Digital Architecture: Theory, Media and Design

Yu-Tung LIU
College of Architecture (Preparatory Office), National Chiao-Tung University,
Taiwan

Keywords: cognition, computing, digital design media

Abstract: Computers, the new digital media, liberate the duality of concepts of space in human
civilization. The construction and simulation powers of digital media trigger all kinds of
unlimited imagination. The new space of this kind may be called digital space or virtual
space. This new space is between mental and physical spaces because it provides
designers with not only unlimited imaginality of mental space but also live-inside
perception of physical space. A new concept of space of mankind is thus generated.

1 INTRODUCTION
The history of architecture could be regarded, in some sense, a history of
developments of form and space (Liu 1998). Initially, designers manipulated space
by using architectural methods in order to interpret what they observed from lines
and shapes in the natural environments, which are basically and mostly free-curved.
Although what they saw and what they could imagine was unlimitedly free, the
architectural forms that they could create were unfortunately limited. Due to the
limitations of design representation, architectural materials, structural and
construction technology, what they could do was simply producing limited
geometric lines to reflect the unlimited free-forms observed from the natural
environment. The fruitfulness generated during the process from observation to
imagination and the limitation facing the human architect in the process from
imagination to creation are the cognitive and biological sadness of human architects.
There is no difference in this regard in the Eastern and Western history.
Architectural design sometimes develops based on this kind of limitation and
spontaneous sadness; and architectural theory consequently evolves philosophically
and phenomenally in order to interpret the distinction between artefacts and nature.
On the other hand, artists do not need to be limited by the use of any representation
techniques and architectural technology, the freedom of art is thus far beyond the
freedom of architecture. This becomes critical distinction between pure arts and
architecture (Liu 2002).
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2 A COGNITIVE/ COMPUTATIONAL STUDY ON

SPATIALITY
Space has long been an important concept in architecture; and architectural spaces
and forms have been continuously evolved due to the appearance of new concepts of
space. Since the invention of Internet, new spaces have been created through the
computer. To understand how human beings in the digital age experience these new
virtual spaces, and to discover the implications of the possible new concepts of
space into the physical architectural world, research papers on spatiality discuss the
nature of virtual spaces by examining the verbal and visual elements involved in the
creation of a sense of virtual spaces (Liu 2001; Huang et al. 2002; Chang et al. 2002).
To synthesize the findings mentioned above, we could find three “core elements” of
virtual spaces; that is, the three elements which appear in both the verbal and visual
categories: movements, interactions, and acoustic effects. Described human
movements in the textual environment or object/human figure movements physically
viewed on the computer screen are considered by all the subjects as one of the two
most important categories of virtual space elements. Another most important
category is “interactions”, including verbal interactions and verbally described
physical interactions between/ among participants in chatrooms and MUDs, and any
kinds of human-computer interactions. The other core element type covers both
music and acoustic effects of any kinds. Different from the first two categories,
acoustic effects, although marked by all the subjects as one of the crucial elements
of visually created virtual spaces, they were marked by only five subjects in the
textual environments. This phenomenon can be explained, however, by the fact that
in the textual environment, the subjects did not really hear sounds; they felt
temporarily in an aural space only through imagination.
In addition, according to our interviews with the subjects in this study and our
informal online conversations with other Internet users, verbally created virtual
spaces are different from visually created ones. In general, for all the subjects in this
study, verbally presented virtual spaces evoke a sense of space at a degree much
higher than visually created virtual spaces because in the former, the space of
imagination is much larger. All of our subjects pointed out that when viewing the
visual presentations on the screen, the kind of spaces they felt is a space “out there”.
They felt like they were watching TV, movies, or cartoons. The spaces presented in
front of them are thus separated from them by the appearance of the computer. Just
as Strate (1999) states, they are “on the outside looking in”; they don’t feel that they
are “in” those virtual spaces. Only in one condition, they could begin to feel like
being in a space, that is, in situations where the animation and simulation
presentations are visually as real as the physical world.
On the other hand, verbally created virtual spaces are not physically seen, they are
spaces in the mind; they are spaces of imagination; and they are spaces of
uncertainty. However, although invisible, as our subjects testify, once they log in
and enter, say a chatroom, they feel that they are in a space already. The feeling of
being in a space is so real, although the shape of the space is vague.
All the verbal and visual elements of virtual spaces discovered through various
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experiments and interviews are preliminarily presented. It is found that the three
core elements of both verbally and visually constructed virtual spaces are:
movements, interactions, and acoustic effects. In addition, a comparison between
verbally and visually constructed spaces, and between physical and virtual spaces
are explored. Further studies related to the role of digital media in the construction
of a sense of space are suggested.

3 PHYSICAL AND VIRTUAL DEVELOPMENTS ON

DIGITAL MEDIA
Digital media including the CAD/CAM technology, rapid-prototyping, Internet, VR-
cave, motion capture, 3-D body scanner, and blue-screen have already influenced
both design/ construction process and the concept of spaces (Mitchell 1999; Liu
2001; Liu and Bai 2001; Tan et al. 2002). Since 1990, the digital design process and
its corresponding construction procedure have been implemented by several
pioneering architects, such as Peter Eisenmen and Frank Gehry (Figure 1). What is
needed to explore and to discuss at present is the new concept of space, especially
the so-called virtual space, and the implications of virtual spaces to physical spaces.
On the other hand, cognitively speaking, in real and physical space, people and
designers experience the space through sensory perceptions. Human perception is
constituted by both visual and verbal codes (Agnew 1993; Gould 1998; Chang 1999;
Maher1999; Strate 1999; Chen et al. 2002).

Figure 1 Headquarter Office of GreatLink Corporation (Shenzhen, China, 2002-

2003, AleppoZONE)

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3.1 The Identity in Physical and Virtual Spaces

In the new digital age, the most pressing issues facing our society is the question of
identity, both in terms of how we conduct our daily lives and in terms of our sense
of individuality. In the real world, each person’s character is shaped according to his
or her culture, society, knowledge, economics, etc. And each individual, in turn,
must interact with a pool of other individuals. For example, think of how an
intellectual would choose to express himself. A man must conform to the expected
image of a “man” created by society; A “Punk-Rock” teenager is expected to be
rebellious; a thirty-year old woman is expected to be elegant; a child is expected to
be innocent; a senior citizen is expected to be kind and gentle. These frameworks for
identification are both innate to the individual and are also acquired traits, which
have, in a sense, become irremovable shackles, pigeonholing individuals according
to prescribed categories.

3.2 The Compromise of Architecture in Physical and Virtual

Spaces
In the digital age, both the field of architecture and architects themselves must face
the myriad of developmental conundrums and restrictions outlined above. In the real
world, not only is architecture shackled by concepts such as culture, economics, and
politics, but also by restrictions on construction materials, construction methods,
gravity, the laws of physics, etc. Thus, in the real world, architects must make
significant compromises to their abstract visions so as to conform to the restrictions
outlined above.
At the same time, architects often have new and exciting ideas, but because they are
expected to conform to the way society expects architects to be, their true nature or
true imagination is bound up and silenced. In such an environment, the concept of
identity keeps architects from releasing their true imagination as one could, say, in
designing an intense and active world to be sued in a video game. Similarly, since
real world building construction requires following a multitude of guidelines and
restrictions, not to mention the restrictions placed on the architect himself in terms
of conforming to a particular identity, it is easy to see how extremely constrictive
and limiting the entire process can be.
In cyberspace, however, all of these restrictions are removed and imagination can
flourish; the laws of nature can be suspended; things can be changed at will;
building costs are irrelevant; construction methods are irrelevant; the concept of
personal identify hindering one’s actions no longer applies. In cyberspace, an
architect’s multifaceted identity can be released. Thus physical space and virtual
space are to be equally important developmental arenas for architects as we move
forward.

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3.3 The Coexistence of Physical and Virtual Spaces

It can be said then that both physical and virtual spaces have been particularly
affected by the new developments in digital technology (Figure 2). Digital
technology can allow designing efforts for both physical and virtual spaces to thrive,
with both worlds able to survive. Accordingly, one can move easily and instantly
between physical and virtual spaces, making the integration of both realms and
important concept for architecture in the coming years.

Figure 2 Motion-capture in Virtual Chung’Ann (Taipei, 2002, AleppoZONE)

4 DIGITAL IMPACTS ON ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

It can be said then that both physical and virtual spaces have been particularly
affected by the new developments in digital media. Digital media can allow
designing efforts for both physical and virtual spaces to thrive, with both worlds able
to survive. Accordingly, one can move easily and instantly between physical and
virtual spaces, making the integration of both realms and important concept for
architecture in the coming years (Liu 2002; Liu et al. 2002). Two practical projects
which applied various digital media in the beginning of the design processes had
been constructed in order to implement the idea of coexistence of physical and
virtual spaces. In the first project, CAD/CAM, 3-dimensional scanning and rapid-
prototyping had been efficiently used. The design team had mentioned (Figure 3):
After the design phase, various free-form elements were tested and fabricated.
Actually from this time, we entered into a much more challenging phase. There were
no any modular or standardized frame or surface in the design. In fact, there was no
module at all! We should be able to control a high degree of accuracy and efficiency
for producing all different angles and curves. Because in Taiwan, the technological
quality of architectural industry is still insufficient and unfamiliar with these kinds
of digital processes and requirements, the design team searched for assistance from
high-tech industrial design companies and even car design companies, to test
accurate laser-cutting and rapid-prototyping technologies. All free-angled folded
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frames and surfaces as well as all free-curved plastic surfaces were pre-fabricated
by February 13, 2001. From then on, the challenge and goal during the site
assembly phase were to guide the labours how to assembly these digital elements to
the level of 0.5mm accuracy. Both supervisors of the contractor and the design team
discussed (with occasional arguments) back and forth numerous times for solving all
kinds of problems we wouldn’t imagine in regular design projects. The project was
completed on June 15, 2001. It took us six months and 20 days. (Liu et al. 2002, p.
48-49)

Figure 3 Reception Lobby of Bcom Corporation (Taipei, 2000-2001, AleppoZONE)

In the second project, in addition to the fore-mentioned digital media, VR-cave,

head-mounted displays and tactile gloves, are further used to increase the “real”
space. The design team had mentioned (Figure 4):
How big is enough for a museum? In the history of architecture, even though people
wished to construct their buildings as big as possible, they failed due to human
limits on materials, structure, gravity, and even human perception as well as vision.
A museum is never big enough if it is a physical one. In terms of physical media, all
the physical elements of architecture are limited in increasing the spatiality of
buildings. Physical space, even it is huge, is finite. In contrast, virtual elements of
architecture are able to augment human perception of spatiality in terms of digital
media and technology. In other words, virtual space, even it is tiny, is relatively
infinite. The statement here is not yet complete: is virtual space big enough for a
museum, even it is relatively and almost infinite? The answer is rather clear. The
virtual space is still limited when compared with human imagination. Therefore the
coexistence of physical and virtual spaces is so far the only direction to try the idea
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of “boundless space”. (Liu et al. 2002, p. 13-14)

Figure 4 Virtual Space in the Quanta Virtual Museum (Kuei-Shan, Taiwan 2002-2004,
AleppoZONE)

5 CONCLUSION: TOWARDS A MACRO DIGITAL

THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE
The history of architecture, to some extend, could then be regarded a history for
developing concepts of space. Therefore, architecture would dramatically evolve
whenever the concepts of space of mankind crucially evolve. Human beings possess
spontaneous spatial capacity; we may call the space of this kind mental space. For
instance, we realize the ideas of heaven and hell to be called theological space in
religion; we follow symbols and taboos to define ritual space in anthropology; and
social space in sociology, psychological space in psychology, text space in literature,
expression space in music. These mental spaces almost have no boundaries and
consequently provide designers with unlimited imagination for thinking. However,
the only limitation is that mental space fails to form the lived-in perception. In other
words, mental space enables people to imagine unlimitedly, but it is too abstract to
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feel inside the space.

5.1 Dual Concept of Space

In contrast to mental space construct by human mental capacity, on the other hand,
we construct physical space by artefacts. Although we always expect that the
creation of physical space is unlimited, actually it is limited in many ways. For
instance, in the developments of architectural space, the physical space had been
evolved from solid mass in Egyptian pyramids, void space in Tao, in-between space,
inside-out spaces and so on. In the developments of building construction and
materials, we had invented numerous technologies which enables designers to build
from small to big, from low- to high-rise, and from solid to light constructions.
Moreover, due to the digital technology, totally free spaces and buildings like
Gehry’s Bilbao Museum could be born by the end of 20th century. In the
developments of design thinking media, we had represented design thinking through
architectural plans, elevations, and sections since Egyptian period. In order to
capture spatial and constructional complexity, in Renaissance, architects had begun
to use physical models in all ranges of scales. Finally we developed totally unlimited
free-form thinking thanks to digital media. In summary, we expect that physical
space could be unlimited for design thinking driving by the unlimited capacity of
mental space, but it is limited by nature. However, due to the evolution of
construction, materials, and media, the boundaries of physical space evolved a bit in
history. Therefore, although physical space could not enables people to imagine
unlimitedly, it is very concrete to feel inside the space.
In the long run, architects had struggled between the conflicts “imaginable and
unimaginable” and “ inside or not inside”. The complimentary concepts of physical
and mental spaces had led architecture for thousands years. Designers eager to
possess endless imagination in association with in-side spatial perception, but we
eventually fail. Only the paper architecture could bridge the gap slightly because of
its concretion and unlimited imaginality; but the live-inside capacity remains poor.

5.2 Trine Concept of Space

Computers, the new digital media, liberate the duality of concepts of space in human
civilization. The construction and simulation powers of digital media trigger all
kinds of unlimited imagination. People could feel vividly inside the space we create
in the virtual reality cave simulator. Moreover, many people already spend hours a
day or even longer to “live in” a virtual place called cyberspace where the spatial
experience, human-environment interaction, and human-human interaction differ
heavily from those in physical space. People could arbitrarily hyper-link to other
places like in scenarios of sci-fi novels; the organisation of cyberspace extends the
current rigid adjacency of space. The new space of this kind may be called digital
space or virtual space. This new space is between mental and physical spaces
because it provides designers with not only unlimited imaginality of mental space
but also live-inside perception of physical space. A new concept of space of
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 Digital Architecture: Theory, Media and Design

mankind is thus generated (Liu et al. 2002; Wan et al. 2002).

The initial dual concept of space in architectural history has liberated. A new trine
concept of space is evolving sue to digital design media. From now on, people are
able to walk back and forth in mental, physical, and digital-virtual space as they
want. New media create new spaces; new spaces in turns create new architecture.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank members of AleppoZONE at NCTU, Taiwan: Yuan-
Zone Lee, Chao-Jen Wang, Sheng-Cheng Shih, Shen-Kai Tang, Chien-Hung Shih,
Wei-Yang Hsu, Chor-Kheng Lim, Shih-Ming Lu, Chi-Chiang Kuo, Chien-Hui
Wong, Guan-Ye Chen, Chien-Pu Huang, Yen-Liang Wu, Te Lai, Shi-Chien Hung,
Chia-Lun Chang, Kuo-Shang Huang, Yang-Chen Fan, Cheng-Yuan Lin, Maffee
Wan, Sheng-Chih Chen, Chien-Cheng Lin, Chien-Chao Chih, Kuang-Yuan Tsui,
Kuan-Yi Li, Hui-Ying Lu, Keo-Chien Shen, Jui-Yu Su, Yuan-Tze Chao, Ching-Hui
Huang, Ying-Shu Huang, Hui-lin Lee, Jen-Su Hui, Yu-Li Peng, for their great ideas
and explorations.

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