J Food Sci Technol (September 2016) 53(9):3408–3423

DOI 10.1007/s13197-016-2328-3

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Plant-based milk alternatives an emerging segment of functional

beverages: a review
Swati Sethi1 • S. K. Tyagi1 • Rahul K. Anurag2

Revised: 14 August 2016 / Accepted: 25 August 2016 / Published online: 2 September 2016
Ó Association of Food Scientists & Technologists (India) 2016

Abstract Plant-based or non-dairy milk alternative is the nutritional completeness and sensory acceptability of the
fast growing segment in newer food product development final product. Concerted research efforts are required in
category of functional and specialty beverage across the coming years in functional beverages segment to prepare
globe. Nowadays, cow milk allergy, lactose intolerance, tailor-made newer products which are palatable as well as
calorie concern and prevalence of hypercholesterolemia, nutritionally adequate.
more preference to vegan diets has influenced consumers
towards choosing cow milk alternatives. Plant-based milk Keywords Plant-based milk alternatives
Lactose
alternatives are a rising trend, which can serve as an intolerance
Non-thermal technologies
Emulsion
inexpensive alternate to poor economic group of develop- stability
Shelf life
Fortification
ing countries and in places, where cow’s milk supply is
insufficient. Though numerous types of innovative food
beverages from plant sources are being exploited for cow Introduction
milk alternative, many of these faces some/any type of
technological issues; either related to processing or Over the past decade, major research emphasis in all sec-
preservation. Majority of these milk alternatives lack tions of food product development is to address the
nutritional balance when compared to bovine milk, how- changing needs and to meet the present demands of con-
ever they contain functionally active components with sumer by creating newer alternative of health foods.
health promoting properties which attracts health conscious Increasing urbanization has accelerated these demands;
consumers. In case of legume based milk alternatives, concerted research effort in functional and speciality bev-
sensory acceptability is a major limiting factor for its wide erage for newer products is the recent trend. In today’s
popularity. New and advanced non-thermal processing world, beverages are no longer considered simply as thirst-
technologies such as ultra high temperature treatment, ultra quenchers; consumers look for specific functionality in
high pressure homogenization, pulsed electric field pro- these drinks, which forms a part of their lifestyle. Func-
cessing are being researched for tackling the problems tionality in these beverages may be to addresses different
related to increase of shelf life, emulsion stability, needs and lifestyles—to boost energy, fight ageing, fatigue
and stress, target specific diseases and the sector is still
expanding. In recent years, these changes and develop-
& Swati Sethi ments have led to newer products in the beverages sector.
[email protected] One such major functional requirement is milk alternatives
1
to answer problems of cow milk allergy, lactose intoler-
Food Grains and Oilseeds Processing Division, ICAR-Central
ance, calorie concern and prevalence of hypercholes-
Institute of Post-Harvest Engineering and Technology,
Ludhiana, Punjab 141004, India terolemia (Valencia-Flores et al. 2013). Ethnic origin
2 affects the frequency of lactose intolerance. In adults, white
Agricultural Structures and Environmental Control Division,
ICAR-Central Institute of Post-Harvest Engineering and north Europeans, North Americans and Australasians have
Technology, Ludhiana, Punjab 141004, India the lowest rates ranging from 5 % in a British population to

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17 % in Finland and northern France. In South America, for their quality improvement; and future research efforts
Africa and Asia, over 50 % of the population has lactase that can be carried out in development of quality plant-
non-persistence and in some Asian countries this rate is based milk alternatives.
almost 100 % (Lomer et al. 2008). As a result, the con-
sumption of plant based milk has been increased due to
absence of cholesterol and lactose, making it suitable for a Plant-based/non-dairy milk alternatives
group of population suffering from lactose intolerance and
heart disease and in general for all. The market for plant Plant-based milk alternatives are fluids that results from
based milk alternatives is projected to grow at a CAGR of breakdown (size reduction) of plant material (cereals,
15 % from 2013 to 2018 (Markets and Markets 2013) and pseudo-cereals, legumes oilseeds, nuts) extracted in water
is expected to reach a value of $14 billion. In western and further homogenisation of such fluids, results in par-
countries, the use of plant-based milk alternatives is well ticle size distribution in range of 5–20 lm which imitates
established not only as a beverage, but has been exten- cow’s milk in appearance and consistency. Although, there
sively utilized in recipes as an ingredient. Hence, there is a is no stated definition and classification of these plant-
great scope to explore plant based alternatives for the based milk alternatives in literature, a general classification
preparation of milk like beverages. Also, in recent years, of the plant based/vegetable milk alternatives into five
plant sources (cereals and legumes) are accepted as func- categories is attempted, which is as follows:
tional food and nutraceuticals due to presence of health
(a) Cereal based: Oat milk, Rice milk, Corn milk, Spelt
promoting components such as dietary fibres, minerals,
milk.
vitamins and antioxidants (Das et al. 2012). In this regard,
(b) Legume based: Soy milk, Peanut milk, Lupin milk,
few legumes and oilseeds have been extensively utilized
Cowpea milk.
for preparation of non-dairy, healthy, affordable and
(c) Nut based: Almond milk, Coconut milk, Hazelnut
nutritious plant based milk alternatives (Sosulski et al.
milk, Pistachio milk, Walnut milk.
1978). In past, much attention has been given to soy milk,
(d) Seed based: Sesame milk, Flax milk, Hemp milk,
as it is nutritious and a healthy alternative to bovine milk.
Sunflower milk.
But recently, attention has been directed towards exploring
(e) Pseudo-cereal based: Quinoa milk, Teff milk,
the utilization of cereals, oilseeds, nuts for new food uses
Amaranth milk.
on the basis of their functional properties, which reveal the
physical attributes of food components and their interac-
tions (Toma and Tabekhia 1979). All plant-based milks are
preferred over cow’s milk by consumers who are lactose Types of plant-based/non-dairy milk alternatives
intolerant or are allergic to milk proteins because of their
common benefits of being lactose free, cholesterol free and Oat milk
low in calories. Plant-based milk alternatives are prepared
by disintegration of plant material, which makes the par- Oat milk is the recent emergent in the market owing to its
ticle composition and size as non-uniform. The size of potential therapeutic benefits. Oats have received extensive
particles and the stability of the final product depend on the interest due to the presence of dietary fibres, phytochemicals
nature of the raw material, the method used for disinte- and high nutritive value. Oats possess various health benefits
gration and storage conditions (Cruz et al. 2007). Few such as hypocholesterolaemic and anticancerous properties
researches in preparing milk alternates other than soy milk (Table 1). Health benefits of oats are associated with dietary
includes peanut milk, rice milk, oat milk, sesame milk, fibres such as b-glucan, functional protein, lipid and starch
coconut milk, almond milk, hemp milk, hazelnut milk, components and phytochemicals present in the oat grain and
tiger nut, lupin milk and quinoa milk etc. (Chiba et al. that is why it is one of the promising raw materials for
1979; Farkas and Goldblith 1962; Fujimaki et al. 1965; US preparation of functional plant-based milk. Oats are good
patent US4744992; US patent US5686123; Kapadia et al. source of quality protein with good amino acid balance. The
2002; Quasem et al. 2009; Zhang et al. 2007; Camacho and interest in oats is mainly aroused due to the presence of
Sierra 1988; Ukwuru and Ogbodo 2011). However, tech- functionally active component, b-glucan which possesses
nological issues needs to be addressed in order to prepare a neutraceutical properties. b-glucan, a soluble fibre, has the
plant based milk alternative comparable to that of cow’s ability to increase the solution viscosity and can delay gastric
milk in respect to appearance, taste, flavor, stability and emptying time, increases gastrointestinal transit time which
nutritive value. are associated with their reduced blood glucose level (Welch
This paper aims to give an outline of plant-based milk 1995). Oat fibres are also known for their hypocholes-
alternatives with technological interventions applied so far terolemic effect by reducing total and LDL cholesterol

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Table 1 Functional components of plant-based milk alternatives and their health benefits
Type of Functional or bioactive Health benefits References
milk component

Soy milk Isoflavones Protective effect against cancer, cardiovascular disease, and osteoporosis Omoni and Aluko (2005)
Phytosterols Cholesterol lowering properties Fukui et al. (2002)
Peanut Phenolic compounds Protective role against oxidative damage and diseases like coronary heart Wien et al. (2014),
milk disease, stroke, and various cancers Settaluri et al. (2012)
Rice Phytosterols, especially b- Lowers cholesterol, hypertension, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, anti- Biswas et al. (2011),
milk sitosterol and c-oryzanol oxidative effects Faccin et al. (2009)
Oat milk b-Glucan Increases solution viscosity and can delay gastric emptying time, Welch (1995), Truswell
increases gastrointestinal transit time which are associated with their (2002), Deswal et al.
reduced blood glucose level, hypocholesterolemic effect by reducing (2014)
total and LDL cholesterol
Sesame lignans such as sesamin, Neutraceutical properties such as antioxidative, hypocholesterolemic, Namiki (2007)
milk sesamolin, sesaminol anticarcinogenic, antitumor, and antiviral activities
Almond Alpha-tocopherol Powerful antioxidant which plays a critical role in protecting against free- Burton and Ingold (1989),
milk radical reactions Niki et al. (1989)
Arabinose Prebiotic properties Mandalari et al. (2008)
Coconut Lauric acid Promotes brain development, boosts immune system and maintains the Seow and Gwee (1997)
milk elasticity of the blood vessels
Vitamin E Fights against ageing, nourishes skin

(Truswell 2002). They are also a good source of antioxidants Rolled oats (1 kg)
and polyphenols. Oat contains 60 % starch, 11–15 % total
protein, 5–9 % lipids, 2.3–8.5 % dietary fibre and 0.54 %
calcium (Rasane et al. 2015). The uses of oats in gluten free Addition of water
or celiac diet are well explored. In order to diversify the oat (1:2.7 oats: water)
consumption, attempts have been made to develop oat based
beverages or oat milk (Zhang et al. 2007; Deswal et al. 2014).
It has been proved in investigations that oat beverages, as Oat slurry
such, retain their cholesterol lowering properties (Onning
et al. 1998, 1999). Starch constitutes the major portion of the
oats (55–60 %) with a gelatinization temperature range of Enzymatic hydrolysis with
44.7–73.7 °C (Tester and Karkalas 1996). But, this high alpha amylase (77.78 mg/kg
concentration of starch poses a problem in preparation of a of rolled oats)
stable emulsion and during the heat processing of oat bev-
erage. On application of heat, starch begins to gelatinize and
liquid milk tends to attain a gel like consistency with high Filtration
viscosity leading to its lower acceptability. So, in order to
maintain the fluidity or beverage like consistency, hydrolysis
of starch is only one of the methods allowing its removal, to Oat milk (2.85 kg)
prevent gelatinization during thermal treatment. To resolve
this problem, enzymatic hydrolysis has been investigated by Fig. 1 Flow chart for the preparation of oat milk (Deswal et al. 2014)
researchers, to obtain an acceptable product. The optimiza-
tion of enzymatic production process of oat milk (Fig. 1) stable cereal suspension utilized both alpha and beta amylase
using response surface methodology has been investigated for hydrolysis of starch (Lennart et al. 1997). Oat contains
by Deswal et al. (2014). A yield of 2.85 kg of oat milk having significant amount of phytic acid, an antinutrient. Phytate
total solids in the range of 25.01 ± 0.15 and consistency phosphorus accounts for 48.7–70.9 % of the total phospho-
index value of 1.01 ± 0.08 Pa s was achieved with 1 kg of rus in oats (Frolic and Nyman 1988; Lolas et al. 1976). Zhang
rolled oats and an enzyme (alpha amylase) concentration of et al. (2007) treated oat based beverage with phytase in order
2.1 % (w/w). A US patent, US5686123 on homogenous and to improve the nutritional value by liberation of inorganic

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phosphate from phytic acid. Also, attempts were made by compounds etc.), leading to a better acceptable product to
them to restore the inevitably lost nutrients during processing the consumers, Cornell hot grinding method where soaked
operations, by enrichment. Despite of its health benefits, oat soybeans were ground with boiling water or steam to
milk lacks calcium which is an essential nutrient for the obtain a slurry at a temperature of 80 °C, the slurry was
growth and development; therefore, it needs to be fortified then kept at this temperature for 10 min in order to inac-
before its consumption as a milk alternative. Commercially, tivate lipoxygenase, Illinois pre-blanching method (Fig. 2)
oat milk is available under brand names Oatly (Sweden), where soaked soybeans were blanched in boiling water to
Pureharvest (Australia), Alpro (UK), Bioavena drink (Italy), inactivate lipoxygenase. Apart from these methods, alka-
Simpli (Finland), Vitasoy (Hong Kong), Pacific (USA) etc. line soaking, use of defatted flour, soy protein isolates and
The milk is available in convenient tetra packs of various concentrates have reduced beany flavor to some extent.
sizes and is UHT treated. Destruction of growth inhibitors is another important
concern in processing of soy milk. Inactivation by heat
Soy milk treatment is the most commonly used method. With
advancement of time, several modifications have been
The use of soy milk was first reported about 2000 years applied to equipments used for heat treatment and various
ago in China. Soy milk was the first plant-based milk which combinations of time and temperature (Ikya et al. 2007;
serves the purpose of providing nutrients to the population Kwok and Niranjan 1995) were applied. It is also known
where the milk supply was inadequate. It was also popular that thermal treatment of soy milk results in dissociation,
amongst the populations who are allergic to milk proteins denaturation and aggregation of soy protein (Zhang et al.
and are lactose intolerant. Soy milk is a good source of 2005) and hence negatively affects the solubility of pro-
essential monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids teins. Therefore, to minimize these changes and to improve
which are considered good for cardiovascular health. It the quality of product pulsed electric field processing
serves as an inexpensive, refreshing and nutritional bev- (PEF); a non-thermal technology was studied by Xiang
erage to the consumers. Isoflavones appeared to be the (2008). The soy milk samples were treated by PEF with
functionally active component responsible for the benefi- electric field intensities of 18, 20 and 22 kV cm-1, number
cial effects of soybean. Isoflavones are well known for their of pulses of 25, 50, 75 and 100, capacitance from the
protective effect against cancer, cardiovascular disease, discharge capacitor of 0.33 lF and pulse frequency of
and osteoporosis (Omoni and Aluko 2005). Genistein is the 0.5 Hz at 26 °C and soy milk was evaluated for rheological
most abundant isoflavone in soybean and is proposed to be and color properties. The rheological properties of soy milk
the most biologically active (Cohen et al. 2000). Apart were affected by PEF treatments. The apparent viscosity of
from isoflavones, soy proteins are also known to provide soy milk increased from 6.62 to 7.46 (10-3 Pa s) with
protective and therapeutic benefits against several diseases. increasing electric field intensity from 18 to 22 kV cm-1
Soy foods are also found to be rich in phytochemicals such and pulses from 0 to 100. The stated or claimed benefits of
as phytosterols, which are recognized for their cholesterol soy milk include absence of lactose, cholesterol free, high
lowering properties (Fukui et al. 2002). On average, dry nutritive value, high digestibility and low cost. Owing to
soybean contains roughly 40 % protein, 20 % oil, 35 % these health benefits, soy milk has also found its applica-
carbohydrate, and 5 % ash (Liu 2004). Traditional process tions as a functional ingredient in preparation of processed
of soy milk preparation leaves a product with limited shelf food products. Rahmati et al. (2014) used soy milk as an
life and a characteristic beany flavor. Modern soy milk emulsifier in preparation of mayonnaise where egg was
production utilizes advanced technologies and equipments replaced with full fat soy flour-prepared soy milk at dif-
to maximize nutritional value, shelf-life and convenience ferent levels. Sensory evaluation showed no statistical
with reduced beany flavor (Table 2). In view of its popu- difference in acceptability of samples with substitution
larity, a wide array of variants is available in the market. levels up to 50 %. The only disadvantage of soy milk
Based on solids concentration, available variants are light, consumption is prevalence of soy allergies, making it
dairy like, and rich soy milk, with respect to formulation, unsuitable for population who are allergic to soy proteins.
sweetened, original and flavored soy milk, with respect to It is commercially available under the brands Silk (USA),
fortification, regular, enriched, and blended soy milk (Liu Vitasoy (Hong Kong), Alpro (UK), Tesco (UK) etc.
2004). Several methods were tested for their efficacy in
removal of off flavor or beany flavor. Some of the widely Peanut milk
accepted methods in order to remove or deodorize the
beany flavor of soy milk are: vacuum treatment at high Oilseeds are thought to have a high potential as an alter-
temperature which results in stripping off of most volatile native source of non-dairy beverages. Among oilseeds,
compounds (short chain fatty acids, sterols, sulphur peanut is a promising raw material for preparation of plant-

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Table 2 Limitation in consumption and technological interventions for increased acceptability of plant-based milk alternatives
Type of Limiting factor in acceptance Technological intervention to resolve the problem References
milk

Soy Beany flavor due to action of lipoxygenase Vacuum treatment at high temperature, hot grinding, Chiba et al. (1979), Farkas
milk on unsaturated fatty acids blanching in boiling water, alkaline soaking, use of and Goldblith (1962),
soy protein isolates, addition of flavouring compounds Fujimaki et al. (1965)
Presence of inhibitors Denaturation and inactivation by heat Badenhop and Hackler
(1970), Kwok et al. (1993)
Peanut Beany flavor Defatting, roasting, alkali soaking, steaming Lee and Beuchat (1992)
milk
Rice Poor emulsion stability due to high starch Enzymatic hydrolysis of starch by alpha and beta (US4744992 patent),
milk content amylase or glucosidase Mitchell et al. (1988)
Oat Poor emulsion stability due to high starch Enzymatic hydrolysis of starch by alpha and beta US5686123 patent, Deswal
milk content amylase et al. (2014)
Presence of inhibitors phytates Treatment with phytase in order to liberate inorganic Zhang et al. (2007)
phosphate from phytic acid
Sesame Anti-nutritional factors such as oxalates Decortication to remove oxalates as they are confined to Kapadia et al. (2002)
milk outer hull
Low solubility of sesame proteins in water Alkali soaking, roasting, defatting, germination, Quasem et al. (2009)
as they are salt soluble and are microwave heating to improve functional properties
susceptible to heat denaturation of protein
Bitterness and chalkiness Roasting and alkali soaking have been observed to Prakash and Narasinga Rao
improve the overall acceptability and flavor (1986)

based milk but similar to soy milk, presence of beany other method using full fat or partially defatted peanut flour
flavor limits its applications. Peanut milk has been exten- have been successfully reported. Another method of using
sively utilized in developing countries by low income spray dried peanut protein isolates have been tried but high
group, undernourished children, vegetarians and people cost limits its application (Diarra et al. 2005). To improve
allergic to cow’s milk (Diarra et al. 2005). Above all, the the acceptability in terms of stability, various treatments
increased responsiveness towards health benefits of plant- like heating, homogenizing, addition of stabilizers and
based milk, contributed to its better consumption. Many emulsifiers have been studied. It has been observed that the
volatile compounds present in peanuts are similar to soy- stability of the product is greatly improved by heating at
beans (Leu 1974). Peanuts are considered healthy because high temperature due to hydration and tenderization of
of several bioactive components which are known for their tissues which results in better disruption of tissues during
disease preventative properties. Peanuts are good source of homogenization (Kuntz et al. 1978). The destabilization
proteins, fats, fibres, vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, due to settling of solid particles may be prevented by
phytosterols etc. and have potential for improving blood addition of alkalizing agents, such as disodium phosphate
lipid level, blood sugar level and longevity (Wien et al. or sodium bicarbonate. Edible emulsifying agents such as
2014). Peanuts contain 21.5 % carbohydrates, 49.6 % fats, alginates, gelatin, or vegetable gums up to 1 % by weight,
23.68 % proteins and 8 % crude fibre (Settaluri et al. may be added to improve the stability of the emulsion
2012). The functional properties of peanuts are mainly during freezing, transportation and storage. Flavouring
associated with presence of phenolic compounds which are agents to improve the taste or flavor and nutrients in the
known for their antioxidant function and a protective role form of additives may be added to obtain the desired
against oxidative damage diseases like coronary heart nutritive balance. Commercially peanut milk is available
disease, stroke, and various cancers. Several researchers under the brand name signs & wonders (USA) and sweety
have made attempts to prepare peanut milk using various etc.
combinations of treatments. Defatting, roasting, alkali
soaking, steaming etc. have been applied to have a best Almond milk
quality product. In several investigations, different meth-
ods were adopted by researchers to obtain peanut milk The consumption of dried fruits and nuts has become an
(Diarra et al. 2005; Galvez et al. 1990). Wet grinding, to essential part of healthy living owing to their potential
obtain peanut extract was the most widely used method and health benefits. Almonds contribute to the largest share in

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Fig. 2 Illinois process for

preparation of soy milk (Nelson Dry whole soybeans
et al. 1976)

Overnight soaking in tap water (with 0.5% NaHCO3) in a ratio of 1:3 (bean: solution)

Draining excess water

Blanching in fresh tap water (with 0.5% NaHCO3) in a ratio of 1:3 (bean: solution)

Draining excess water

Grinding through hammer mill with sufficient water to make 12 % bean solids

Heating of slurry to 200 °F in a steam jacketed vessel

Homogenization at 3500 psi in first stage and 500 psi in second stage

Addition of water to adjust protein content to desired level

Neutralization with 6 N HCI to pH 6.8 to 7.2

Addition of sugar, salt and flavourings

Heating to 180 °F

Homogenization as above

Bottling

Cooling and storage at 34 °F

total nuts consumption. Almond contains approximately possesses potential prebiotic properties contributed by
25 % of protein, majority of which is present in the form of arabinose present in cell wall pectic substances which add
AMP or amandin (Sathe et al. 2002). Almond is a nutrient to the functionality by lowering serum cholesterol level. A
dense product and is an excellent source of vitamin E in the patented process (US 5656321 A) for preparing almond
form of alpha-tocopherol and manganese. Compared to milk includes heating an aqueous dispersion of partially de-
other plant-based milks, almond milk is naturally a good oiled almond powder, proportioned at 8 ± 1 % and mixed
source of vitamins, especially vitamin E which cannot be with about 0.1 % of a stabilizing hydrocolloid at 90 °C for
synthesized by the body and need to be supplied through a lapse of time that is sufficient to allow the compounds to
diet or supplements. Alpha-tocopherol is the functionally solubilize. It is followed by grinding in aqueous phase and
active component of the Vitamin E and is a powerful then a centrifugal clarification was adapted to remove the
antioxidant which plays a critical role in protecting against particles that are large enough to be detected by the tongue
free-radical reactions (Burton and Ingold 1989; Niki et al. or the roof of the mouth. The product is then sterilized by
1989). Almonds are rich source of other nutrients such as ‘‘UHT’’ (ultra-high temperature) treatment and a homoge-
calcium, magnesium, selenium, potassium, zinc, phospho- nization at 180,000 hPa is carried out during cooling fol-
rus and copper. Apart from all these benefits, almond lowed by aseptic packaging of the product obtained

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(Berger et al. 1997). In a study, conducted by Mandalari Sesame milk

et al. (2008), it has been concluded that almond seeds
exhibited the potential to be used as a novel source of Sesame is one of the important oilseed crops in the world.
prebiotics with increased populations of bifidobacteria and It is consumed in variety of preparations like tahini, sweet
Eubacterium rectale and subsequent increase in butyrate meats etc. It is a source of high quality protein with a
concentrations. Almond consumption is known to be unique balance of amino acids. Sesame seed contains sig-
associated with various pharmacological properties such as nificant amount of lignans such as sesamin, sesamolin,
lipid lowering, antioxidant, laxative and immunostimulant. sesaminol and others which are known for their functional
In a study, influence of high pressure processing (HPP) at properties. Sesame lignans are recognized to have
450 and 600 MPa, 30 °C for various holding times (0, 30, nutraceutical properties such as antioxidative, hypoc-
60,180, 300 and 600 s) on almond milk amandin was holesterolemic, anticarcinogenic, antitumor, and antivirus
investigated by Dhakal et al. (2014). The immunoreactivity activities (Namiki 2007). It contains significant amount of
of pressure treated almond milk was compared with raw anti-nutritional factors such as oxalates and phytates (Ka-
and thermally processed (TP) almond milk (72, 85 and padia et al. 2002). But, the oxalates are confined to outer
99 °C for 0–300 s) using a sandwich enzyme-linked hull and most of them are removed during decortication.
immunosorbent assay (ELISA), Western blot and dot blot. Also, the compounds associated with bitterness of sesame
A maximum reduction of *70 and *75 % in protein seeds are confined to hulls therefore; decortication also
solubility was observed in HPP and TP treated almond helps in improvement of flavor. Sesame proteins are less
milk. Being a rich source of calcium and fat and low in soluble in water as they are salt soluble and are susceptible
calorie count, it is nutritionally better than other plant- to heat denaturation which limits its use in preparation of
based milks. Prevalence of tree nut allergy and high cost plant-based milks. Therefore, modification in functionality
limits its use as a beverage. Commercially it is available of sesame protein is required before its use in preparation
under the brand names Silk (USA), almond breeze (USA), of plant-based milk (Quasem et al. 2009). In view of this,
Alpro (UK), Hiland (USA), 365 (USA), Pure harvest various processing methods like soaking, roasting, defat-
(Australia), Pacific (USA) etc. ting, germination, fermentation, microwave heating have
been investigated for their potential in modifying func-
Coconut milk tional properties of sesame proteins (Quasem et al. 2009).
Investigations have shown that the steaming and alkali
Coconut milk plays an important part in the south East soaking had significantly improved the yield of total solids
Asian cuisine. It is not only consumed as a beverage but (Prakash and Narasinga Rao 1986) and pasteurization had
used as an ingredient in number of sweet and savory improved the dispersion stability. Roasting and alkali
recipes. Coconut milk has high fat content and is generally soaking have been observed to improve the overall
used in curries as a thickener to give body to the product. acceptability and flavor by reducing bitterness and chalki-
Coconut is a nutrient dense product and is a good source of ness in sesame milk. The consumption of sesame milk can
fiber. Coconut milk is rich in vitamin and minerals such as overcome the limitations associated with soy milk con-
iron, calcium, potassium, magnesium and zinc. It also sumption such as presence of flatulence causing factors,
contains a significant amount of vitamin C and E (Seow prevalence of allergies towards soy proteins and beany or
and Gwee 1997). The use of coconut milk is associated off flavor (Zahra et al. 2014). Sesame milk is commercially
with health benefits such as anti-carcinogenic, anti-micro- available under the brand name Ecomil (Spain), Vegemil
bial, anti-bacterial, and anti-viral. It contains a saturated (South Korea) etc.
fat, lauric acid which is present in mother’s milk and has
been related to promote brain development (Belewu and Other plant-based milk
Belewu 2007). Lauric acid is also helpful in boosting
immune system and maintaining the elasticity of the blood Lupin, an indigenous legume of Latin America, has several
vessels. Coconut milk is rich in antioxidants such as vita- advantages for the preparation of plant-based milk. The
min E which helps fighting against ageing. Coconut milk Australian lupin has high protein content (29–44 %), high
consumption is rarely associated with allergenic reactions. dietary fibre (30 %) and low fat content (6 %). Sweet lupin
Other benefits of coconut milk includes: helps in digestion, has a very low glycemic index, therefore, have been uti-
nourishes skin and has cooling properties. Inspite of all lized in numerous food products ranging from traditional
health benefits, presence of saturated fats limits its con- fermented food products (Tempe, Miso etc.) to dairy sub-
sumption. Commercially it is available under the brand stitutes to bakery products, pasta and noodles etc. Protein
names Blue diamond (USA), Silk (USA), Alpro (UK) and concentrates and isolates of lupin have been utilized as
Pacific (USA) etc. binders and emulsifiers in sausages, fortification of bread

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etc. It has been explored as an alternate to soybean in spoilage is a limiting factor in the use of colloid mill for size
number of food products. Lupin is successfully utilized in reduction and product needs to be pasteurized further from
preparation of plant-based milk, fortified with methionine food safety point of view. Heat treatment such as pasteur-
at the rate of 0.1 % to increase the nutritional value, by ization and sterilization may cause changes in the food
Camacho and Sierra (1988). Also, Illinois process devel- components especially proteins and lipids that stabilize the
oped by Nelson et al. (1976) for soybean was adapted for emulsion and also heating of starch causes a great increase
lupin with few modifications in which an additional step of in viscosity (Fennema 1996), which may also have a sig-
colloidal milling was introduced to improve dispersion nificant effect on the stability of the plant-based milk. Ultra
stability of the lupin particles in the liquid phase. high pressure homogenization (UHPH) is one of the
Tigernut is considered healthy and its use is associated promising processing technologies which results in smaller
with prevention of heart attacks, thrombosis, colon cancer and more uniform sized particles, can be effectively utilized
and other cancers. It can be eaten raw or can be utilized in to improve the stability of plant-based milk (Valencia-Flores
baked products, confectionary etc. as an alternate to et al. 2013). UHPH has demonstrated its benefits as an
almonds. Tiger nuts are very good source of phosphorus, alternative technology to thermal processing. Apart from
potassium, vitamins E and C, starch, fat, sugars, protein achieving size reduction of colloidal particles, a simultane-
(Belewu and Belewu 2007). Also, tiger nuts are rich source ous destruction of micro-organisms can be achieved by
of protein with high biological value. Ukwuru and Ogbodo UHPH treatment due to stated effects of high-pressure on
(2011) studied the effect of processing treatment on quality micro-organisms (Cruz et al. 2007). This technology is
of tiger nut milk where, processing treatments such as suitable for liquid food products, allowing a better stability
pasteurization, sterilization, ultra-high temperature, fer- of the product and at the same time giving preserving effect
mentation were investigated. It was observed that UHT to the final product. Two UHPH treatments, 200 and
treated and sterilized samples had no growth of micro- 300 MPa, were applied to the soy milk at an inlet temper-
organisms throughout the storage of 6 weeks. Commer- ature of 40 °C and was compared with normal and UHT
cially it is available under the brand name Amandin treated soy milk by Cruz et al. (2007). Results indicated that
(Canada), Isola Bio (UK), Chufi (Spain) etc. UHPH treatment significantly improved the emulsion sta-
Other plant-based milk, such as quinoa, hemp, cow pea, bility by disrupting the colloidal particles and also showed a
hazelnut, sunflower, melon seed milk (Bastıoğlu et al. reduction in the microbial load. Another promising tech-
2016) etc. are prepared and/or commercially available in nology for homogenization is ultrasound processing (Jafari
some western countries but scientific literature on these et al. 2007) and is studied for cow’s milk but its use in plant-
milks is hardly available. based milk is unexplored. Iswarin and Permadi (2012)
studied the effect of ultrasonic waves with varied power
levels and exposure time on droplets diameter of coconut
Technological interventions in improving milk. For this, power levels ranging from 2.5 to 7.0 W and
the quality and acceptability of plant based milk exposure time from 5 to 25 min were used. Results depicted
alternatives a reduction in the droplets diameter with an increase in
power level and exposure time however; the power level
Improving product stability was found more effective in breaking up the droplets than
the duration of the exposure. The stability of plant-based
Stability of plant-based milk depends on the size of dis- beverages can also be improved by using emulsifiers and
persed phase particles. Plant-based milk are colloidal sys- stabilizers. In plant-based milks three factors namely, size of
tems formed by large sized dispersed particles such as fat the particle, formation of an emulsion and solubility of
globules, solid particles from raw materials, proteins and proteins governs the stability. The selection of stabilizer for
starch granules which make it difficult to obtain a improvement of emulsion stability depends on the type of
stable product to be stored, not for very long time due to beverage, pH etc. Simplified hydrocolloid selection
sedimentation or settling of solid particles. The instability of chart (Fig. 3) for processed beverages was given by Fallourd
plant-based beverages due to presence of large size particles and Viscione (2009).
results in a sandy, gritty or chalky mouth feel and lack of
creaminess due to their low fat content (Civille and Removal of off-flavor
Szczesniak 1973). The stability of plant-based milk can be
improved by reducing the size of dispersed phase particles Soy products are gaining popularity as economical source
using various techniques. Traditionally, colloid mill was of quality protein and their positive effects on health but
used to reduce the size of dispersed phase particles in presence of disagreeable or beany or unpleasant flavor
preparation of soy milk and peanut milk. But, microbial needs to be eliminated or reduced in order to increase the

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Fig. 3 Simplified hydrocolloid Objective: Stabilization

selection chart for processed
beverages (Fallourd and
Viscione 2009)
Does the product
contain proteins
(milk, soy etc.)
No Yes

Oil ring on top Pulp is settling Neutral pH pH<4.6

of bottle on the bottom

Carrageenans, HE pectins
PGA Specific association of
Colloidal MCC, CMC
Gum Arabic xanthum, guar and LBG,
HA gellan gum
Emulsifiers Gellan gum (HA & LA),
Specific HE or LE pectins,
PGA,
Alginates

acceptability of products in terms of taste and flavor pH range severely declined the protein extractability
(Friedman and Brandon 2001). The two main reasons because most of the legume proteins have an isoelectric
responsible for off flavor are: presence of unsaturated fatty point at pH 4.0–4.5 whereas, at pH 2.0, maximum
acids and the presence of lipoxygenases (Maestri et al. extractability was obtained with no detectable off flavours.
2000). Substantial efforts have been made by several Enzymatic treatment was also studied for its application in
researchers in exploring technologies and processes to improvement of flavor of soy food products. Medium-chain
eliminate beany flavor (Chiba et al. 1979; Farkas and aldehydes and alcohols such as n-hexanal and n-hexanol
Goldblith 1962; Fujimaki et al. 1965; Kon et al. 1970; are mainly responsible for off flavor in soy milk. Aldehyde
Nelson et al. 1976; Wilkens et al. 1967) but, this area still dehydrogenase (ALDH) is the enzyme which catalyzes the
needs a consideration with further exploration by the use of irreversible conversion of aldehydes into their corre-
newer and advanced technologies. Commonly practiced sponding acids, therefore, was used for flavor removal in
approaches to solve this problem are: inactivation of soybean extract and soy milk. Soybean milk was incubated
enzymes, removal of off-flavours by deodourization and with 30 units of ALDH and 1.5 mmol of NAD? at 30 °C,
masking of off-flavour by addition of artificial or natural with stirring, for an incubation period of 3 h. Thereafter,
flavourings (Table 2). Lipoxidases catalyze the formation organoleptic testing was carried out and a significant
of nonvolatile hydroperoxides from unsaturated fatty acids reduction in green beany flavor was observed (Chiba et al.
which, in turn, decompose into medium-chain aldehydes 1979). US patent 4744524 issued on 17 May, 1988
and alcohols such as n-hexanal and n-hexanol and are described the equipment used to produce soy milk with no
associated with beany or off flavor. Lipoxygenase inacti- beany flavor and bitter taste of traditionally processed soy
vation by heat is the most common technology to improve milk. The equipment prepares soy milk by grinding soy
the flavor of soy milk that has been utilized for decades beans in an aqueous medium at room temperature without
(Nelson et al. 1971). Wilkens et al. (1967) proposed a entrapping any air, cooking the slurry, and separating the
method of producing soybean milk free of rancid off-flavor undissolved solids to obtain stable soy milk. No use of heat
by use of a high-temperature, rapid-hydration grinding treatment, results in high yield of dissolved solids with
process to inactivate the lipoxidase. Although thermal increased protein solubility in soy milk. The equipment
inactivation is widely used to inactivate lipoxidase but, eliminates the free oxygen by carrying out the disintegra-
undesirable alterations in proteins have limited its use as a tion completely in an aqueous medium and preventing the
promising technology (Davies et al. 1987). The effects of entry of air in that area (Gupta and Gupta 1988). It was also
pH upon lipoxidase activities have also been studied stated that the same equipment can be used for preparing
extensively. Kon et al. (1970) studied the effect of pH on bland beverages from other protein rich seeds which pos-
off flavours during grinding of raw legumes. Results indi- sesses problem of off-flavours during disintegration and
cated no detectable off flavor below pH 3.85 however, this preparation of beverages. Further US patent 7258889 B2,

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J Food Sci Technol (September 2016) 53(9):3408–3423 3417

describes a method of preparing bean-less flavor soy milk range of 93–154 °C (Kwok et al. 1993). Trypsin inhibitor
using carbon dioxide in a state of sublimation. The process activity in soy milk processed by traditional, steam injec-
did not involve thermal and chemical treatment and com- tion, blanching, and UHT treatment was estimated by Yuan
prised of various stages, holding soybeans with deaerated et al. (2008). Traditional and steam injection to 100 °C for
water under an atmosphere of carbon dioxide for a com- 20 min resulted in a residual trypsin inhibitor activity of
bination of time and temperature effective to allow soaking 13 % whereas, blanching inactivated 25–50 % of TIAs of
and swelling of soybeans, washing of soaked and swollen the raw soy milk. UHT treatment with increase in tem-
soybeans with water to remove oligosaccharides and perature and time has been found to result in a product with
ripening enzymes (as they are water soluble and gets dis- low residual trypsin inhibitor activity of app. 10 %. Other
solved in water used for soaking), grinding of washed inhibitors present in soybean are phytic acid and saponins.
soybeans in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide by bubbling Phytates are stable to heat and are not degraded during
in carbon dioxide in a sublimed state (-78 °C at atmo- cooking (Davies and Reid 1979) are known to cause poor
spheric pressure) to form a slurry followed by filtration of mineral bioavailability. Effective reduction of phytates can
slurry to obtain soy milk. The product obtained had high be achieved by the action of enzyme phytase (Zhang et al.
protein yields as process did not involve denaturation due 2007). Murugkar (2014) studied sprouting as a non-
to thermal treatment and no beany or bitter flavor (Ale- chemical, non-thermal tool to improve the quality of soy
jandro 2007). The advantages of this process are: little products (soy milk and tofu). Sprouting of soybean
resident time, continuous process and soft process condi- increases protein content and also reduces fat, trypsin
tions. The product need not to be homogenized as the soy inhibitor and phytic acid whose reduction otherwise
milk obtained was highly stable. It is a well known fact that requires intense heat treatment or methods like ultrafiltra-
the modification of traditional processing method by tion The results inferred that apart from improved nutri-
introducing steps like roasting, blanching and soaking in tional profiles soy milk from sprouted beans had higher soy
alkaline conditions have been known to reduce beany fla- milk index, good colour characteristics and high sensory
vor in legume based milk and hence, improved the acceptability due to absence of beany flavour and odour.
acceptability of the product. Addition of flavorings and
sugar has been also found to increase the overall accept- Shelf life improvement
ability of plant-based milk. Blending of legume milk with
cereal milk and nut milk have also helped in improving Plant-based milk being rich source of nutrients serves an
quality and wider acceptability of plant-based milk. ideal medium for growth of micro-organisms, and there-
fore, its quality is adversely affected by the rapid growth of
Inactivation/removal of inhibitors micro-organisms. Thermal treatment has long been used as
a processing method to extend the shelf life of food
Apart from removal of off flavors, destruction of trypsin products by eliminating or reducing spoilage and patho-
inhibitors is an important area of concern which is thought genic micro-organisms. Heat treatment has been utilized to
to be a cause of pancreatic hypertrophy. They are known to increase the shelf life of plant-based milk along with the
reduce protein absorption and hence adversely affect the objectives of increasing total solids yield and improvement
human nutrition. Trypsin inhibitors are subject to denatu- of flavor whereas, excessive heating found to cause detri-
ration and inactivation by heat but overheating to com- mental effects on nutrients (vitamins and amino acids),
pletely inactivate trypsin inhibitors may cause amino acid browning and development of cooked flavor (Kwok and
degradation, decrease in nutritional value and other dete- Niranjan 1995). So, in order to eliminate or reduce the
riorative changes (Liener 1972). Therefore, careful selec- destructive effects on plant-based milk, various combina-
tion of time–temperature combination in thermal tions of time–temperature have been employed to have best
processing is required for processing of soy milk to obtain quality product. Different heat treatments such as pas-
a product with high nutritional value. The role of pH in teurization (heating below 100 °C, to destroy pathogenic
combination with heat treatment was also investigated for micro-organisms), in-container sterilization (121 °C for
its inactivation potential towards trypsin inhibitor (Baden- 15–20 min to attain commercial sterility), ultra high tem-
hop and Hackler 1970; Kwok et al. 1993; Lei et al. 1981). perature treatment (at high temperatures 135–150 °C for
On heating at a temperature range of 93–132 °C, trypsin few seconds) have been investigated by several researchers
inhibitor activity (TIA) in soy milk was found to be more (Sizer 1989). UHT processing involves direct heating
heat-labile at high pH than at lower pH however, the effect methods which include steam injection and steam infusion
of pH on thermal inactivation was less pronounced at or indirect heating in plate or tubular heat exchangers.
temperature 143 and 154 °C. Inactivation of 90 % of the After any of the above mentioned treatment, packaging
TIA in soy milk was observed at pH 6.5 in the temperature under aseptic condition is required to maintain the sterility.

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Product needs to be stored under refrigeration conditions value. In another study, plant-based milks were developed
after pasteurization whereas, after in-container sterilization from fermented and unfermented African yam bean (AYB)
or UHT treatment product can be stored at room temper- flours and maize blends. The protein content of the developed
ature for a few weeks. Tan (1958) studied the effect of milk was comparable to that of soybean with appreciable
pasteurization and sterilization on soy milk. Pasteurized quantities of carbohydrate and minerals and traces of ascor-
soy milk, heated for 30 min at 60 °C, could be stored for bate (Nnam 1997). As soy milk contains one-fifth of calcium
3 days with no significant spoilage and sterilized soy milk than cow’s milk, deficient in amino acid methionine and is
heat treated at 120 °C for 5 min could keep well on 1 year nutritionally less acceptable than cow’s milk, US patent
of storage. Thermal treatments are well applied to plant- 3386833 was aimed at the development of simulated milk
based milk such as soy milk and peanut milk but presence comprising soy bean flour, sesame seed flour and coconut
of high starch concentration in oat milk, rice milk etc. meal with the objectives to improve the nutritional value and
limits its application, and therefore, these types of plant- palatability, characterized by minimum enzyme destruction in
based milk require application of non-thermal processing the preparation of powdered mixture used for the formation of
technologies to extend the shelf-life. There is only little the milk, and can be suitably used for infant consumption
scientific literature available on the application of non- (Johnson and Linda 1968). The simulated milk developed had
thermal technologies on plant-based milk. High-pressure relatively high proportion of the two essential amino acids
throttling, ultra high pressure homogenization (UHPH), lysine and methionine, a much higher calcium content than
high pressure processing technologies have been investi- that of cow’s milk and conventional soy milk, approximately
gated for their use in shelf-life extension of soy milk (Cruz six times as much iron as found in cow’s milk, the fats present
et al. 2007; Singh 2013). The effect of ultra high pressure principally in unsaturated form and the final product showed
homogenization in combination with thermal treatment on long keeping quality due to presence of natural antioxidants
microbial stability of almond milk was studied by Valen- particularly found in sesame seeds. Sosulski et al. (1978)
cia-Flores et al. (2013). The UHPH treatment was com- compared protein isolates from ten legume species for
pared with pasteurization and UHT treatment, preparation of imitation milk. All the legumes had same
microbiological analysis, physical stability and chemical protein content but, exhibited a wide range in solubility, fat
analysis indicated a high quality product when compared to homogenization, viscosity and conductivity. Sensory evalu-
pasteurized and UHT treated samples. Combination of ation scores showed some legume-protein based imitation
300 MPa pressure and 65 and/or 75 °C temperature with a milk as similar to cow’s milk in color and viscosity but all were
holding time of less than 0.7 s resulted in a product with no deficient in odor and taste. Based on functional and
bacterial growth after incubation at 30 °C for 20 days. organoleptic properties of the protein isolates and imitation
Pulsed electric field processing, a promising non-thermal milk, ranking was given in the following order of preference:
processing technology, has been investigated for its lima bean = mung bean = pea bean [ northern
potential in microbial reduction in cow’s milk (Valizadeh bean = lupin [ lentil = soybean [ chickpea [ field
et al. 2009). Therefore, its potential along with other non- pea [ fababean (Sosulski et al. 1978). Blending of plant-
thermal technologies such as pulsed light, ultrasound needs based milk with cow milk has also been carried out by
to be explored for their preservative effects on plant-based researchers and found better taste scores for blended milk than
milk. plant-based milk alone (Singh and Bains 1988). Commer-
cially available milk under this category is Pacific organic 7
grain milk (USA) which is made up of seven grains namely:
Blending for nutritional balance and improvement Oats, rice, triticale, wheat, barley, spelt and millets.
in sensory acceptability

Plant-based milks are different from one another with respect Fortification of plant-based milk
to their nutritional value. Therefore, blending two or more
types of plant-based milk, to have a product with high nutritive A substitute food is a food designed to resemble a common
value comparable with cow’s milk, is an important step of food in appearance, texture, flavor and odour, and is
processing. Scientific literature dealing with blending of intended to be used as a complete or partial replacement for
plant-based milk is scarce. Deshpande et al. (2008) used the food it resembles (Codex Alimentarius Commission
response surface methodology to optimize chocolate flavored 1994). According to codex, where a substitute food is
peanut-soy beverage on the basis of sensory parameters and it intended to replace a food which has been identified as a
was observed that the beverages prepared with soy protein significant source of energy and/or essential nutrients in the
isolates were more acceptable than those with soy flour. Also, food supply, and particularly where there is demonstrated
soy protein isolates are expected to increase the nutritional evidence of public health need, nutritional equivalence in

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terms of the essential nutrients of concern should be milk substitutes. Soy milk contains equivalent quantities of
strongly recommended. Essential nutrient is defined as protein but contains only one-fifth of calcium. Calcium
‘‘any substance normally consumed as a constituent of food carbonate and tri-calcium phosphate salts were used as
which is needed for growth and development and mainte- fortificants, among the two fortificants used, tri-calcium
nance of healthy life and which cannot be synthesized in phosphate with the combination of sequestering and sta-
adequate amounts by the body’’. Plant-based milks in bilizing agents, presented a satisfied suspension in fortified
general are inexpensive substitutes to cow’s milk to those soybean milk (Fig. 4) with an optimum Ca:P ratio of 1.3:1
who cannot afford cow’s milk because of high cost and in the final product. Calcium carbonate showed reduced
limited availability and to those who are allergic to cow’s calcium stability on fortification but the bioavailability was
milk but, nutritionally they are not comparable or equiva- better (Chaiwanon et al. 2000). Also, processing treatments
lent to cow’s milk (Table 3). People who consume cereal such as, flaking, blanching, hot grinding and ultra high
milk in place of bovine milk are more prone to nutritional temperature treatment etc. could cause loss of nutrients
inadequacy. So, in order to use plant-based milk as sub- especially vitamins and minerals. Therefore, to meet
stitute of cow’s milk, fortification with protein, essential nutritional requirements, enrichment of nutrients is done to
vitamins and minerals is generally performed. Cereal-based restore nutrients inevitably lost during processing. The
beverages that contain less protein than cow’s milk are form of nutrients used for enrichment or fortification is
required by law to have advice on the label that the product important as nutrients differ in stability, in the final forti-
is not suitable as a complete milk replacement for children fied product (Richardson 1983). Attempts were made by
under 5 years old (http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/con Zhang et al. (2007) to fortify oat based beverage with
sumer/nutrition/milkaltern). Children of growing age needs mixture of various vitamins and minerals using an indus-
sufficient protein for their growth and development and trial-scale filter sterilization system and studied the effect
bovine milk is a part of child’s daily diet but plant-based of storage on the retention of vitamins and fatty acids in
milks such as rice and almonds contains less amount of UHT-treated beverages. The results indicated that holding
protein as compared to cow’s milk therefore, such products the UHT for 5 or 20 s did not significantly affect the
needs to be fortified when used as a milk substitute. Cal- retention of most of the investigated vitamins when they
cium is another essential nutrient required for growth and were heated by direct steam injection. Plant-based bever-
development and is a limiting nutrient in cereals such as ages are inappropriate alternatives to breast milk, infant
rice and oats. Therefore, to assure the consumers in order to formula or cow’s milk in the first 2 years of life as they are
meet their nutritional requirements and to reduce the low in protein, fat, calories and iron. For children above
requirement of nutritional supplementation, calcium forti- 2 years of age, who cannot consume milk due to medical
fication is generally adopted in preparation of plant-based

Table 3 Nutritional Comparison of commercially available, selected plant-based milk alternatives

Type of milk (per serving of Calories Protein Fat Carbohydrates Dietary Calcium (% Iron (% daily Vitamin A (%
240 ml) (g) (g) (g) (g) fibres (g) daily value) value) daily value)

Soy milk (Silk) 80 7 4 4 1 30 – 10

Quinoa milk (Ecomil) 104 4.5 6 9 – – – –
Rice milk (Pacific) 130 1 2 27 0 30 6 10
Oat milk (Oatly) 80 2.5 4 16 2 15 0 10
Sesame milk (Ecomil, with 140 1.5 6 16.5 0.5 – – –
agave syrup)
Almond milk (Silk) 40 1 3 2 1 20 2 10
Coconut milk (Silk) 80 \1 5 7 0 45 4 10
Hemp milk (Living harvest) 70 2 6 1 0 30 6 10
Hazelnut milk (Ecomil) 124 1.4 6 14 – – – –
Multigrain milk (Pacific 140 3 2 27 1 35 8 15
Organic 7 grain milk)
Cow’s milk (Amul Gold 168 8 10 11 – 338 mg 1.25 lg 168 lg
standardized UHT milk)
Source: nutritional information available on respective product labels

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3420 J Food Sci Technol (September 2016) 53(9):3408–3423

Use of Dairy Terms, CODEX STAN 206 (GSUDT), pre-

Pasteurized soybean milk
vent the use of the term ‘soybean milk’ and recommends to
use the term ‘Soybean-based beverages’. The legislation
and labelling requirements allows names in accordance
Warm at 50 °C with the composition and the law and custom of the
country so that the product is sold and in a manner, not to
mislead the consumer. In United states, the FDA covers
these plant based milk alternatives under the definition of
Addition of sequestering agent
Imitation milk and imitation milk products and defines
(0.3 % potassium citrate)
them as ‘those foods that have the physical characteristics,
such as taste, flavor, body, texture, or appearance, of milk
or milk products but do not come within the definition of
‘‘milk’’ or ‘‘milk products’’ and are nutritionally inferior to
Stirring and mixing for 10 minutes
the product imitated’. All imitation and substitute milk and
milk products sold in retail food stores shall be physically
separated from milk or milk products by a partition or other
device or divider in the dairy display case or other display-
Fortification with calcium salts
and-sale area. In the interest of public health, imitation or
(calcium carbonate or tri-calcium
substitute milk and milk products shall comply with the
phosphate)
following standards (http://www.leg.state.fl.us):
1. Temperature—They shall be cooled to and maintained
at 45 °F or 7 °C or less.
Stirring and mixing for 10 minutes
2. Bacterial limits—Bacterial limits shall be no greater
than 20,000 per mL. However, these limits shall not
apply to cultured products.
3. Coliform—Coliform shall not exceed 10 per mL.
Warm to 70 °C
Soy milk is labeled all over the world as ‘‘soy milk’’,
except in European countries where legislation prohibits
the use of the word ‘‘milk’’ for drinks that are not made
Addition of stabilizing agent
from mammary secretions. Council Regulation 1234/2007
(0.03 % carrageenan)
clearly specifies that ‘‘the term milk shall mean exclusively
the normal mammary secretions obtained from one or more
milkings without either addition there to or extraction there
Stirring and mixing for 10 minutes from’’ with an exception for coconut milk and almond milk
(http://www.soya.be).

Calcium fortified soy milk Future research and conclusion

Fig. 4 Schematic diagram for preparation of calcium-fortified soy Plant-based milk alternatives represents an enormous
milk (Chaiwanon et al. 2000) expansion prospective for health food market, and needs to
be widely investigated through the development of
reasons, fortified plant-based beverages are recommended advanced processing, technological interventions, fortifi-
which should contain at least 6 g of protein per 250 ml. cation techniques, for developing a nutritionally complete
beverage with high overall acceptability. Due to benefits
associated with plant based milk alternatives as detailed
Labeling and marketing requirements above, advanced non-thermal technologies like pulse
electric field technology can be helpful in targeting factors
Since national legislation on food labelling varies from responsible for limiting success in processing of such plant
country to country, principle terminology in categorizing based milks on wide scale thus, for helping in providing
these plant based milk alternatives has been under debate at low cost, nutritious newer alternatives to all-those cow
international level. The Codex General Standard for the milk allergic population. The advanced non-thermal

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technologies which are well adapted in cow’s milk pro- Cruz N, Capellas M, Hernandez M, Trujillo AJ, Guamis B, Ferragut
cessing needs to be fully explored; for their potential in V (2007) Ultra high pressure homogenization of soymilk:
microbiological, physicochemical and microstructural character-
processing, as well as preservation of plant-based milk. To istics. Food Res Int 40:725–732
enable plant-based milk to be used as nutritionally equiv- Das A, Chaudhuri UR, Chakraborty R (2012) Cereal based functional
alent alternatives for bovine milk by population who is food of Indian subcontinent: a review. J Food Sci Technol
sensitive to milk, fortification with a suitable form of for- 49(6):665–672
Davies NT, Reid H (1979) An evaluation of the phytate, zinc, copper,
tificant using appropriate technology, and maintaining the iron and manganese contents of, and Zn availability from, soya-
bioavailability of nutrients throughout the storage is a based textured-vegetable-protein meat-substitutes or meat-ex-
major area of research. Also, to meet the consumer’s tenders. Br J Nutr 41:579–589
acceptability through technological interventions, plant- Davies CS, Nielsen SS, Nielsen NC (1987) Flavor improvement of
soybean preparations by genetic removal of lipoxygenase-2.
based milk alternatives will continue to be a major research J Am Oil Chem Soc 64(10):1428–1433
area in the newer product development category of food Deshpande RP, Chinnan MS, McWatters KH (2008) Optimization of
science and technology. a chocolate-flavored, peanut–soy beverage using response sur-
face methodology (RSM) as applied to consumer acceptability
Acknowledgments This manuscript was prepared under the research data. LWT Food Sci Technol 41:1485–1492
activity on ‘‘oat milk and sesame milk processing’’ and financial Deswal A, Deora NS, Mishra HN (2014) Optimization of enzymatic
support, facilities received from Indian Council of Agricultural production process of oat milk using response surface method-
Research (ICAR) and Central Institute of Post-Harvest Engineering ology. Food Bioprocess Technol 7(2):610–618
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