See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/245538469

Anthropometric characteristics of top-class Kenyan marathon runners

Article  in  The Journal of sports medicine and physical fitness · August 2013

Source: PubMed

CITATIONS READS

35 2,649

8 authors, including:

Gianluca Vernillo Federico Schena

The University of Calgary University of Verona
70 PUBLICATIONS   899 CITATIONS    432 PUBLICATIONS   5,965 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Christel Galvani Martina Anna Maggioni

Catholic University of the Sacred Heart Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin
58 PUBLICATIONS   320 CITATIONS    63 PUBLICATIONS   604 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

The repeated-bout effect following a bout of downhill running: influence on quadriceps femoris oxygenation and neuromuscular properties View project

Run For Science R4S View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Antonio La Torre on 16 May 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

not permitted. It is not permitted to remove, cover, overlay, obscure, block, or change any copyright notices or terms of use which the Publisher may post on the Article. It is not permitted to frame or use framing techniques to enclose any trademark, logo,
means which may allow access to the Article. The use of all or any part of the Article for any Commercial Use is not permitted. The creation of derivative works from the Article is not permitted. The production of reprints for personal or commercial use is
This document is protected by international copyright laws. No additional reproduction is authorized. It is permitted for personal use to download and save only one file and print only one copy of this Article. It is not permitted to make additional copies
(either sporadically or systematically, either printed or electronic) of the Article for any purpose. It is not permitted to distribute the electronic copy of the article through online internet and/or intranet file sharing systems, electronic mailing or any other

BODY COMPOSITION, NUTRITION AND SUPPLEMENTATION

ORIGINAL ARTICLES
J SPORTS MED PHYS FITNESS 2013;53:403-8

Anthropometric characteristics
of top-class Kenyan marathon runners
G. VERNILLO 1, 2, F. SCHENA 1, 2, C. BERARDELLI 3, G. ROSA 3

® A
C. GALVANI 4, M. MAGGIONI 5, 6, L. AGNELLO 5, A. LA TORRE 5

T C
H DI
Aim. This study aims to: 1) describe the current anthropo- 1CeRiSM, Research Center
metric profiles of Kenyan marathon runners and 2) estab- “Sport, Mountain and Health”
lish a set of reference values useful for future investigations University of Verona, Rovereto, Trento, Italy
2Department of Neurological, Neuropsychological,
on athlete selection, talent identification, and training pro-
gramme development.
IG E
Methods. The participants were 14 male top-class Kenyan
Morphological and Movement Sciences
University of Verona, Verona, Italy
3Marathon Sport Medical Center, Brescia, Italy
R M
marathon runners (mean [s] age 27.71 [3.75] yrs, height 4Applied Exercise Physiology Laboratory
171.21 [6.12] cm, body mass 57.71 [4.02] kg, marathon
Department of Psychology
personal best 02h 07min 16s (01min 55s); training volume: Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Milan, Italy
180-220 km·wk-1; high:low intensity training ratio: 1:2). 5Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health
The anthropometric profiles included the measurement of
P A

Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy

skinfolds, and segment lengths, breadths, and girths. To 6Zentrum für Weltraummedizin Berlin (ZWMB)
estimate body density (BD) multiple regression equations Institut für Physiologie
O V

were calculated using the sum of 7-skinfolds method and Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin
then converted to percentage of body fat (%BF). The so- Berlin, Deutschland
C ER

matotype, somatotype dispersion mean (SDM), somatotype

attitudinal mean (SAM), and height to weight ratio (HWR)
Y

as well as the skinfolds extremity to trunk ratio (E:T) were

also calculated.
Results. The mean (s) of BD, %BF, SDM, SAM, HWR S ince the Olympic Games held in Mexico City in
1968, Kenyan runners have reached unparalleled
IN

and E:T were 1.13 (0.02), 8.87 (0.07) %, 4.58 (3.62), 0.51 success in middle- and long-distance events.1, 2 This
(0.09), 44.32 (1.06), and 0.36 (0.11), respectively. The mean
(s) endomorphy, mesomorphy, and ectomorphy were 1.53
phenomenon has been described by Manners as “the
(0.32), 1.61 (1.81), and 3.86 (0.78), respectively. greatest geographical concentration of achievement
in the annals of sport”.3 Even more profound is the
M

Conclusion. Top-class Kenyan marathon runners seem to

have ectomorphy as dominant, with endomorphy and mes- Kenyan dominance in the marathon scenario, where
omorphy more than one-half unit lower. Despite population Kenyan senior men have demonstrated a large domi-
comparisons would be required to identify any connection nance compared to Caucasian and other East-Afri-
between specific anthropometric dimensions, these refer- can runners (e.g., Ethiopia).2 Accordingly, through
ence data should be useful to practitioners and researchers, the years several studies have been conducted to pro-
providing useful information for talent identification and
posed explanations for such a superiority suggesting
development and for the assessment of training progression
that environmental factors,1 psychological advan-
or other proprietary information of the Publisher.

in marathon.
tage,4 and favorable physiological characteristics 5, 6
Key words: Running - Anthropometry - Body size.
all contribute to achieving superior marathon per-
formances. Despite these, little is known about the
Corresponding author: G. Vernillo, PhD, CeRiSM, Research Center
‘Sport, Mountain and Health’, University of Verona, via Matteo del Ben anthropometric characteristics of Kenyan marathon
5/b, 38068 Rovereto, Trento, Italy. E-mail: [email protected] runners.

Vol. 53 - No. 4 THE JOURNAL OF SPORTS MEDICINE AND PHYSICAL FITNESS 403
not permitted. It is not permitted to remove, cover, overlay, obscure, block, or change any copyright notices or terms of use which the Publisher may post on the Article. It is not permitted to frame or use framing techniques to enclose any trademark, logo,
means which may allow access to the Article. The use of all or any part of the Article for any Commercial Use is not permitted. The creation of derivative works from the Article is not permitted. The production of reprints for personal or commercial use is
This document is protected by international copyright laws. No additional reproduction is authorized. It is permitted for personal use to download and save only one file and print only one copy of this Article. It is not permitted to make additional copies
(either sporadically or systematically, either printed or electronic) of the Article for any purpose. It is not permitted to distribute the electronic copy of the article through online internet and/or intranet file sharing systems, electronic mailing or any other

VERNILLO Characteristics of top-class Kenyan runners

The interest in anthropometric characteristics, body male top-class Kenyan marathon runners (mean [s]
composition and somatotype has increased over the age 27.71 [3.75] yrs, height 171.21 [6.12] cm, body
last decades both in health promotion 7, 8 and different mass 57.71 [4.02] kg, marathon personal best 02h
sports. The latter with the purpose to indicate whether 07min 16s [01min 55s]; training volume: 180-220
an athlete would be suitable to compete at the high- km·wk-1; high:low intensity training ratio: 1:2). They
est level in a specific sport.9-16 Although some studies all came from a group of eight small tribes called
have incorporated small selection of anthropometric Kalenjin, in the Rift Valley Province. Each of these
measures as part of wider investigations into Kenyan athletes read an information sheet outlining the pur-
marathon runners,17-19 few to date have reported a pose, procedures, and benefits of the study and pro-
range of directly measured and derived variables in vided written consent to participate. The protocol
Kenyan distance runners,16 without taking into con- was approved by the local Human Research Ethics

® A
sideration the marathon athletes. Therefore, there is Committee in agreement with the Declaration of
no comprehensive data set on the current anthropo- Helsinki on human investigation.

T C
metric characteristics of Kenyan marathon runners.
Thus, the quantification of morphological character-
istics of elite athletes can be a key point in relating Data collection

H DI
body structure to sports performance. Measurements were performed following the
Consequently, the aim of this study was twofold: standardised techniques adopted by the Interna-
1) to describe the current anthropometric profiles of tional Society for the Advancement of Kinanthro-

IG E
Kenyan marathon runners and 2) to establish a set of
reference values useful for future investigations on
pometry (ISAK) 26, 27 and in a resting state. All
anthropometric measures were taken by the same
R M
athlete selection, talent identification, and training experienced investigator. All variables except body
programme development. mass and height were measured on the right side of
the body in triplicate with the median value used as
the criterion.23
P A

Materials and methods Digital standing scales (Model HF8000, Philips,

Eindhoven, The Netherlands) were used to deter-
O V

Design and protocol mine body mass to the nearest 0.1 kg. Stretch height
This is an observational study where we inves- was recorded during inspiration using a stadiometer
C ER

tigated the anthropometric characteristics of top- (SECA, Hamburg, Germany) to the nearest 0.1 cm.
The anthropometric profile also included the meas-
Y

class Kenyan marathon runners.20 This by means

of the measurement of skinfolds, segment lengths, urement of eight lengths using a large sliding calliper
breadths, and girths according to previous works.21-23 (PCE Italia s.r.l.), 11 girths using a flexible steel tape
IN

All variables except body mass and height were (BMI, Hersbruck, Germany), and eight breadths. All
measured on the right side of the body in triplicate the breadths were measured using the large sliding
with the median value used as the criterion. To esti- calliper, except for the bi-epicondylar breadth which
mate body density (BD) multiple regression equa- was measured using a Vernier callipers (PCE Italia
M

tions were calculated using the sum of 7-skinfolds s.r.l.). All anthropometric equipment was calibrated
method 24 and then converted to percentage of body before the assessment period, with additional checks
fat (%BF).25 The somatotype, somatotype dispersion made against National Association of Testing Au-
mean (SDM), somatotype attitudinal mean (SAM), thorities certified calibration weights and rods. Cor-
height to weight ratio (HWR) and skinfolds extrem- rected girths were calculated at the sites where the
ity to trunk ratio (E:T) were calculated using the skinfold and girth measurements coincided (upper
method and equations of Carter and Heath.21 arm, thigh, and calf) using a formula originally pro-
or other proprietary information of the Publisher.

posed by Jelliffe and Jelliffe28. Skinfolds were taken

using a calliper (Holtain Ltd, Crymych, UK) to the
Participants
nearest 0.2 mm. The seven sites were chest, axilla,
All examinations were performed during the train- triceps, subscapula, abdomen, suprailium and front
ing stages for the autumn competitive season on 14 thigh. Skinfolds were taken three times and the me-

404 THE JOURNAL OF SPORTS MEDICINE AND PHYSICAL FITNESS August 2013
not permitted. It is not permitted to remove, cover, overlay, obscure, block, or change any copyright notices or terms of use which the Publisher may post on the Article. It is not permitted to frame or use framing techniques to enclose any trademark, logo,
means which may allow access to the Article. The use of all or any part of the Article for any Commercial Use is not permitted. The creation of derivative works from the Article is not permitted. The production of reprints for personal or commercial use is
This document is protected by international copyright laws. No additional reproduction is authorized. It is permitted for personal use to download and save only one file and print only one copy of this Article. It is not permitted to make additional copies
(either sporadically or systematically, either printed or electronic) of the Article for any purpose. It is not permitted to distribute the electronic copy of the article through online internet and/or intranet file sharing systems, electronic mailing or any other

Characteristics of top-class Kenyan runners VERNILLO

dian was employed in further calculations. The sum ing the method and equations of Carter and Heath.21
of the seven skinfolds were also calculated. BD was Height-adjusted endomorphy values were used and
estimated using the method of Jackson and Pollock.24 the somatotypes were plotted on a two-dimensional
BD was transformed to %BF by the Siri’s equation.25 grid system somatochart using the appropriate soft-
The SDM, SAM, HWR and E:T were calculated us- ware (Somatotype 1.0 software).

Table I.—Absolute size characteristics for top-class Kenyan marathon runners (mean ± s).
Variable Mean s Range
Age (yrs) 27.71 3.75 23-38
Body mass (kg) 57.71 4.02 51.2-67.2
Height (cm) 171.21 6.12 163-183

® A
Sitting height (cm) 80.79 3.19 77.3-88.0
Personal best (h.min.s) 2.07.16 0.01.55 2.04.27-2.10.23
Skinfolds (mm)

T C
Chest 2.88 0.43 2.3-3.8
Axilla 3.28 2.02 0.5-7.0

H DI
Triceps 5.30 1.40 3.8-7.4
Subscapular 7.18 1.19 5.2-10.2
Abdomen 6.13 1.12 4.1-8.2
Suprailium 4.36 0.67 3.5-5.8
Front thigh
Sum of 7 skinfolds
Extremity:trunk ratio IG E 3.36
32.48
0.38
2.45
6.02
0.13
0.5-8.2
24.05-49.6
0.2-0.7
R M
Body density 1.13 0.02 1.11-1.16
Percentage of body fat (%) 8.87 0.07 8.8-8.9
Percentage of lean mass (%) 91.13 0.07 91.0-91.2
Lengths (cm)
P A

Arm Span 184.84 5.64 175.5-193

Arm 32.34 1.14 30.5-34.3
Forearm 28.12 1.12 25.5-29.75
O V

Hand 21.26 1.12 18.5-22.5

Thigh 43.07 2.89 39-49.5
C ER

Lower leg 40.20 2.75 35.5-44

Foot 25.28 1.16 23.5-27.5
Y

Breadths (cm)
Biacromial 34.67 1.97 31-37
Transverse chest 30.69 1.64 28.25-34.5
Anterior-posterior chest 22.23 1.34 20.5-25
IN

Humerus 5.32 1.11 4.35-9

Femur 7.54 1.21 6.6-11.5
Biilocristal 26.71 1.94 23.5-29.5
Girths (cm)
M

Relaxed arm 24.93 1.26 23.1-27.3

Flexed arm 27.31 1.14 25.5-30
Forearm 25.15 1.01 23.5-27.5
Wrist 15.64 0.72 14.5-17
Chest 85.13 2.28 79.5-88.5
Waist 73.86 2.27 70-77.5
Hip 86.33 2.89 80.2-90
Upper thigh 50.98 1.98 48-54
or other proprietary information of the Publisher.

Mid-thigh 46.74 2.44 42.5-51.2

Calf 33.91 1.90 31-36.5
Ankle 21.46 0.83 20.5-23.5
Corrected arm girth 2.44 0.10 2.25-2.68
Corrected thigh girth 0.42 0.21 0.15-0.78
Corrected calf girth 3.06 0.34 2.40-3.60

Vol. 53 - No. 4 THE JOURNAL OF SPORTS MEDICINE AND PHYSICAL FITNESS 405
not permitted. It is not permitted to remove, cover, overlay, obscure, block, or change any copyright notices or terms of use which the Publisher may post on the Article. It is not permitted to frame or use framing techniques to enclose any trademark, logo,
means which may allow access to the Article. The use of all or any part of the Article for any Commercial Use is not permitted. The creation of derivative works from the Article is not permitted. The production of reprints for personal or commercial use is
This document is protected by international copyright laws. No additional reproduction is authorized. It is permitted for personal use to download and save only one file and print only one copy of this Article. It is not permitted to make additional copies
(either sporadically or systematically, either printed or electronic) of the Article for any purpose. It is not permitted to distribute the electronic copy of the article through online internet and/or intranet file sharing systems, electronic mailing or any other

VERNILLO Characteristics of top-class Kenyan runners

Statistical analysis seven skinfolds. Despite the fact that it is very risky
to compare skinfold values from different studies,
Variables were tested for their skewness. All fitted given the variability in technique, equipment and
to a normal distribution. Standard descriptive sta-
site location, the sum of skinfolds of our athletes
tistics (mean, s and range) were used to present the
was lower than that reported among groups of highly
characteristics of the subjects for all directly meas-
trained runners 14, 31, 32 and runners of lower abil-
ured and derived variables.
ity.33, 34 This is probably due to the fact that these
runners undertake a higher training volume and that
in this event fat metabolism prevails in training and
Results
competition.35 Thus, it is likely that a lower sum of
The absolute size characteristics for top-class skinfolds facilitates running performance and thus

® A
Kenyan marathon runners are presented in Table I. minimal body fat is desirable because an excess of
The mean somatotype, SDM, SAM HWR and E:T adipose tissue usually requires a greater muscular

T C
of top-class Kenyan marathon runners are presented effort to accelerate the legs, and, consequently, the
in Table II and the somatopoints of each athlete in energetic expenditure at the same velocity would
be higher.36 Furthermore, fat patterning refers to the

H DI
relation to the mean for the sample are displayed in
the somatochart of Figure 1. relative distribution of subcutaneous fat on the body
as opposed to absolute amounts of fat.37 To examine
differences in fat patterning, most researchers com-

IG E
Discussion pare skinfold thicknesses on the trunk and extremi-
ties.38 In the present study, the mean E:T is low, in-
R M
The anthropometric profile of an athlete plays a dicating that Kenyan marathon runners seem to have
role in determining his or her potential for success a greater centralization of subcutaneous adipose tis-
within a sport. This study is the first to investigate sue. This is not surprising as the body sizes of highly
adapted endurance runners vary in accordance with
P A

Kenyan marathon runners using a comprehensive

range of directly measured and derived anthropo- performance requirements.39 Thus, the loss of body
metric variables. The data presented should be useful fat is specific to muscular groups used during train-
O V

for future investigations on athlete selection, talent ing and it is probable that lower extremity skinfolds
identification, and training programme development. of the Kenyan marathon runners facilitate running
C ER

Skinfold thicknesses have a considerable face performance because a higher relative body mass
distributed in the lower limbs would probably lead
Y

validity, providing a direct and relatively accurate

measure of the amount of subcutaneous adipose tis- to a great muscular effort to accelerate the legs while
sue.28 However, according to Norton et al.29 in or- running,40 negative influencing the energy expendi-
IN

der to avoid the errors and assumptions which could ture.

be associated with the use of generalized predictive Many studies have detailed the somatotypes
equations of fat percentage, the sum of skinfold val- of athletes for various sports or positions within
ues from the seven measured sites is recommended sports.13, 41 Using the somatotype categories de-
M

as the standard by several authors.23, 30 Accordingly, fined by Carter and Heath,21 the top-class Kenyan
in the present study we determined a low sum of marathon runners were best described as ectomor-

Table II.—Somatotype variables for top-class Kenyan marathon runners (mean ± s).
Variable Mean s Range
Endomorphy 1.53 0.32 1.0-2.3
or other proprietary information of the Publisher.

Mesomorphy 1.61 1.81 0.2-7.4

Ectomorphy 3.86 0.78 2.7-5.2
Somatotype dispersion mean 4.58 3.62
Somatotype attitudinal mean 0.51 0.09
Height to weight ratio 44.32 1.06 42.74-46.16
Skinfolds extremity to trunk ratio 0.36 0.11 0.19-0.51

406 THE JOURNAL OF SPORTS MEDICINE AND PHYSICAL FITNESS August 2013
not permitted. It is not permitted to remove, cover, overlay, obscure, block, or change any copyright notices or terms of use which the Publisher may post on the Article. It is not permitted to frame or use framing techniques to enclose any trademark, logo,
means which may allow access to the Article. The use of all or any part of the Article for any Commercial Use is not permitted. The creation of derivative works from the Article is not permitted. The production of reprints for personal or commercial use is
This document is protected by international copyright laws. No additional reproduction is authorized. It is permitted for personal use to download and save only one file and print only one copy of this Article. It is not permitted to make additional copies
(either sporadically or systematically, either printed or electronic) of the Article for any purpose. It is not permitted to distribute the electronic copy of the article through online internet and/or intranet file sharing systems, electronic mailing or any other

Characteristics of top-class Kenyan runners VERNILLO

® A
T C
H DI
IG E
R M
P A
O V

Figure 1.—Somatotype distribution of top-class Kenyan marathon runners. 0=mean somatotype (1.53-1.61-3.86).
C ER
Y

phy, with endomorphy and mesomorphy more than dimensional scatter of the individual somatopoints
one-half unit lower. This condition has to be related around the mean somatopoint and can be used to
IN

to the relative linearity or slenderness of endurance evaluate homogeneity in physique.21 In the current
runners’ physique which may positively be relat- study, Kenyan marathon runners were found to
ed to the long-distance performances by having have greater homogeneity as indicated by a small
a lower body mass and, thus, requiring a smaller SAM (i.e., 0.51±0.09).
M

muscular effort while running 40 which positively

influences the energetic expenditure.33 Another
possible explanation is that the variations in the Conclusions
aerobic capacity variables may lead to a significant
interaction effect with somatotype over a long-last- The present study has provided descriptive data
ing period of aerobic training and the magnitude and reference values of anthropometric characteris-
of increase in these parameters varied according tics, body composition and somatotype of top-class
or other proprietary information of the Publisher.

to somatotype group.42 Thus, it could be possible Kenyan marathon runners. These information pro-
that the nature of the training performed by Ken- vide a reference frame for coaches to control the
yan runners during their career have influenced training process in order to help improve athletes’
their somatotype. Furthermore, the somatotype at- performance, and to improve the specific talent de-
titudinal distance is a measure of the average three- tection and identification.

Vol. 53 - No. 4 THE JOURNAL OF SPORTS MEDICINE AND PHYSICAL FITNESS 407
not permitted. It is not permitted to remove, cover, overlay, obscure, block, or change any copyright notices or terms of use which the Publisher may post on the Article. It is not permitted to frame or use framing techniques to enclose any trademark, logo,
means which may allow access to the Article. The use of all or any part of the Article for any Commercial Use is not permitted. The creation of derivative works from the Article is not permitted. The production of reprints for personal or commercial use is
This document is protected by international copyright laws. No additional reproduction is authorized. It is permitted for personal use to download and save only one file and print only one copy of this Article. It is not permitted to make additional copies
(either sporadically or systematically, either printed or electronic) of the Article for any purpose. It is not permitted to distribute the electronic copy of the article through online internet and/or intranet file sharing systems, electronic mailing or any other

VERNILLO Characteristics of top-class Kenyan runners

References century: causes and consequences. Sports Med 2001;31:763-83.

23. Stuelcken M, Pyne D, Sinclair P. Anthropometric characteristics of
elite cricket fast bowlers. J Sports Sci 2007;25:1587-97.
  1. Onywera VO, Scott RA, Boit MK, Pitsiladis YP. Demographic 24. Jackson AS, Pollock ML. Generalized equations for predicting
characteristics of elite Kenyan endurance runners. J Sports Sci body density of men. Br J Nutr 1978;40:497-504.
2006;24:415-22. 25. Siri WE. Techniques for measuring body composition. Washington,
  2. Larsen HB. Kenyan dominance in distance running. Comp Biochem DC: National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council;
Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2003;136:161-70. 1961.
  3. Manners J. Kenya’s running tribe. Sports Historian 1997;17:14-27. 26. Ross WD, Marfell-Jones MJ. Physiological testing of the high per-
  4. Baker J, Horton S. East African running dominance revisited: a role formance athlete. In: Ross WD, Marfell-Jones MJ, editors. Kinan-
for stereotype threat? Br J Sports Med 2003;37:553-5. thropometry. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 1991.
  5. Esteve-Lanao J, San Juan AF, Earnest CP, Foster C, Lucia A. How 27. Norton K, Whittingham NO, Carter L, Kerr D, Gore C, Marfell-
do endurance runners actually train? Relationship with competition Jones M. Measurement techniques in anthropometry. In: Anthropo-
performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2005;37:496-504. metrica. Marrackville: UNSW Press; 1990.
  6. Weston AR, Karamizrak O, Smith A, Noakes TD, Myburgh KH. 28. Jelliffe EFP, Jelliffe DB. The arm circumference as a public health

® A
African runners exhibit greater fatigue resistance, lower lactate ac- index of protein-calorie malnutrition of early childhood. J Trop
cumulation, and higher oxidative enzyme activity. J Appl Physiol Pedriatr 1969;15:179.
1999;86:915-23. 29. Norton KI, Craig NP, Withers RT, Whittingham NO. Assessing the

T C
  7. Demura S, Sato S, Noguchi T, Nakata Y. Prediction of visceral fat body fat of athletes. Austr J Sci Med Sport 1994;26:6-13.
area from anthropometric and segmental body composition vari- 30. Norton K, Marfell-Jones M, Whittingham NO, Kerr D, Carter L,
ables using computed tomography. Sports Sci Health 2007;2:16-22. Saddington K. Anthropometric assessment protocols. Physiological
  8. Galli D, Volta E, Milioli M, Mirandola P, Vanelli M, Brighenti F

H DI
tests for elite athletes. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2000.
et al. Anthropometric outcomes associated with a primary school- 31. Malina RM, Mueller WH, Bouchard C, Shoup RF, Lariviere G.
based health promotion programme in the Italian city of Parma. Fatness and fat patterning among athletes at the Montreal Olympic
Sports Sci Health 2012;7:41-6. Games, 1976. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1982;55:80-4.
  9. Bourgois J, Claessens AL, Janssens M, Van Renterghem B, Loos 32. Arrese AL, Ostáriz ES. Skinfold thicknesses associated with dis-

IG E
R, Thomis M et al. Anthropometric characteristics of elite female
junior rowers. J Sports Sci 2001;19:195-202.
10. Bourgois J, Claessens AL, Vrijens J, Philippaerts R, Van Renter-
tance running performance in highly trained runners. J Sports Sci
2006;24:69-76.
33. Bosch AN, Goslin BR, Noakes TD, Dennis SC. Physiological dif-
R M
ghem B, Thomis M et al. Anthropometric characteristics of elite ferences between black and white runners during a treadmill mara-
male junior rowers. Br J Sports Med 2000;34:213-6; discussion 16- thon. Eur J Appl Physiol 1990;61:68-72.
7. 34. Coetzer P, Noakes TD, Sanders B, Lambert M, Bosch AN. Superior
11. Claessens AL, Lefevre J, Beunen G, Malina RM. The contribution fatigue resistance of elite black South African distance runners. J
of anthropometric characteristics to performance scores in elite fe- Appl Physiol 1993;75:1822-7.
P A

male gymnasts. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1999;39:355-60. 35. Rapoport BI. Metabolic factors limiting performance in marathon
12. Reilly T, Bangsbo J, Franks A. Anthropometric and physiological runners. PLoS Comput Biol 6:e1000960.
predispositions for elite soccer. J Sports Sci 2000;18:669-83. 36. Legaz A, Eston R. Changes in performance, skinfold thicknesses,
O V

13. Ackland TR, Ong KB, Kerr DA, Ridge B. Morphological character- and fat patterning after three years of intense athletic conditioning
istics of Olympic sprint canoe and kayak paddlers. J Sci Med Sport in high level runners. Br J Sports Med 2005;39:851-6.
2003;6:285-94. 37. Malina RM. Physical anthropology. Anthropometric standardiza-
C ER

14. Legaz Arrese A, Gonzalez Badillo JJ, Serrano Ostariz E. Differ- tion reference manual. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 1988
ences in skinfold thicknesses and fat distribution among top-class 38. Wagner DR, Heyward VH. Measures of body composition in blacks
Y

runners. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2005;45:512-7. and whites: a comparative review. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71:1392-
15. Gabbett TJ. Physiological and anthropometric characteristics of 402.
amateur rugby league players. Br J Sports Med 2000;34:303-7. 39. Weyand PG, Davis JA. Running performance has a structural basis.
16. Kong PW, de Heer H. Anthropometric, gait and strength character- J Exp Biol 2005;208:2625-31.
IN

istics of Kenyan distance runners. J Sports Sci Med 2008;7:499- 40. Morgan WP, Daniels T. Relationship between VO2max and the aer-
504. obic demand of running in elite distance runners. Int J Sports Med
17. Billat VL, Demarle A, Slawinski J, Paiva M, Koralsztein JP. Physi- 1994;15:426-9.
cal and training characteristics of top-class marathon runners. Med 41. Carter JEL, Ackland TR, Kerr DA, Stapff AB. Somatotype and size
Sci Sports Exerc 2001;33:2089-97.
M

of elite female basketball players. J Sports Sci 2005;23:1057-63.

18. Billat V, Lepretre PM, Heugas AM, Laurence MH, Salim D, Koral- 42. Chaouachi M, Chaouachi A, Chamari K, Chtara M, GFeki Y, Amri
sztein JP. Training and bioenergetic characteristics in elite male and M et al. Effects of dominant somatotype on aerobic capacity train-
female Kenyan runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003;35:297-304; ability. Br J Sports Med 2005;39:954-9.
discussion 05-6.
19. Tam E, Rossi H, Moia C, Berardelli C, Rosa G, Capelli C et al. En-
ergetics of running in top-level marathon runners from Kenya. Eur J Acknowledgements.—We are grateful to the athletes involved in this
Appl Physiol 2013;112:3797-806. investigation. We also extend our gratitude to Dr. Pierluigi Fiorella for
20. La Torre A, Vernillo G, Agnello L, Berardelli C, Rampinini E. Is his helpful suggestions concerning the manuscript.
it time to consider a new performance classification for high-level Conflicts of interest.—The authors certify that there is no conflict of
interest with any financial organization regarding the material discussed
or other proprietary information of the Publisher.

male marathon runners? J Strength Cond Res 25:3242-7.

21. Carter JEL, Heath BH. Somatotyping: development and applica- in the manuscript.
tions. Cambridge: Cambridge Press; 1990. Received on January 25, 2013.
22. Norton K, Olds T. Morphological evolution of athletes over the 20th Accepted for publication on May 22, 2013.

408 THE JOURNAL OF SPORTS MEDICINE AND PHYSICAL FITNESS August 2013

View publication stats