CHAPTER 1 : POLYNOMIALS

A polynomial is an expression that can be built from constants and symbols

2 3 2
called indeterminates or variables by means of addition, multiplication and (a1x + a0)(b2x + b1x + b0) = a1.b2x + (a1.b1 + a0.b2)x + (a1.b0 + a0.b1)x + a0.b0
exponentiation to a whole number power (0, 1, 2, 3, . . .).

A polynomial (in descending order) in a single variable x can always be

2 2
written in the form anx + an  1 x n  1 + . . . + a2x + a1x + a0.
n 2 (a2x + a1x + a0)(b2x + b1x + b0)
4 3 2
= a2.b2x + (a2.b1 + a1.b2)x + (a2.b0 + a1.b1 + a0.b2)x + (a1.b0 + a0.b1)x + a0.b0
That is, a polynomial can either be zero or can be written as the sum of a finite
number of non-zero terms. Each term consists of the product of a number,
k
called the coefficient of the term (ak), and a finite number of indeterminates (x ), 2
raised to whole number powers, k.
eg 1 (2x + 3)(4x – 5x + 6)
3 2
= 8x + (–10 + 12)x + (12 – 15)x + 18
3 2
In any polynomial of descending order, the degree of the leading term is the = 8x + 2x – 3x + 18
degree of the whole polynomial.

Polynomials of small degree have been given specific names. 2 2

eg 2 (2x + 3x – 4)(5x – 6x + 7)
A polynomial of degree zero is a constant polynomial or simply a constant. 4 3 2
= 10x + (–12 + 15)x + (14 – 18 – 20)x + (21 + 24)x – 28
Polynomials of degree one, two, three or four are respectively linear polynomials, 4 3 2
quadratic polynomials, cubic polynomials and quartic polynomial. = 10x + 3x – 24x + 45x – 28

For higher degrees, names have sometimes been proposed, but they are rarely used : 2
eg 3 (2x + 3)(3x – 4)(3x – 4x + 5)
Degree 5 – quintic Degree 6 – sextic / hexic 2 2
= (6x + x – 12)(3x – 4x + 5)
Degree 7 – septic / heptic Degree 8 – octic 4 3 2
= 18x + (–24 + 3)x + (30 – 4 – 36)x + (5 + 48)x – 60
4 3 2
Degree 9 – nonic Degree 10 – decic = 18x – 21x – 10x + 53x – 60

Basic properties of polynomials :

 A sum of polynomials is a polynomial. eg 4 (x + 2)(x – 4)(ax + b) + 5x – 8
2
= (x – 2x – 8)(ax + b) + 5x – 8
 A composition of two polynomials is a polynomial. 3 2
= ax + (b – 2a)x + (–2b – 8a + 5)x + (–8b – 8)
3 2
The derivative of the polynomial anx + an  1 x n  1 + . . . + a2x + a1x + a0
n 2 = ax + (b – 2a)x + (–2b – 8a + 5)x – (8b + 8)

is the polynomial n.a n x n  1 + (n  1).an  1 x n  2 + . . . + 2.a2x + a1.

An integral of the polynomial anx + an  1 x n  1 + . . . + a2x + a1x + a0 is

n 2

a n x n  1 an 1 x n a x 3 a1 x 2
the polynomial + +...+ 2 + + a0x + c,
n1 n 3 2
where c is an arbitrary constant.
 A product of polynomials is a polynomial.

1-1
CONGRUENT POLYNOMIALS 3 2 2
eg 2 Given that 2x – 3x + 5 ≡ (x + 3)(ax + bx + c) + d,
determine the values of a, b, c and d.
A polynomial p(x) = anx + an  1 x n  1 + . . . + a2x + a1x + a0 is congruent to
n 2
3 2 2
polynomial f(x) = bnx + bn 1 x n  1 + . . . + b2x + b1x + b0, denoted by p(x) ≡ f(x),
n 2 2x – 3x + 5 ≡ (x + 3)(ax + bx + c) + d
3 2
= ax + (b + 3a)x + (c + 3b)x + (3c + d)
if and only if ak = bk , for k = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , n.
[ x3 ] : a =2 [ x2 ] : b + 3a = –3  b = –9

eg 1
3 2 2
Given that 5x + 6x – 7x + 8 ≡ (x – 2)(ax + bx + c) + d, [ x 1 ] : c + 3b = 0  c = 27 [ x0 ] : 3c + d = 5  d = –76
determine the values of a, b, c and d.
3 2 2
Alternative : (By Long Division)
5x + 6x – 7x + 8 ≡ (x – 2)(ax + bx + c) + d
3 2 2
= ax + (b – 2a)x + (c – 2b)x + (–2c + d) 2x – 9x + 27
3 2
x+3 2x – 3x + 0x + 5
[ x3 ] : a =5 [ x2 ] : b – 2a = 6  b = 16 3 2
2x + 6x
[ x1 ] : c – 2b = –7  c = 25 [ x0 ] : –2c + d = 8  d = 58 2
–9x – 0x + 5 3
2x – 3x + 5
2
2
–9x – 27x 2
≡ (x + 3)(ax + bx + c) + d
27x + 5 2
= (x + 3)(2x – 9x + 27) – 76
Alternative : (By Long Division) 27x + 81  a = 2 , b = –9 , c = 27 , d = –76
–76
2
5x + 16x + 25
3 2
x–2 5x + 6x – 7x + 8
3 2 Alternative : (By Synthetic Division) 3 2
5x – 10x 2x – 3x + 5
2 2
16x – 7x + 8 3 2
5x + 6x – 7x + 8 –3 2 –3 0 5 ≡ (x + 3)(ax + bx + c) + d
2 2
16x – 32x 2
≡ (x – 2)(ax + bx + c) + d –6 27 –81 = (x + 3)(2x – 9x + 27) – 76
25x + 8 2  a = 2 , b = –9 , c = 27 , d = –76
= (x – 2)(5x + 16x + 25) + 58 2 –9 27 –76
25x – 50  a = 5 , b = 16 , c = 25 , d = 58
58
3 2
eg 3 Given that ax + bx – 7x + 5 ≡ (x – 2)(x + 3)(cx + d) + x – 7,
determine the values of a, b, c and d.
Alternative : (By Synthetic Division) 3 2 3 2 2
5x + 6x – 7x + 8 ax + bx – 7x + 5 ≡ (x – 2)(x + 3)(cx + d) + x – 7 = (x + x – 6)(cx + d) + x – 7
2 3 2
2 5 6 –7 8 ≡ (x – 2)(ax + bx + c) + d = cx + (d + c)x + (d – 6c + 1)x + (–6d – 7)
10 32 50 2
= (x – 2)(5x + 16x + 25) + 58
[ x0 ] : –6d – 7 = 5  d = –2 [ x1 ] : d – 6c + 1 = –7  c = 1
5 16 25 58  a = 5 , b = 16 , c = 25 , d = 58
[ x2 ] : d + c = b  b = –1 [ x3 ] : c =a  a=1

1-2
 3 2
REMAINDER THEOREM [for divisor (x – k)] eg 2 Find the value of a if 2x – x – 7x + 10 leaves the same remainder when
divided by (x – 2a) and (x + a), given that a is a non-zero integer.
When a polynomial p(x) is divided by (x – k), its the remainder is p(k) 3 2
Let f(x) = 2x – x – 7x + 10
3 2 3 2
Proof : (x – 2a) : R1 = f(2a) = 2(2a) – (2a) – 7(2a) + 10 = 16a – 4a – 14a + 10
3 2 3 2
(x + a) : R2 = f(–a) = 2(–a) – (–a) – 7(–a) + 10 = –2a – a + 7a + 10
divisor (x – k) : p(x) ≡ (x – k).q(x) + R, for all values of x.
3 2 3 2
Since R1 = R2 : 16a – 4a – 14a + 10 = –2a – a + 7a + 10
x=k : p(k) = 0 + R  R = p(k)
3
 a(6a – 7)(a + 1) = 0  a = 0, , –1
2
eg 1
3
Find the remainder when 4x – 9x + 3 is divided by Since a is a non-zero integer : a = –1
(a) x + 3 (b) (2x – 3)
3
Let p(x) = 4x – 9x + 3
3 Degree 2 Divisor
(a) (x + 3) : R1 = p(–3) = 4(–3) – 9(–3) + 3 = –78
2
3 When a polynomial p(x) is divided by (ax + bx + c), its remainder is (mx + n)
(b) (2x – 3) : R2 = p( ) = 4 ( 3 )3 – 9 ( 3 ) + 3 = 3
2 2 2
3 2 2
Alternative 1 ( By Congruent Polynomials) eg 1 Find the remainder when 2x – 3x + 4 is divided by (x + 2x – 8).
3
Let p(x) = 4x – 9x + 3 2x – 7
3
(a) (x + 3) : 4x – 9x + 3 = (x + 3).q1(x) + R1 2
x + 2x – 8
3
2x – 3x
2
– 0x + 4
3
x = –3 : 4(–3) – 9(–3) + 3 = 0 + R1  R1 = –78 3
2x + 4x
2
– 16x
2
3
(b) (2x – 3) : 4x – 9x + 3 = (2x – 3).q2(x) + R2 –7x + 16x + 4
2
3 3 3 3 –7x – 14x + 56
x= : 4( ) – 9( ) + 3 = 0 + R2  R2 = 3 30x – 52 = Remainder
2 2 2
Alternative 2 (By Long Division) Alternative 1 ( By Congruent Polynomials – Comparison of Coefficients)
(a) (b) 3 2 2
2 2
Let p(x) = 2x – 3x + 4 = (x + 2x – 8)(2x + a) + (mx + n)
4x – 12x + 27 2x + 3x [ x2 ] : –3 =a+4  a = –7
3 2 3 2
x + 3 4 x + 0x – 9 x + 3 2x – 3 4x + 0x – 9x + 3 [ x1 ] : 0 = 2a – 16 + m  m = 30
3 2 3 2
4x + 12x 4x – 6x [ x0 ] : 4 = –8a + n  n = –52  Remainder = 30x – 52
2 2
–12x – 9x + 3 6x – 9x + 3
2 2
–12x – 36x 6x – 9x Alternative 2 ( By Congruent Polynomials – Substitution of Suitable Values)
3 2 2
27x + 3 3 = R2 Let p(x) = 2x – 3x + 4 = (x + 2x – 8).q(x) + (mx + n)
3 2
27x + 81 x = –4 : 2(–4) – 3(–4) + 4 = 0 + m(–4) + n  –172 = –4m + n
–78 = R1 x=2 :
3 2
2(2) – 3(2) + 4 = 0 + m(2) + n  8 = 2m + n
 m = 30 , n = –52  Remainder = 30x – 52
Note : Another alternative is by Synthetic Division.

1-3
FACTOR THEOREM [for factor (x – k)] A. Solving Polynomial Equation [p(x) = 0]

When a polynomial p(x) is divided by (x – k) have zero as remainder - Factorise p(x) completely
[ i.e. p(a) = 0 ] if and only if (x – k) is a factor of p(x). - Apply the principle [(A)(B) = 0] if and only if [A = 0 or B = 0].

B. Solving Polynomial Inequalities [p(x) > 0, p(x) ≥ 0, p(x) < 0, p(x) ≤ 0]

Note : 1. p(x) = (x – k).q(x)
- Factorise p(x) completely
2. A number a is a zero of a polynomial function p(x) - Partition the range of x by all the zeroes of p(x).
if and only if (x – a) is a factor of p(x) [ i.e. p(a) = 0 ]. - Determine the signs of all factors in every partitions.
- Determine the sign of p(x) in every partitions.
3. A number a is a root of a polynomial equation p(x) = 0
- Choose the required partition based on the inequality of p(x).
if and only if (x – a) is a factor of p(x) [ i.e. p(a) = 0 ].
2
eg 1 Given that p(x) = (x – 1)(x + 4)(x + 3). Find all the real roots of p(x) = 0.
3 2 Hence, determine the range of values of x such that p(x) ≤ 0.
eg 1 Find a linear factor of x + 2x – 5x – 6, and hence factorise it completely. 2
For p(x) = 0 : (x – 1)(x + 4)(x + 3) = 0  real roots are 1 and –4
3 3
Let p(x) = x + 2x – 5x – 6
(x + 1) :
3 2
R = p(–1) = (–1) + 2(–1) – 5(–1) – 6 = 0 (x – 1) – – ● +
 (x + 1) is a factor of p(x) (x + 4) – ● + +
2 + +
3 2 2 (x + 3) +
 p(x) = x + 2x – 5x – 6 = (x + 1) (x + x – 6) = (x + 1)(x – 2)(x + 3) –4 1
Alternative ( By Congruent Polynomials) p(x) + – +
3 3
Let p(x) = x + 2x – 5x – 6 For p(x) ≤ 0 : { x | –4 ≤ x ≤ 1 }
3 2
(x + 1) : R1 = p(–1) = (–1) + 2(–1) – 5(–1) – 6 = 0
 (x + 1) is a factor of p(x) 3 2
eg 2 Given that x + mx + nx – 6 is divisible by (x – 3) and (x + 2).
3 2 3 2
(x + 3) : R2 = p(–3) = (–3) + 2(–3) – 5(–3) – 6 = 0 Find the values of m and n, and hence, solve for x + mx + nx – 6 = 0
 (x + 3) is another factor of p(x) 3 2
and determine the range of values of x such that x + mx + nx – 6 < 0.
3 2
 p(x) = x + 2x – 5x – 6 = (x + 1)(x + 3) (x – 2)
3 2 3
Let p(x) = x + mx + nx – 6 = (x – 3)(x + 2).(x + 1) = x – 7x – 6
Note : Other alternatives are by Synthetic Division or Long Division.  m = 0 , n = –7

For p(x) = 0 : (x – 3)(x + 2)(x + 1) = 0  x = 3, –2 or 1

3 2
eg 2 Given that (x + 2) is a factor of x + kx + 8x + 32, find the value of k.
Hence factorise it completely. (x – 3) – – – o +
3 2 (x + 2) – o + + +
Let p(x) = x + kx + 8x + 32 – – o +
3 2 (x + 1) +
(x + 2) : R = p(–2) = (–2) + k(–2) + 8(–2) + 32 = 0  k = –2 –2 –1 3
3 2 2
 p(x) = x – 2x + 8x + 32 = (x + 2) (x – 4x + 16) p(x) – + – +

For p(x) < 0 : { x | x < –2 or –1 < x < 3 }

1-4
 4 3 2 4 3 2
eg 3 The polynomial p(x) = 6x – ax – bx + 28x + 12, where a and b are real eg 5 The polynomial p(x) = ax + 3x + 2x + 6x + b, where a and b are real
constants, has factors (x + 2) and (x – 2). constants, is divisible by (2x – 1). When p(x) is divided by (x – 1), the
Find the values of a and b, and hence, determine the set of values of x remainder is 9. Determine a and b.
such that p(x) ≥ 0. Hence, find the solution set for the inequality p(x) < 0.
4 3 2
(x + 2) : R1 = p(–2) = 6(–2) – a(–2) – b(–2) + 28(–2) + 12 = 0  2a – b = –13 1 4 1 3 1 2 1
4 3 2 (2x – 1) : R1 = a( ) + 3( ) + 2( ) + 6( ) + b = 0  a + 16b = –62
(x – 2) : R2 = p(2) = 6(2) – a(2) – b(2) + 28(2) + 12 = 0  2a + b = 41 2 2 2 2
4 3 2
 a = 7 , b = 27 (x – 1) : R2 = a(1) + 3(1) + 2(1) + 6(1) + b = 9  a + b = –2
4 3 2 2
 a = 2 , b = –4
p(x) = 6x – 7x – 27x + 28x + 12 = (x + 2)(x – 2).(6x – 7x – 3) 4 3 2 2
p(x) = 2x + 3x + 2x + 6x – 4 = (2x – 1)(x + 2)(x + kx + 2)
= (x + 2)(x – 2)(3x + 1)(2x – 3)
p(1) = 9 : (1)(3)(1 + k + 2) = 9  k = 0
2
 p(x) = (2x – 1)(x + 2)(x + 2)
(x + 2) – ● + + + +
(x – 2) – – – – ● + (2x – 1) – – o +
(3 x + 1) – – ● + + + (x + 2) – o + +
( 2 x – 3) – – – ● + + 2
(x + 2) + + +
1 3 –2 0.5
–2 – 2
3 2 p(x) + – +
+ – + – +
p(x) For p(x) < 0 : { x | –2 < x < 0.5 }
1 3
For p(x) ≥ 0 : { x | x ≤ –2 or – ≤x≤ or 2≤x} 4 3
3 2 eg 6 The polynomial p(x) = hx + kx + 2x – 1, where h and k are constants,
leaves a remainder of 4 when divided by x – 1, and a remainder of –2 when
4 3 2
divided by x + 1. Determine the values of h and k. Hence express the polynomial
eg 4 The polynomial p(x) = 2x – 7x + 5x + ax + b, where a and b are real 2
p(x) in the form (x – 1).q(x) + r(x), where q(x) is quadratic and r(x) is linear.
2
constants, is divisible by 2x + x – 1. Determine the set of values of x for which p(x) > 3x + 1.
Find the values of a and b, and hence, determine the set of values of x 4 3
p(1) = h(1) + k(1) + 2(1) – 1 = 4  h+k=3
such that p(x) ≤ 0. 4 3
4 3 2 p(–1) = h(–1) + k(–1) + 2(–1) – 1 = –2  h–k=1
(x + 1) : R1 = p(–1) = 2(–1) – 7(–1) + 5(–1) + a(–1) + b = 0  a – b = 14  h=2,k=1
1 1 4 1 3 1 2 1
(2x – 1) : R2 = p( ) = 2( ) – 7( ) + 5( ) + a( ) + b = 0  a + 2b = –1 4 3 2 2
2x + x + 2x – 1 = (x – 1)(2x + ax + b) + cx + d
2 2 2 2 2 3
 a = 9, b = –5
[x ] : 1 = a [x2] : 0 = b – 2  b = 2
1
[ x ] : 2 = –a + c  c = 3 [x0] : –1 = –b + d  d = 1
4 3 2 2
p(x) = 2x – 7x + 5x + 9x – 5 = (x + 1)(2x – 1).(x – 4x + 5)  p(x) = (x2 – 1)(2x2 + x + 2) + 3x + 1
(x + 1) – ● + +
2
(2x – 1) – – ● + p(x) > 3x + 1  (x + 1)(x – 1)(2x + x + 2) > 0
2
(x – 4x + 5) + + + (x + 1) – ● + +

–1 1 (x – 1)
2
– – ● +
2 (2x + x + 2) + + +
p(x) + – + –1 1
1 + – +
For p(x) ≤ 0 : { x | –1 ≤ x ≤ }
2 For p(x) > 3x + 1 : {x|x<1 or 1<x }

1-5
SOLVING INEQUALITIES BY GRAPHS
- Sketch the two graphs on the same axes eg 3 Sketch, on the same coordinate axes, graphs of y = 2 – x and y = 2 + 1 .
x
- Find all intersection point/s between these graphs
Hence, solve the inequality 2 – x > 2 + 1 .
- Solve the inequality by comparing the heights of the graphs.
x

y For A : 2 – x = –(2 + 1 )
2 x
eg 1 Sketch on the same axes, the graphs of y =│2x + 1│and y = 1 – x . y=2–x 2
 x – 4x = 1
2 2
Hence, solve the inequality │2x + 1│≥ 1 – x . y= 2+ 1  (x – 2) = 5
x
A● 2  x =2± 5
y
y =│2x + 1│ 2  xA = 2 – 5
For x < – 21 : –(2x + 1) = 1 – x 1 0 2
– x
1 2 2
●  x – 2x – 2 = 0
2
y=1–x  x=1– 3 For 2 – x > 2 + 1 : {x| x<2– 5 }
● x
–1 – 1 0 1 x
2
2
For │2x + 1│≥ 1 – x : {x|x≤1– 3 or 0 ≤ x }
eg 4 In the same diagram, sketch the graph y =│x – 1│and the graph y = 3  x .

Hence, solve the inequality │x – 1│> 3  x .

eg 2 Sketch the graph of y = │1 – 2x│, x , and the graph of y = x , x ≥ 0,
on the same coordinate system. y
● 3 y =│x – 1│ │x – 1│ = 3  x
Solve the inequality │1 – 2x│> x .
 (│x – 1│)2 = ( 3 x )
2

2
y ●  x – 2x + 1 =3–x
For x ≥ 0 : │1 – 2x│ = x 1 y = 3 x 2
 x –x–2 =0
1 y= x ●  (│1 – 2x│)2 = ( x )2  (x + 1)(x – 2) =0
 1 – 4x + 4x = x
2
0 1
● x  x = –1 or 2
●  (4x – 1)(x – 1) = 0
3
y =│1 – 2x│
1
 x = or 1 For │x – 1│> 3  x : { x | x < –1 or 2 < x ≤ 3 }
0
● 1 x 4
2

For │1 – 2x│> x : { x | 0 ≤ x < 1 or 1 < x }

4

1-6
SOLVING INEQUALITIES BY ANALYTICAL METHODS / THEOREMS
eg 4 Solve the inequality 2 – x > 2 + 1 .
x
Theorems : 1. │A│ < B  –B < A < B
2–x> 2+ 1 : – (2 – x) < 2 + 1 < 2 – x
2. │A│ > B  A < –B or B < A x x
2 2 2 2 2 2
3. │A│ > │B│  A >B – x (2 – x) < 2x + x and 2x + x < x (2 – x)
2 2
2
x(x – 4x – 1) < 0 x(x + 1) < 0
4. │A│ < B  A < B , for B ≥ 0 2
x(x – 2 + 5 )(x – 2 – 5 ) < 0 Since (x + 1) > 0 for all x
2
5. │A│ > B  A > B , for B ≥ 0  [x<0]

2
 [x<2– 5 or 0 < x < 2 + 5 ]
eg 1 Solve the inequality │2x + 1│≥ 1 – x .
 Solution set : {x| x<2– 5 }
2 2 2
│2x + 1│≥ 1 – x : 2x + 1 ≤ – (1 – x ) or 1 – x ≤ 2x + 1
2 2
x – 2x – 2 ≥ 0 x + 2x ≥ 0
3 2
(x – 1 + 3 )(x – 1 – 3 ) ≥ 0 x(x + 2) ≥ 0 eg 5 Find the set of values of x such that –2 < x – 2x + x – 2 < 0.
3 2
[x≤1– 3 or 1 + 3 ≤ x ] [ x ≤ – 2 or 0 ≤ x ] –2 < x – 2x + x – 2 < 0
3 2 3 2
For │2x + 1│≥ 1 – x :
2
{x|x≤1– 3 or 0≤x} –2 < x – 2x + x – 2 and x – 2x + x – 2 < 0
2 2
x(x – 1) > 0 (x – 2)(x + 1) < 0
2
Since (x + 1) > 0 for all x
 
0 1 x  (x – 2) < 0
eg 2 Solve the inequality │1 – 2x│> x .  [ 0 < x < 1 or 1 < x ]  [x<2]

│1 – 2x│> x : (│1 – 2x│)2 > ( x )2  1 – 4x + 4x > x

2
 Solution set : {x| 0 < x < 1 or 1 < x < 2 }
1
 (4x – 1)(x – 1) > 0  x < or 1 < x
4
2
Since x ≥ 0, for │1 – 2x│> x : { x | 0 ≤ x < 1 or 1 < x } eg 6 Find the values of x if y =│3 – x│ and 4y – (x – 9) = –24.
4
2
y =│3 – x│ and 4y – (x – 9) = –24
2 2
4│3 – x│– (x – 9) = –24  4│3 – x│= x – 33
2 2
eg 3 Solve the inequality │x – 1│> 3  x . 4(3 – x) = x – 33 or 4(3 – x) = – (x – 33)
(x + 9)(x – 5) = 0 (x + 3)(x – 7) = 0
│x – 1│> 3  x : (│x – 1│)2 > ( 3  x )2
 x – 2x + 1 > 3 – x
2 x = –9 or 5 x = –3 or 7
 (x + 1)(x – 2) > 0  x < –1 or 2 < x 2
Since (x – 33) ≥ 0 : x = –9 or 7
Since x ≤ 3, for │x – 1│> 3  x : { x | x < –1 or 2 < x ≤ 3 }

1-7
PARTIAL FRACTIONS 2x  3 A Bx  C 2
5. = +  2x + 3 = A(x + 2) + (Bx + C)(x + 1)
 proper fractions in their lowest form, having only single factor in its denominator. ( x  1)( x 2  2) ( x  1) ( x 2  2)

2x2  3 x  4 A B
Partial Fraction Decomposition 6. = + +C
( x  1)( x  2) ( x  1) ( x  2)
 is the process of starting with the simplified answer and taking it back apart, 2
2x + 3x + 4 = A(x – 2) + B(x – 1) + C(x – 1)(x + 2)
of "decomposing" the final expression into its initial polynomial fractions
 To decompose a fraction, 2x3  3 x  4 A B
7. = + + Cx + D
1. First factorise the denominator completely. ( x  1)( x  2) ( x  1) ( x  2)
3
2. Then write the fractions with one of the factors for each of the denominators. 2x + 3x + 4 = A(x – 2) + B(x – 1) + Cx(x – 1)(x + 2) + D(x – 1)(x + 2)
3. Assign variables (usually capital letters) for the unknown values for the
numerators, with the condition that they are porper fractions.
3 x2  5 x
eg 1 Express in partial fractions.
4. Multiply through by the common denominator in order to gets rid of all (1 x 2 )(1 x )2
of the denominators.
5. Find the unknown constants by congruent polynomials of the two sides. 3 x2  5 x 3 x2  5 x A B C D
2 2
= 3
=
(1 x )
+[ + +
(1 x ) (1 x ) 2 (1  x ) 3
]
6. Express the fraction in its partial fractions with no unknown constants. (1 x )(1 x ) (1 x )(1 x )
2 3 2
3x + 5x = A(1 + x) + B(1 – x)(1 + x) + C(1 – x)(1 + x) + D(1 – x)
3
Note : x = 1 : 3 + 5 = A(2) + 0 + 0 + 0  A = 1
2x  3 A B x = –1 : 3 – 5 = 0 + 0 + 0 + D(2)  D = –1
1. = + [ x3 ] : 0 = A – B  B=1
( x  1)( x  2) ( x  1) ( x  2)
2x + 3 = A(x – 2) + B(x – 1) [ x0 ] : 0 = A + B + C + D  C = –1
3 x2  5 x 1 1 1 1
 = + – –
2x  3 A B C (1 x 2 )(1 x )2 (1 x ) (1 x) (1 x ) 2 (1 x ) 3
2. = + +
( x  1)( x  2)( x  3) ( x  1) ( x  2) ( x  3)
2x + 3 = A(x – 2)(x + 3) + B(x + 1)(x + 3) + C(x + 1)(x – 2)
4 x2  3 x  2
eg 2 Express in partial fractions.
2x  3 A B C x3  x
3.
( x  1)( x  2) 2
=
( x  1)
+[ +
( x  2) ( x  2) 2
]
2 4 x2  3 x  2 4 x2  3 x  2
A Bx  C
2x + 3 = A(x – 2) + B(x + 1)(x – 2) + C(x + 1) = = +
x x 3
x( x 2  1) x ( x 2  1)
2 2
2x  3 A B C D 4x + 3x + 2 = A(x + 1) + (Bx + C)(x)
4.
( x  1)( x  2) 3
=
( x  1)
+[ + +
( x  2) ( x  2) 2 ( x  2) 3
] 0
[x ] : 2=A [ x1 ] : 3 = C [ x2 ] : 4 = A + B  B=2
3 2
2x + 3 = A(x – 2) + B(x + 1)(x – 2) + C(x + 1)(x – 2) + D(x + 1) 4 x2  3 x  2 2 2x  3
 = +
x3  x x ( x 2  1)

1-8
SURDS (c) A=B– C  ( A )2 = (B – C )2
2
Surds are numbers left in root form ( A ) to express its exact value. It has an  A = B + C – 2B C  2B C = E
infinite number of non-recurring decimals. Therefore, surds are irrational numbers. 2 2 2 2
 (2B C ) = (E)  4B C = E

Note : 1. For real value of A , A ≥ 0 2. For A ≥ 0, A ≥ 0  Solve with conditions E ≥ 0, C ≥ 0, A ≥ 0 and (B – C ) > 0.

(d) A= B+ C  ( A )2 = ( B+ C )2
There are certain rules that needs to follow in order to simplify an expression
involving surds.  A = B + C + 2 BC  F = 2 BC
2 2 2
 (F) = (2 BC )  F = 4BC
Rule 1 : ab = a x b  2 2
k b= k x b = k b  Solve with conditions F ≥ 0, C ≥ 0, B ≥ 0 and A ≥ 0.

Rule 2 : p a x q b = pq ab  p a x q a = pqa
(e) A= B– C  ( A )2 = ( B– C )2
a a b ab  A = B + C – 2 BC  2 BC = G
Rule 3 : = x = (Rationalising the denominator) 2 2 2
b b b b  (2 BC ) = (G)  4BC = G
 Solve with conditions G ≥ 0, C ≥ 0, B ≥ 0, A ≥ 0 and ( B – C ) > 0.
p p p (a  b c )
ab c
Rule 4 : = x = (Rationalising the denominator)
ab c ab c a b c a 2  b2c
eg 1 Solve the equation x  3 – x  2 = x  5 .

Note : 1. Generally a2 = | a | , but for a > 0, a 2 = a. x3– x2 = x5  [ x  3 – x  2 ]2 = [ x  5 ]2

 (x + 3) + (x – 2) – 2 ( x  3)( x  2) = x – 5  x + 6 = 2 ( x  3)( x  2)
2. If a + b c = p + q r , then a = p and b c = q r . 2 2
 [x + 6] = [ 2 ( x  3)( x  2) ]  (3x + 10)(x – 6) = 0
3. If A = B, then A ≥ 0 and B ≥ 0.
Since (x – 2) > 0 : x = 6
4. a  b c = p + q , for p > q > 0, and d  h k = m – n , for m > n > 0.

Solving Root Equations eg 2 Express 59  24 6 as p 2 + q 3 where p and q are integers.

1. Isolate one of the root form, then square both sides to reduce the number of roots.
Let 59  24 6 = a – b , for a > b > 0
2 2
(a) A=B  ( A ) = (B)

2
A=B  Solve with conditions A ≥ 0 and B ≥ 0. [ 59  24 6 ]2 = [ a – b ]2  59 – 24 6 = a + b – 2 ab

 59 = a + b and 24 6 = 2 ab  59 = a + b and 864 = ab

(b) A=B+ C  ( A )2 = (B + C )2 2
 a – 59a + 864 = 0  (a – 32)(a – 27) = 0
2
 A = B + C + 2B C  D = 2B C Since (a > b) : a = 32 , b = 27
2 2 2 2
 (D) = (2B C )  D = 4B C  59  24 6 = 32 – 27 = 4 2 – 3 3
 Solve with conditions D ≥ 0, C ≥ 0 and A ≥ 0.

1-9
EXPONENTS
x Solving Exponential Equations
In an expression like a , a is called the base, x is most commonly called the exponent.
(Exponents are also called powers or Indices in simple words). 1. a x = a y if and only if x = y

0 1 –1 1
1
n n  m
Note : 1. a =1 1. a =a 3. a = 4. an = a  kn , for n is even
a 2. If x m = k, then x=  m
 a n , for n is even  kn
x  , for n is not even
5. (  a)n =  6. For a > 0, a > 0 for all values of x
  (a n ) , for n is odd
4 x
eg 1 Solve (3 x ) x – 9 = 0.
Laws of Exponents
4 x 2
3 x = 32(4  x)
2
(3 x ) x – 9 =0:  x = 8 – 2x
ax 
1. ax x a y = ax  y 2. = ax y 3. (a x )n = a nx = (a n ) x (x + 4)(x – 2) = 0 x = – 4 or 2
ay
x2 x 1
eg 2 Solve the simultaneous equations 3 + 2 y 1 = 83 and 3 + 2 y  1 = 11.
Note : x2 x 1
m 1 n n 3 + 2 y 1 = 83 and 3 + 2 y  1 = 11
n a b
1. a n = (a m ) n = am th
= n root of the m
th
power of a 2.   =   2y 3
x
2
b a 9(3 x ) + = 83 and + 2(2 y ) = 11  x
3 =9=3  x=2
2 3
1
2
= (a n )m = ( n a )m =m
th th
power of the n root of a  2y = 4 = 2  y =2

Base e Exponents x x
eg 3 Find the intersection point between the curves y = e and y = 2 + 3e .

 The number e is a famous irrational number, and is one of the most y = e x and y = 2 + 3e  x : x
e = 2 + 3e
x
 e2 x – 2e x – 3 = 0
important numbers in mathematics. x x
( e + 1)( e – 3) = 0  e x = –1 or 3
 The first few digits are 2.7182818284590452353602874713527 (and more ...)
Since e > 0 : e = 3  x = ln 3
x x
 e is called Euler's number after Leonhard Euler (pronounced "Oiler")  Intersection point is (ln 3, 3)
 e is the base of the Natural Logarithms, also called Naperian Logarithms
(invented by John Napier)
x x
eg 4 Find the intersection point between the curves y = 6 – e and y = 5e .
1

 Definition : lim (1  t ) t = e and lim 1 t

(1  t ) =e y = 6 – e x and y = 5e  x : x
6 – e = 5e
x
 e2 x – 6e x + 5 = 0
t0 t  x x
( e – 1)( e – 5) = 0  e x = 1 or 5
x = 0 or ln 5  Int. points = (0, 5), (ln 5, 1)

1-10
LOGARITHMS
 2
eg 1 Solve the simultaneous equations, log3 (xy) = 5 and log9  x  = 2.
The logarithm is the inverse function to exponentiation. That means the logarithm  y 
of a given number x is the exponent to which another fixed number, the base b,
must be raised, to produce that number x. log3 (xy) = 5 : log3 (x) + log3 (y) = 5
2
log3 ( x )
 2  2 y
Definition : The logarithm of a positive real number x with respect to base b log9  x  = 2 : log9  x  = = 2  2 log3 (x) – log3 (y) = 4
[ for 0 < b < 1 or 1 < b ] is the exponent by which b must be raised  y   y  log3 (9)
3
to yield x. In other words, the logarithm of x to base b is the solution  log3 (x) = 3  x = 3 = 27
2
y
y to the equation b = x.  log3 (y) = 2  y=3 =9
Alternative
More generally, exponentiation allows any positive real number to be raised to any
real power, always producing a positive result, so the logarithm for any two positive  2 x2
log9  x  = 2 :
5 2 4
log3 (xy) = 5 : xy = 3 and =9 =3
real numbers b and x where b is not equal to 1, is always a unique real number y.  y  y
3 9 3
More explicitly, the defining relation between exponentiation and logarithm is,  x = 3 = 27  x = 27
5
 (27) y = 3  y=9
y
b =x  logb (x) = y , [ for 0 < b < 1 or 1 < b , and x > 0 ]
eg 2 Solve the simultaneous equations log4 (xy) = 1 and (log2 x)(log2 y) = –2.
2
logb x
Note : 1. logb (1) = 0 2. logb (b) = 1 3. b =x 1
2
log4 (xy) = 1 : xy = 4 2  y=
2 x
2
(log2 x)(log2 y) = –2  (log2 x) [ log2 ( )] = –2
Laws of Logarithms x
 (log2 x)(1 – log2 x) = –2 
(log2 x + 1)(log2 x – 2) = 0
1. Product : logb (xy) = logb (x) + logb (y) –1 2 1
 log2 x = – 1 or 2  x = 2 or 2 = or 4
x 2
2. Quotient : logb ( ) = logb (x) – logb (y) 1 1
y  x = , y = 4 or x = 4 , y =
n
2 2
3. Power : logb (x ) = n logb (x)
n 1
4. Root : logb ( x ) = logb (x)
n eg 3 Solve the equation ln x + ln (x + 2) = 1.
loga ( x ) log ( x ) ln ( x ) 2 1
5. Change of Base : logb (x) = = = ln x + ln (x + 2) = 1 : ln [ x(x + 2) ] = 1  (x + 1) – 1 = e
loga (b ) log (b ) ln ( b )
 x = –1 ± e  1

Note : 1. log10 (x) = log x or lg x (Common Logarithms) Since x > 0 : x = –1 + e  1

2. loge (x) = ln x (Natural Logarithms)

1-11
eg 4 Find the value of x such that (3 – log3 x) log3x 3 = 1. eg 5 Given that loga (3x – 4a) + loga 3x = 2 + log (1 – 2a),
a
log2 a
1
(3 – log3 x) log3x 3 = 1  (3 – log3 x) =1 where 0 < a < 1 , find x.
log3 3 x 2
3 – log3 x = log3 3 + log3 x  log3 x = 1  x=3 2 + log (1 – 2a) = 2 log 2 + log (1 – 2a)
loga (3x – 4a) + loga 3x = a a a
log2 a
2 2
Alternative 1  loga [3x(3x – 4a)] = loga [2 (1 – 2a)]  9x – 12ax = 4 – 8a
2
logk x logk 3  (9x – 4) – (12ax – 8a) = 0  (3x + 2)(3x – 2) – 4a(3x – 2) = 0
(3 – log3 x) log3x 3 = 1  (3 – ) =1
logk 3 logk 3 x 2 2
 (3x – 2)[(3x + 2) – 4a ] = 0  x= or (2a – 1)
3 3
3 logk 3 – logk x = logk 3 + logk x  logk x = logk 3  x=3
2
Since 0 < a < 1  2a – 1 < 0 , and x > 0 : x=
2 3
Alternative 2
1
(3 – log3 x) log3x 3 = 1  (3 – log3 x) =1 x
log3 3 x eg 6 If loga ( ) = 3 loga 2 – loga (x – 2a), express x in terms of a.
2
a2
3 – log3 x = log3 3x  log3 3x = 3
2 3 2
3x = 3  x =9 x 3
x = ±3 Since x > 0 : x = 3 loga ( ) = 3 loga 2 – loga (x – 2a) = loga ( x 2 2a )
a2
x 8 2 2
Alternative 3  =  x – 2ax – 8a = 0
a 2 x  2a
logk x logk 3
(3 – log3 x) log3x 3 = 1  (3 – ) =1  (x + 2a)(x – 4a) = 0  x = –2a or 4a
logk 3 logk 3 x
Since a > 0 and x > 0 : x = 4a
27 2
3 logk 3 – logk x = logk 3x  logk ( ) = logk 3x or logk 3x = 3 logk 3
x
27 2 3 2 For each of the following, express y in terms of a and x,
= 3x or 3x = 3  x =9 eg 7
x ae y
x = ±3 Since x > 0 : x = 3 (a) x = (b) ln (y – 2) – ln (y + 2) = ax
2(3a  e y )
Alternative 4
(b) ln (y – 2) – ln (y + 2) = ax
ae y
(3 – log3 x) log3x 3 = 1  log3x 3 3 log3 x = 1 (a) x = y2
2(3a  e y )  ln ( ) = ax
33 y2
3 3 log3 x = (3x)
1
 = 3x y y
3log3 x  6ax + 2 xe = ae 4 ax
 1– = e
27 2
y
 6ax = e (a – 2x) y2
= 3x  x =9
x 6ax 6ax 4 4
y
 e =  y = ln ( ) ax
 1– e =  y= –1
x = ±3 Since x > 0 : x = 3 a  2x a  2x y2 1  e ax

1-12
GRAPH SKETCHING – Basic / Standard Graphs
Transformation of Curves
1. Line – Constant & Linear 2. Parabola – Quadratic
1. Vertical & Horizontal Translations
y y
y=k 2
k y=x Vertical : y = f(x) → y = f(x) ± k Horizontal : y = f(x) → y = f(x ± k)
y = (x – a)(x – b)
y = mx + c c x=h y y = f(x) + k y = f(x)
y = f(x + k)
0 h x 0 a b x
+k y = f(x) x
x = h : Vertical line passing x = h Symmetrical curve with a min. point –k +k y = f(x – k)
y = k : Horizontal line passing y = k –k
3. Cubic 4. Exponential & Logarithmic
y = f(x) – k
y y y=x

x 1 y = ln x
0 a b c x y=e y
3 y
y=x y = (x – a)(x – b)(x – c) 01 x y = ln x
y=e
x y = ln (x + 3) ln 3
3
y = x : Curve with a terrace at x = 0 x 3
y = (x – a)(x – b)(x – c) :
y=e +2 2
–3
–2 0 1 3 4 x
x
Curve cut x-axis at x = a, b and c y = e : Partial-concave upwards curve 1
with asymptote at y = 0
0 y = ln (x – 3)
–1
y = ln x : Partial-concave downwards x x
y=e –2
curve with asymptote at x = 0
5. Root & Reciprocal 6. Sin & Cosine –2
y
y y = sin x
y= x 1   2. Vertical & Horizontal Reflections – about x and y axes
y= 1  3
Vertical : y = f(x) → y = –f(x) Horizontal : y = f(x) → y = f(–x)
0 x2   2 x
x
0
2
x x y y = f(–x) y
y= 1 y = f(x) y = f(x)
x a a
 
–1 y = cos x   –b  –b
 b
y = x : Concave downwards curve –a x x
y = sin x : Periodic curve symmetry
begins from origin for x ≥ 0 y = –f(x)
at x = 2 and 3
y = 1 : Piecewise curves asymptotic 2
x y = cos x : Periodic curve symmetry
to both axes
at x = .

1-13
3. Vertical & Horizontal Scalings Graphs of Complete Linearly Factorable Polynomial Functions

2 2
Vertical : y = f(x) → y = k.f(x) Horizontal : y = f(x) → y = f(kx) y = (x + 2)(x – 2)(x – 6) y = (x + 2)(x – 2) (x – 6)
y y
y = k.f(x)
y = f(x)

ka –2 
2  –2 
2 
–kb
a 6 x 6 x
a y = f(x)  –b
 0 x
–b
 0 x
2
y = (x + 2)(x – 2) (x – 6)
2 2
y = (x + 2)(x – 2) (x – 6)
3
y = f(kx)

–2 
2 6 –2
2 6 x
x

4. Graph of Absolute Functions [ y = f(x) → y = │f(x)│] 3 2 2 3

y = (x + 2)(x – 2) (x – 6) y = (x + 2) (x – 2)(x – 6)
y
y y = │f(x)│
y = –f(x)
2  –2
 6
–2
y = f(x)
2 x
c y = f(x) 6 x

0
a –b
 0 a

–c 
–b x
2 2 2 2 3 2
y = (x + 2) (x – 2) (x – 6) y = (x + 2) (x – 2) (x – 6)

 y  f ( x ), for f( x )  0 –2
 6 –2
 
Note : y = │f(x)│   2 x 2 6 x
 y   f ( x ), for f( x )  0

1-14
FUNCTIONS Composite Functions

When two functions are composed together (f and g to form gf), if the range of f
Definition of a Function
is a subset of the domain of g, then this composite function gf is defined (or exists)

A function is a relation for which each value from the set the first Note : In general, the domain of a composed function is the domain of the first function.
components (domain) of the ordered pairs must associated with
exactly one and only one value from the set of second components i.e. 1. gf is defined if Rf  Dg , then gf : x → gf(x) , x  Df
(range) of the ordered pair respectively.
2. fg is defined if Rg  Df , then fg : x → fg(x) , x  Dg
2 2 2
Note : This means that the value of the range depends on the domain. 3. f is defined if Rf  Df , then f : x → f (x) , x  Df
2 2 2
“Working Definition” of Function 4. g is defined if Rg  Dg , then g : x → g (x) , x  Dg

A function is an equation for which any x that can be plugged

eg 1 Given functions f : x → x  1 , x ≥ 1 and g : x → x + 1, x > 0.
into the equation will yield exactly one y out of the equation.
Determine whether the composite functions of fg and gf exist.
If exist, define it in a similar form and state its range.
Notation of a Function : f : x → f(x) , x  Df
Dg : x > 0  Rg : y > 1 (x > 1) Df : x ≥ 1  Rf : y ≥ 0 (x ≥ 0)
Note : f : x → f(x) is just a relation notation, not a function. [ Since Df : x ≥ 1 ] : Rg  Df [ Since Dg : x > 0 ] : Rf  Dg
 fg exists.  gf does not exists
fg(x) = f [g(x)] = g( x )  1  gf is undefined.
Basic functions with restricted maximal domain
= ( x  1)  1 = x
1. f:x→ x, x≥0 2. f : x → ln x, x > 0
 fg : x → x , x>0
1
3. f:x→ , x≠0
x
eg 2 Given functions f : x → ln x , x ≥ 1 , g : x → x4 ,x≥a
Note : g : x → ln x, x ≥ 0 is not a function, but h : x → ln x, x > 4 is a function.
and h : x → x  4 , x ≥ b.
Determine the extremum values of a and b respectively such that fg and gf exist.
eg 1 Determine the domain of f and g respectively such that f and g are functions,
Dg : x ≥ a  Rg : y ≥ a  4 Df : x ≥ 1  Rf : y ≥ 0
(a) f : x → ln (x + 2) + 1 (b) f : x → ln (x + 4) – 3 x
Df : x ≥ 1 Dh : x ≥ b
1 x
For fg exists : Rg  Df For hf exists : Rf  Dh
(a) x + 2 > 0 and 1 – x > 0 (b) x + 4 > 0 and 3 – x ≥ 0  bmax. = 0
 ( a  4 )min. = 1
x > –2 and x<1 x > –4 and x≤3
 Df : { x | –2 < x < 1 }  Dg : { x | –4 < x ≤ 3 }  amin. = – 3

1-15
One to One Functions (1 – 1) & Inverse Function of f

Definition eg 2 The functions f and g are defined by f : x → e x , x > 0 and

A function f is 1 – 1 if no two elements in the domain of f g : x → x 2  4 , x .
correspond to the same element in the range of f. Determine whether f and g are 1 – 1 respectively.

(i.e. Every element in domain is mapped/connected to a unique element in range.) Let f(a) = f(b), 1 , –1  Dg :
 e a= e b  a= b g(1) = (1)2  4 = 5
A function f is 1 – 1
 a=b
if and only if  f is 1 – 1 g(–1) = (1)2  4 = 5
for some a,b  Df, f(a) = f(b)  a = b. Since g(1) = g(–1) = 5
 g is not 1 – 1.

In other words, each x in the domain has exactly one image in the range. Note : Normally Method 2 is used when graph is “difficult” to sketch.
And, no y in the range is the image of more than one x in the domain.

To verify that a function f is 1 – 1 Inverse of f

Method 1 : (Graphical – Horizontal Line Test) –1
A function f has an inverse f if and only if f is 1 – 1.
If no horizontal line intersects the graph of the function f in
more than one point
Properties of a 1 – 1 Function :
Method 2 : (Analytical – By definition)
–1
1. The domain of f equals the range of f ,
f(a) = f(b)  a = b −1
and the range of f equals the domain of f .
−1
2 2 2. f [f(x)] = x for every x in the domain of f
eg 1 The functions f and g are defined by f : x → x , x > 1 and g : x → x , x < 1. −1 –1
and f [f (x)] = x for every x in the domain of f .
Determine whether f and g are 1 – 1 respectively.
–1
y 3. The graph of f and the graph of f are symmetric with respect to the line y = x.
y
y = f(x) y = g(x)
Df f Rf
(1, 1)
 (1, 1)  x y
0 x 0 x R f 1 –1 D f 1
f
Since no horizontal line (y = k) cuts the Since horizontal line (y = 0.5) cuts the
graph of f at more than one point, graph of g at two points,
 f is 1 – 1.  g is not 1 – 1.

1-16
  ( x  2)2  9 , x  0
eg 1 The function f is deflned by f(x) =  eg 2 Functions f and g are defined by f(x) = ln (x – 1), where x > 1
 2 x  5 ,x  0
and g(x) = x  2 , where x ≥ 2.
(a) Sketch the graph of f.
(b) State the range of f. (a) Sketch, on separate diagrams, the graphs of f and g.
−1
(c) State whether f is a one-to-one function or not. Give a reason for your answer. (b) (i) Explain why f exists.
−1
(a) y (ii) Hence, determine f and state its domain.
(b) [–9 , ) or
(c) Find the composite function f o g and state its domain and range.
2
{ y | y ≥ –9 }
y = (x + 2) – 9 (d) Express ln ( x  1)  2 as a composition of functions which involves f and g.
y = 2x – 5
● ● (a) y
0 2.5 x (c) f is not 1 – 1 , y = f(x) y
cause any horizontal line y = k, y = g(x)
–5 for k > –9, k ≠ –5 cuts the graph 1
● at 2 points. 0 2 x
(–2, –9)
0
2 x
Alternative 1 (b) (i) Since any horizontal line (or y = k) cuts y = f(x) once only means
(c) f is not 1 – 1 , cause line y = h, (a valid value of h) cuts the graph at 2 points. −1
f is a 1 – 1 function  f exists.

Alternative 2 −1 x
(c) f is not 1 – 1 , cause f(–5) = f(2.5) (ii) Let f (x ) = u : f(u) = x = ln (u – 1)  u = e + 1
−1 x −1 x
 f (x ) = e + 1  f : x  e + 1
Alternative 3 −1
(c) f is not 1 – 1 , Domain of f : – < x < 
Sketch a line y = k on the graph in (a) to indicate it cuts 2 points
(c) Dg : x ≥ 2  Rg : x ≥ 0
Since Df : x > 1  Rg  Df
 Function f o g does not exists
 Domain and range of f o g does not exists

(d) ln ( x  1)  2 = f ( x )  2 = gf(x)

but since gf is undefined, ln ( x  1)  2 cannot express as a

composition of functions which involves f and g.

1-17
eg 3 The functions f and g are defined by
kx
f(x) = 2 ln (x + 3), x > –3 and g(x) = e – 3, x , where k is a constant.
The function g is the inverse of function f.
(a) Determine the value of k.
(b) Sketch the graphs of f and g on the same axes.
–1 (b)
(a) Let f (x) = u : f(u) = x y
 2 ln (u + 3) = x x = –3 y=x
–1

y = g(x)
 u = e0.5 x – 3 = f (x)
kx 1
 e0.5 x – 3 = e –3  k=
2

2 ln 3
(a) f(0) = 2 ln 3  g(2 ln 3) = 0 y = f(x)
 e 2k ln 3 – 3 = 0
1 –2 2 ln 3
 2k ln 3 = ln 3  k= x
2 –2
(a) fg(x) = x y = –3
kx
 2 ln [(e – 3) + 3] = x
1
 2kx = x  k=
2

Alternative
–1 ku
(a) Let g (x) = u : g(u) = x  e – 3 = x
1
 u = ln (x + 3) = g –1(x)
k
1 1
 2 ln (x + 3) = ln (x + 3)  k =
k 2

Alternative
(a) gf(x) = x  e2k ln( x  3) – 3 = x
1
2k ln (x + 3) = ln (x + 3)  k=
2

1-18
TRIGONOMETRY
Basic Trigonometric Identities
Solving Basic Trigonometric Equations (for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2)
2 2 2 2 2 2
o o
1. sin x + cos x = 1 tan x + 1 = sec x cot x + 1 = cosec x
1. sin x = 0.5 = sin 30 2. sin x = –0.5 = –sin 30
o o o o o o o
x = 30 , 180 – 30 x = 180 + 30 , 360 – 30
o o  5 o o 7  11 2. sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B cos (A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B
x = 30 , 150 = , x = 210 , 330 = ,
6 6 6 6
o o
sin (A – B) = sin A cos B – cos A sin B cos (A – B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
3. cos x = 0.5 = cos 60 4. cos x = –0.5 = –cos 60
o o o o o o o tan A  tan B tan A  tan B
x = 60 , 360 – 60 x = 180 – 60 , 180 + 60 tan (A + B) = tan (A – B) =
1  tan A tan B 1  tan A tan B
o o  5 o o 2 4 
x = 60 , 300 = , x = 120 , 240 = ,
3 3 3 3
o o
5. tan x = 1 = tan 45 6. tan x = –1 = –tan 45 1
o o o o o o o 3. sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A sin A cos A = sin 2A
x = 45 , 180 + 45 x = 180 – 45 , 360 – 45 2
o o  5 o o 3 7 2 2 2 2 2 1
x = 45 , 225 = , x = 135 , 315 = , cos 2A = cos A – sin A = 2 cos A – 1 = 1 – 2 sin A cos A = [1 + cos 2A]
4 4 4 4 2
2 tan A 2 1
tan 2A = sin A = [1 – cos 2A]
o 1  tan2 A 2
7. sin 2x = 0.5 = sin 30
o o o o o o o o o o o
2x = 30 , 180 – 30 , 30 + 360 , 150 + 360 = 30 , 150 , 390 , 510
o o o o  5  13  17  eg 1 Find the values of x, where 0 ≤ x ≤ , which satisfy the equation
x = 15 , 75 , 195 , 255 = , , ,
12 12 12 12 3
sin x sec x = 2 tan x.
o
8. cos 3x = 0.5 = cos 60
o o o o o o o o o o
3x = 60 , 360 – 60 , 60 + 360 , 300 + 360 , 60 + 720 , 300 + 720
o 3 3 1 2 sin x 2
sin x sec x = 2 tan x : sin x. =  tan x (sin x – 2) = 0
o o o o o
3x = 60 , 300 , 420 , 660 , 780 , 1020
o cos x cos x
o o o o o o  5  7  11 13  17  [ Since –1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1] : tan x = 0  x = 0, 
x = 20 , 100 , 140 , 220 , 260 , 340 = , , , , ,
9 9 9 9 9 9

eg 2 Find, in terms of , all the values of x between 0 and  which

o o
9. sin (x + 60 ) = 0.5 = sin 30 satisfy the equation tan x + cot x = 8 cos 2x.
o o o o o o o
x + 60 = 30 + 360 , 180 – 30 = 390 , 150 2 2
tan x + cot x = 8 cos 2x : sin x + cos x = 8 cos 2x. (sin x cos x)
o o  11
x = 330 , 90 = , o
2 6  1 = 4 cos 2x. (sin 2x)  sin 4x = 0.5 = sin 30
o o
10. sin (x – 60 ) = –0.5 = –sin 30 o o o o o o o o o o o
o o o o o o  4x = 30 , 180 – 30 , 30 + 360 , 150 + 360 = 30 , 150 , 390 , 510
x – 60 = 180 + 30 , 360 – 30 – 360
o o o o  5  13  17 
o o  3  x = 7.5 , 37.5 , 97.5 , 127.5 = , , ,
x = 270 , 30 = , 24 24 24 24
6 2

1-19
Expressing a sin θ + b cos θ in the forms r sin (θ ± ) or r cos (θ ± )
 eg 1 Sketch the graph of y = sin 2x in the range 0 ≤ x ≤ .
For r > 0 and 0 <  < ,
2 Hence, solve the inequality │sin 2x│< 1 , where 0 ≤ x ≤ .
2
1. a sin θ + b cos θ = r sin (θ + )
where r = a 2  b 2 and y
2. a sin θ – b cos θ = r sin (θ – )
3. a cos θ + b sin θ = r cos (θ – )  = tan
–1
( b ). 1
a
4. a cos θ – b sin θ = r cos (θ + ) 
2 
0 x x
Proof 1 : Let a sin θ + b cos θ = r sin (θ + ) = r sin θ cos  + r cos θ sin 
 a = r cos  and b = r sin 
–1
b –1 b
= tan    = tan ( ) and 2 2
a a a b
b │sin 2x│= 1 : sin 2x = 1 sin 2x = – 1
a  
a=r( )  r = a 2  b2 2 2 2
2
a b 2 a  5 7  11
2x =
, 2x = ,
6 6 6 6
Note : Since –1 ≤ sin (θ ± ) ≤ 1  –r ≤ r sin (θ ± ) ≤ r and  5  7  11
 x= , , ,
12 12 12 12
–1 ≤ cos (θ ± ) ≤ 1  –r ≤ r cos (θ ± ) ≤ r
y
3
1. [a sin θ + b cos θ]min. = [r sin (θ + )]min. = –r, when sin (θ + ) = –1  θ +  = 1
2 y=1
2
3 
2. [a sin θ – b cos θ]min. = [r sin (θ – )]min. = –r, when sin (θ – ) = –1  θ –  = 2 
2 0 x x
3. [a cos θ + b sin θ]min. = [r cos (θ – )]min. = –r, when cos (θ – ) = –1  θ –  =  y=–1
2
–1
4. [a cos θ – b sin θ]min. = [r cos (θ + )]min. = –r, when cos (θ + ) = –1  θ +  = 

5. [a sin θ + b cos θ]max. = [r sin (θ + )]max. = r, when sin (θ + ) = 1  θ +  =

 Solution : { x | 0 ≤ x < 12 or 512 < x < 712 or 1112 < x ≤  }
2

 Note : Accept Interval form : 0 , [ ) U ( 512 , 712 ) U ( 1112 , ]
6. [a sin θ – b cos θ]max. = [r sin (θ – )]max. = r, when sin (θ – ) = 1  θ –  = 12
2

7. [a cos θ + b sin θ]max. = [r cos (θ – )]max. = r, when cos (θ – ) = 1  θ –  = 0

8. [a cos θ – b sin θ]max. = [r cos (θ + )]max. = r, when cos (θ + ) = 1  θ +  = 2

1-20
eg 2 Express 12 cos θ – 5 sin θ in the form r cos (θ + ), where r > 0 and 0 <  <  . eg 3 Express 3 sin x – cos x in the form of r sin (x – ),
2
Hence, where r > 0 and 0 <  <  .
2
(a) state the minimum and maximum values of 12 cos θ – 5 sin θ for real values of θ, (a) Find the minimum and maximum values of 3 sin x – cos x,
(b) solve the equation 12 cos θ – 5 sin θ = 0, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2. and the corresponding values of x in the interval [0 , 2].

(c) sketch the graph of y = 12 cos θ – 5 sin θ = for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2, and determine the (b) Sketch the graph of y = 3 sin x – cos x for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2.
range of values of θ in this interval satisfying the inequality
(c) Solve the equation | 3 sin x – cos x | = 1 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2, and
–5 ≤ 12 cos θ – 5 sin θ ≤ 0.
deduce the set of values of x in the interval [0 , 2] which satisfies
Let 12 cos θ – 5 sin θ = r cos (θ + ) = r cos θ.cos  – r sin θ.sin 
the inequality | 3 sin x – cos x | < 1.
 r cos  = 12 and r sin  = 5
5
 tan  =   = 0.39479 , r = 122  52 = 13 3 sin x – cos x = r sin (x – ) = r (sin x. cos  – cos x. sin )
12
 12 cos θ – 5 sin θ = 13 cos (θ + 0.39479)  r cos  = 3 , r sin  = 1
(a) Minimum value = –13 , Maximum value = 13 1 
(b) 12 cos θ – 5 sin θ = 0 : 13 cos (θ + 0.39479) = 0  tan  =  = and r = ( 3 )2  12 = 2
3 6
 3 o o
 cos (θ + 0.39479) = 0  θ + 0.39479 = , (Accept 90 , 270 ) 
2 2  3 sin x – cos x = 2 sin (x – )
 θ = 1.1760 , 4.3176 6
(c) 5 5 2
cos (θ + 0.39479) = – (a) Min. = –2 , when x = and Max. = 2 , when x =
y 12 3 3
13
12  θ + 0.39479 = 1.9656 , 4.3176 (b)
y (c) | 3 sin x – cos x | = 1
 θ = 1.5708 , 3.9228 2

2 sin (x –
)=±1
y=1 6

2 θ
1
● ● 
x– =– ,
 7  11
, or
0 5 6 6 6 6
–5 0 3   5
2 2 x x– = ,
6 6 6
–13 –1 3  4
● y = –1
● ●  x=0,
3
,,
3
, 2
–5 ≤ 12 cos θ – 5 sin θ ≤ 0  –5 ≤ 13 cos (θ + 0.39479) ≤ 0
–2
 {θ | 1.176 ≤ θ ≤ 1.571 or 3.923 ≤ θ ≤ 4.318}
 4
| 3 sin x – cos x | < 1  (0 ,
3
) U ( ,
3
) OR { x | 0 < x < 3 or <x<
4
3
}

1-21
 o o
eg 4 Solve the equation cos x – 2 sin x = 2 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 360 . Alternative 3
2 2
Let cos x – 2 sin x = r cos (x + ) = r cos x cos  – r sin x sin  cos x – 2 sin x = 2 : (cos x) = (2 sin x + 2)
2 2
 r cos  = 1 and r sin  = 2  cos x = 4 sin x + 8 sin x + 4
2
 5 sin x + 8 sin x + 3 = 0  (5 sin x + 3)(sin x + 1) = 0
 tan  = 2 and r = 12  22 = 5
3 o o o
  = tan
−1
2 = 63.43
o  sin x = – or sin x = –1  x = 270 , 216.87 , 323.13
5
o
 cos x – 2 sin x = 5 cos (x + 63.43 ) since
o o
cos 270 – 2 sin 270 = 2
o o
 cos x – 2 sin x = 2  5 cos (x + 63.43 ) = 2
o cos 216.87 – 2 sin 216.87 = 0.4 (≠ 2)
o o
o 2 o o o o o
cos 323.13 – 2 sin 323.13 = 2
cos (x + 63.43 ) =  x + 63.43 = 360 – 26.57 , 360 + 26.57 o o
5  x = 270 , 323.1
o o
 x = 270 , 323.1
Alternative 4
cos x – 2 sin x = 2 . . . . . (  sin x)  (cot x – 2) = (2 cosec x)
2 2
Alternative 1 2 2 2
 cot x – 4 cot x + 4 = 4 cosec x  3 cot x + 4 cot x = 0
2 tan y 2t 2t 1 t 2
Let x = 2y , tan y = t : tan x = =  sin x = , cos x =
 cot x (3 cot x + 4) = 0  cot x = 0 or tan x = –
3
1  tan2 y 1 t2 1 t2 1 t 2 4
o o o o
1 t 2 2t 2 2  x = 90 , 270 , 143.13 , 323.13
cos x – 2 sin x = 2 : – 2( )=2  1 – t – 4t = 2 + 2 t
since
o o
cos 90 – 2 sin 90 = –2 (≠ 2)
1 t 2
1 t 2
o o
2 cos 270 – 2 sin 270 = 2
 3t + 4t + 1 = 0  (3t + 1)(t + 1) = 0 o o
1 cos 143.13 – 2 sin 143.13 = –2 (≠ 2)
o o
 t = tan y = –1 , –  y = 135 , 161.57 o o
cos 323.13 – 2 sin 323.13 = 2
3
o o
o
 x = 2y = 270 , 323.1
o  x = 270 , 323.1

Alternative 2
2 2
cos x – 2 sin x = 2 : (cos x – 2 sin x) = 2
2 2
cos x – 4 cos x sin x + 4 sin x = 4
2
 4 cos x sin x + 3 cos x = 0  cos x (4 sin x + 3 cos x) = 0
3 o o o o
 cos x = 0 or tan x = –  x = 90 , 270 , 143.13 , 323.13
4
o o
since cos 90 – 2 sin 90 = –2 (≠ 2)
o o
cos 270 – 2 sin 270 = 2
o o
cos 143.13 – 2 sin 143.13 = –2 (≠ 2)
o o
cos 323.13 – 2 sin 323.13 = 2
o o
 x = 270 , 323.1

1-22