changes in the shift actuator. Control is performed by b) more cost-effective,
means of frequency modulated signal (PWM) [5]. c) requirements of ULEV are met without continuous-duty
The shifter consists of a rotor, a stator, a diverter valve oxygen sensor,
and a lock pin. The rotor is permanently connected with the d) no adjustments needed in customer service or for
camshaft to which the diverter valve is also connected. The exhaust emission inspections.

134 PRZEGLĄD ELEKTROTECHNICZNY, ISSN 0033-2097, R. 90 NR 8/2014

 d) at coolant temperatures of 80°C or higher: fuel injection
synchronous with intake cycle only.
In the Bosch MED 17.5 engine control module is used
new IFX Tricore processor family. It has sufficient capacity
in reserve to accommodate future advancements in order to
meet market requirements. Hardware used in the engine
control module [5]:
a) infineon – IFX Tricore 1766 (Leda Light),
b) 80 MHz system frequency,
c) 1.5 MByte internal flash,
d) single chip system.

Tests and analysis of the performance of the TSI engine

In order to test the performance of the 1.8 TSI engine,
nominal power, torque, exhaust emission and fuel
consumption tests were performed on the engine. At the
same time, the 1.8 T indirect fuel injection engine was
tested in order to obtain comparison. Both engines were
fitted in the Skoda Superb model with the sedan body type
[1].
All the tests were performed in accordance with the
European Directive 98/69/EC, on the chassis test stand of
one of the vehicle diagnostics point in Poznań.
The NEDC driving test constituted the first part of the
tests conducted. It made it possible to determine the
amount of pollution emitted and the fuel consumption (table
1). The NEDC test is a simulation of a car drive in the city
and outside of the city. Before the test the vehicle tested
should not run for 6 h. After the vehicle is started, the test
begins immediately and the measuring devices are
activated [3].

Table 1 Summary of the results of the tests performed and

comparison with the data provided by the manufacturer and with
Directive 98/69/EC [3, 5]

Test results Manufacturer’s

Parameters
Fig. 6. Overview of Bosch MED 17.5 system [5] 1.8 1.8
1.8 T 1.8 T
1 - Engine Control Module with Ambient Pressure Sensor, 2 - TSI TSI
Diagnostic Link Connector, 3 – Data Bus On Board Diagnostic 120,2 110,8 118 110
Interface, 4 – Instrument Cluster Control Module, 5 - Oil Level Nominal power [kW]
(5250) (5500) (5000) (5500)
Thermal Sensor, 6 - Mass Air Flow Sensor with Intake Air
Temperature Sensor, 7 - Engine Coolant Temperature Sensor, 8 - 251,5 211,2 250 210
Torque [N·m]
Engine Coolant Temperature Sensor, 9 - Change Air Pressure (1500) (2000) (1500) (1750)
Sensor, 10 - Engine Speed Sensor, 11- Camshaft Position Sensor, City
3
12 - Throttle Valve Control Module with Throttle Drive Angle Sensor [dm /100 10,2 11,4 10,4 11,5
1 and Throttle Drive Angle Sensor 2, 13 - Throttle Position Sensor Fuel km]
and Accelerator Pedal Position Sensor 2, 14 - Brake Pedal Switch consumptio Road
3
with Clutch Position Sensor, 15 - Fuel Pressure Sensor, 16 - Intake n according [dm /100 6,3 6,6 6,0 6,5
Manifold Runner Position Sensor, 17 - Knock Sensor 1, 18 - to the km]
Heated Oxygen Sensor with Oxygen Sensor 2 Behind Three Way NEDC test Average
Catalytic Converter, 19 - DFM Generator, Cruise Control ON/OFF, 3
[dm /100 7,5 8,7 7,6 8,3
20 - Motronic Engine Control Module Power Supply Relay, 21 - km]
Engine Component Power Supply Relay, 22 - Intake Manifold
CO2
Runner Control Valve, 23 - Wastegate Bypass Regulator Valve, 24 181 210 180 202
[g/km]
- Fuel Pressure Regulator Valve, 25 - Fuel Pump Control Module
with Transfer Fuel Pump, 26 - Cylinder Fuel Injectors 1-4, 27 - Fume CO
emission 0,184 0,426 < 1,0 < 1,0
Ignition Coils with Power Output Stages, 28 - Throttle Valve Control [g/km]
Module with Throttle Drive for Electronic Power Control, 29 - according
to the HC
Evaporative (EVAP) Emission Canister Purge Regulator Valve, 30 - 0,097 0,068 < 0,1 < 0,1
NEDC test [g/km]
Oxygen Sensor Heater, 31 - Coolant Circulation Pump Relay with
After-Run Coolant Pump, 32 - Camshaft Adjustment Valve 1, 33 - NOx
0,069 0,030 < 0,08 < 0,08
Radiator Fan Setting 1 with PWM Signal Leak Detection Pump [g/km]

In all operating ranges of the engine, except directly The first part referred to as UDC (Urban Driving Cycle)
after starting (when the fuel-air mixture is slightly richer), the is a simulation of a drive in the city. It usually consists of 4
mixture composition is set to lambda 1. The following identical cycles lasting for 195 s each and conducted
operating modes are implemented: without any time break in between. The discussed part of
a) in start phase: high-pressure – start of fuel-air mixture, the test is characterized with frequent accelerations,
b) for several seconds after start: HOSP, braking, and stops. In total, the vehicle covers the distance
c) following warm-up phase: engine map controlled dual of a bit more than 4 km in 780 s, and the maximum speed is
injection cycle, 50 km/h. Just after the city cycle, the out of the city part

PRZEGLĄD ELEKTROTECHNICZNY, ISSN 0033-2097, R. 90 NR 8/2014 135

referred to as EUDC (Extra Urban Drive Cycle) is of the driver unit were measured at that point. The final
conducted. Here, the maximum speed is 120 km/h. The performance of the engine itself is the sum of the values
distance covered in nearly 7 km, in 400 s. In total, the measured earlier. The whole test was relatively short; it took
distance covered during the whole NEDC test, which is 19 about 5 minutes of free rolling until the car stopped [3, 4].
minutes and 40 seconds long, is 11,007 km. Changes in
drive dynamics are presented in the fig. 7 and the basic
information about test is provided in the table 2.

Fig. 8. A simplified diagram of the measurement stand used to

conduct the NEDC test [1]

Before performing the measurement in the vehicle, the

engine was warmed up. Next, it was placed on the test
stand roller and appropriately secured. Further preparation
to the measurement involved determining the transmission
Fig. 7. A chart showing the progress of the NEDC driving test [3] gear and the main gear transmission on which the test was
to be performed (in this case it was the fourth gear). Next,
Table 2 Basic parameters in the NEDC test [3] the dynamic radius of the vehicle tires was verified. The
Parameter Unit ECE EUDC NEDC data determined was entered into the chassis test stand
Distance km 4×1,013=4,052 6,955 11,007 program and the measurements could be started.
Duration s 4×195=780 400 1180
Average speed km/h 18,7 62,6 33,6
Maximum speed km/h 50 120 120

In the course of the test, the appropriately prepared

fumes were collected into the so-called measurement sack.
Fume preparation involves cooling them and mixing them
with a certain amount of air so as to achieve the desired
pressure and temperature values.
Fume analyzers (CO2, CO, HC i NOx) performed
measurements of momentary content of a given component
of the fumes contained in the measurement sack every
second and recorded the results as values modulated
appropriately in relation to the engine load. Finally,
momentary values were added up, giving the full result of
the measurement performed in the NEDC test. A simplified
view of the test stand is presented in the fig. 8 [3]. Fig. 9. Skoda Superb 1.8 TSI engine speed characteristics [8]
Tested cars were produced in 2004 (with engine 1.8T)
and 2005 (with the 1.8TSI engine) year. The manufacturer
has adapted them to meet the requirements of Euro 4
Standards (CO – 1,0 g/km HC – 0,1 g/km and NOx - 0.08
g/km). By 2009, for engines with gasoline direct injection,
was not required to measure the concentration of
particulate matter in the exhaust gas, which is why during
this study there were no measurement of this component
and it was not included in this study.
The second part of the tests involved determining the
speed characteristics of direct injection engines (fig. 9) and
indirect injection engines (fig. 10) including the
determination of the maximum nominal power and the
maximum torque. The characteristics determined in
accordance with Directive 98/69/EC.
The vehicle was accelerated to the maximum rotational
speed. The nominal power and the torque transferred to the Fig. 10. Skoda Superb 1.8 T engine speed characteristics [8]
car wheels were measured at that point. Next, the clutch
was disconnected and the car started to slow down freely The tests conducted make it possible to perform the
until it was fully stopped. The nominal power and the torque analysis in two different ways. Firstly, the results can be
compared with the data provided by the manufacturer. In

136 PRZEGLĄD ELEKTROTECHNICZNY, ISSN 0033-2097, R. 90 NR 8/2014

this case, a clear similarity can be observed (table 1). The The tests conducted and the comparative analysis of
engine nominal power and torque characteristics depending their results performed showed that direct fuel injection
on the rotational speed determined on the chassis test systems are superior to indirect fuel injection systems. The
stand reflect the charts published by the Volkswagen Group present work has proved that it is possible to achieve higher
concern. Slight differences between the results of the tests engine nominal power and torque values at relatively lower
performed and the data provided by the manufacturer fuel consumption and lower carbon monoxide emission to
should be explained, most of all, with differences in the test the atmosphere.
stands used and with the fact that the cars examined Direct fuel injection engines are now becoming more
already had a certain mileage greater than zero (about 130 and more popular. More and more automotive concerns
thousand km) – material wear or aging. start to use this type of engines in their cars. The
In the second case, a comparison of two types of advantages of direct fuel injection systems presented in the
engines was performed: an engine with direct fuel injection present work indicate that they can replace indirect fuel
and an engine with indirect fuel injection. The analysis injection systems and become serious competition for
shows clearly that the parameters of the engine with indirect diesel engines with respect to fuel consumption and fume
fuel injection are worse than the parameters of the engine emission [1, 6, 7].
with direct fuel injection. The nominal power and the torque
values are considerably higher for the 1.8 TSI engine [8]. References
In certain cases, fuel consumption differs considerably [1] Auto Moto Serwis (3/2007). Automotive magazine.
from the data provided by the manufacturer both for the car [2] Bosch Team: Bosch technical instruction. Gasoline-engine
with direct fuel injection as well as for the one with indirect menagement. Basics and components. WKiŁ, Warsaw 2008.
[3] Directive 98/69/EC of the European Parliament and of the
fuel injection. However, even considering the differences in Council of 13 October 1998.
comparison to manufacturer data, the 1.8 TSI engine [4] Herner A., Riehl H.J.: Electrical engineering and electronics in
consumes, on average, 1,2 dm3/100 km less petrol than the vehicles. WKiŁ, Warsaw 2002.
1.8 T engine. [5] Materials of Volkswagen Group Concern: Service training.
Pollution emission with reference to hydrocarbons and construction and operation of 1.8 TSI engine.
oxides of nitrogen is considerably lower for the car with [6] Merkisz J., Pielecha J., Radzimirski S.: New Trends in
Emission Control in the European Union, Series: Springer
indirect fuel injection. Despite that fact, higher pollution
Tracts on Transportation and Traffic, Vol. 4, Springer
emission levels for the engine with direct fuel injection are International Publishing, 2014.
well within the limits specified in the standard. Carbon [7] Postrzednik S., Żmudka Z.: Thermodynamic and
dioxide emission for both engines does not meet the environmental determinants of exploitation of internal
requirements of the standard but the engine with direct fuel combustion piston engines, Publishing of Silesian University of
injection is comparatively better. It is worth noticing that the Technology, Gliwice 2007.
emission of carbon monoxide is over two times lower in the [8] Putz Ł.: Master thesis. Car systems of direct petrol injection.
Poznan University of Technology, Poznan 2009.
1.8 TSI engine in comparison to the 1.8 T engine [8].

Summary Authors mgr inż. Dorota Typańska, Poznan University of

The analysis of the nominal power and torque Technology, Institute of Electrotechnology and Industrial
characteristics obtained leads to a clear statement that the Electronics, Piotrowo 3a, 60-965 Poznań, E-mail:
characteristics demonstrated by the engine with direct fuel [email protected]; mgr inż Łukasz Putz, Poznan
injection are better. Cars equipped with this type of engines University of Technology, Institute of Electrotechnology and
are characterized by improved dynamics and flexibility Industrial Electronics, Piotrowo 3a, 60-965 Poznań, E-mail:
which has a positive influence on the driving comfort. [email protected];

PRZEGLĄD ELEKTROTECHNICZNY, ISSN 0033-2097, R. 90 NR 8/2014 137