Lesson 2 Intellectual Revolutions that Defined Society

A. Definition of Science
1. Science as an idea – It includes ideas, theories, and all available systematic explanations and
observations about the natural and physical world.
2. Science as an intellectual activity. It encompasses a systematic and practical study of the natural and
physical world. This process of study involves systematic observation and experimentation.
3. Science as a body of knowledge. It is a subject or a discipline, a field of study, or a body of knowledge
that deals with the process of learning about the natural and physical world.
4. Science as a personal and social activity. This explains that science is both knowledge and activities
done by human beings to develop better understanding of the world around them. It is a means to
improve life and to survive in life. It is interwoven with people’s lives.

Scientific Revolution

Scientific revolution-was a period of enlightenment when the developments in the fields of

mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry transformed the views of society about
nature.
It is known as the golden age for people committed to scholarly life in science, but it was
deeply trying moment to some scientific individuals that led to their painful death or condemnation
from the religious institutions who tried to preserved their faith, religion and theological views.
Scientific revolution is very significant in the development of human beings, transformation
in the society, and in the formulation of scientific ideas.

B. Some intellectuals and their Revolutionary Ideas

Nicolaus Copernicus

Nicolaus Copernicus, Polish Mikołaj Kopernik, German Nikolaus Kopernikus, (born February 19,
1473, Toruń , Royal Prussia, Poland—died May 24, 1543, Frauenburg, East Prussia [now Frombork,
Poland])
He is one of the Renaissance men, particularly in the field of science.
He resembled the Greek ancient philosophers or thinkers, he did not do anything extensive such
as observing heavenly bodies or inviting people to test his ideas. His ideas called “thought
experiment”.
Copernicus appointed as canon at Frombork Cathedral in Poland after he finished his doctorate
degree.
He was strongly influenced by a book entitled “Epitome” published in 1496 by a German author,
Johannes Mueller. The book contains Meuller’s observations of the heavens and some commentary
on earlier works especially that of Ptolemy.

Charles Darwin
 Charles Darwin was born on February 12, 1809, in the tiny merchant town of Shrewsbury,
England. A child of wealth and privilege who loved to explore nature, Darwin was the second
youngest of six kids.
Darwin came from a long line of scientists: His father, Dr. R.W. Darwin, was a medical doctor,
and his grandfather, Dr. Erasmus Darwin, was a renowned botanist.
Charles Darwin is famous for his theory of evolution. He changed our concept of the world’s
creation and it evolution.
Darwin published his book “The Origin of Species” in 1589. This book is considered to be the
one of the most important works in scientific literature. His book presented evidence on how species
evolved over time and presented traits and adaptation that differentiate species.
Darwin’s book entitled “The Descent of Man” was so impressive yet very controversial. In this
book he introduced the idea of all organic life, including human beings, under the realm of
evolutionary thinking. This replaced the dominant views of a religious or biblical design that places
human beings in a privileged position of having been created by God.

Darwin’s major contributions in two diverse fields:

1. Evolutionary biology
2. Philosophy of Science

Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud (/frɔɪd/ FROYD;German: [ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt]; born Sigismund Schlomo Freud; 6
May 1856 – 23 September 1939) was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a
clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a
psychoanalyst.
According to Rosenfels (1980), he described Freud as a towering literary figure and a very
talented communicator who did his share to raise the consciousness of the civilized world in
psychological matters.

C. Cradles of Early Science

C.1. Development of Science in Mesoamerica

Mesoamerica includes the entire area of Central America from Southern Mexico up to the border of
South America.
Civilizations in Mesoamerica

1. Maya civilization
2. Inca civilization
3. Aztec civilization

Maya civilization is one of the famous civilizations that lasted for approximately 2,000 years. Known
for their works in astronomy.

Development in Science

a. Knowledge and understanding about celestial bodies

b. Predict eclipse using astrological cycles in planting and harvesting
c. Knowledge on measuring time using two complicated calendar systems.
d. Develop the technology for growing different crops and building cities using ordinary machineries
and tools
e. Built hydraulics system with sophisticated waterways to supply water to different communities.
f. Built looms for weaving cloth and devised a rainbow of glittery paints made from a mineral called
mica.
g. Produced rubber products
h. Known for writing system, hieroglyphics.
i. Skills in mathematics and created a number system based on the numeral 20.
j. Developed the concept of zero and positional value.

Inca civilization
The Incas made advanced scientific ideas considering their limitations as an old civilization

Scientific ideas and tools developed:

a. Roads paved with stones

b. Stone buildings that surmounted earthquakes or other disasters
c. Irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all types of land.
d. Calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for planting season
e. The first suspension bridge
f. Quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts can interpret
g. Incas textiles since cloth was one of the specially prized artistic achievements

Aztec civilization

Some of the Aztec contributions in science and technology are the following:

1. Mandatory education – the children are mandated to get education regardless of their social
class, gender, or age. It is an early form of universal or inclusive education.
2. Chocolates- developed chocolates during their time, they highly valued cacao beans and it as a
part of their tribute to their gods.
3. Antispasmodic medication – medication that prevents muscle spasms and relax muscles, which
could help during surgery.
4. Chinampa – technology for agricultural farming in which the land was divided into rectangular
areas and surrounded by canals.
5. Aztec calendar – enable them to plan their activities, rituals, and planting season.
6. Invitation of the canoe – a light narrow boat used for traveling in water systems.
C.2. Development in Asia

Asia is the biggest continent in the world and the home of many ancient civilizations. It is a host to
many cultural, economic, scientific and political activities of all ages.

In the field of science, technology and mathematics the following great civilizations contributed to the
development of knowledge during their time:

1. India
2. China
3. Middle East Countries

India

India is a huge peninsula surrounded by vast bodies of water and fortified by huge mountains in its
northern boarders.

The following contributions of Indians in science and technology:

a. Iron manufacturing and metallurgical works. The iron steel of Indians considered to be the best and held
high regard in the whole Roman Empire.

b. Medicine – Ayurveda, a system of traditional medicine that originated in ancient India before 2500 BC, and
still practiced as a form of alternative medicine.

c. Astronomy – developed theories on the configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting Earth,
and the year of 360 days with 12 equal parts of 30 days each.

d. Mathematics – standardized measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy and designed a ruler, the
Mohenjodaro ruler.

e. Introduced a number of trigonometric functions, tables and techniques, as well as algorithms of algebra.

f. Indian also suggested that gravity was a force of attraction and simply explained the use of zero as both a
placeholder and a decimal digit.

g. Hindu-Arabic numeral system.

China

China is one of the ancient civilizations with substantial contributions in many areas of life like
medicine, astronomy, science, mathematics, arts, philosophy, and music, among others.

a. Traditional medicine –discovered various medical properties and uses of different plants and
animals to cure human illness. Example; practice of acupuncture
b. Technology- developed many tools; discovered and invented many things like; compass,
papermaking, gunpowder, and printing tools. Invented iron plough, wheelbarrow, and propeller.
Developed a design of different models of bridges, invented the first seismological detector and
developed dry lock facility.
c. Astronomy – made significant record on supernovas, lunar and solar eclipses, and comets, which
were carefully recorded and preserved to understand better the heavenly bodies and their effects to
our world.
Middle East Countries

The Middle East countries are dominantly occupied by Muslims. 7th and 8th centuries is the period of
the widespread of Islam, they called it as Golden Age of Islam lasted until the 13 th century.

The common language of Arabic, access to Greek texts from the Byzantine Empire, and their proximity
to India were contributory to the intellectualization of the Muslims.

Muslim scientists placed greater value on science experiments rather than plain thought experiments. This
led to the development of scientific method in the Muslim world.

Ibn-al-Haytham is regarded as the Father of Optics, especially for his empirical proof of the
intromission theory of light.

In mathematics, Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of the algorithm
while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr. Made several refinements to the number system, such as the
introduction of decimal point notation.

In Medicine, Ibn Sina pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was the first physician to
conduct clinical trials. His notable works in medicine, the Book of Healing and the Canon of Medicine, were
used as standard medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe during the 17 th century. He
discovered the contagious nature of infectious diseases and the introduction of clinical pharmacology. C.3.
Development of Science in Africa

Africa is blessed with natural and mineral resources.

The ancient Egyptian civilization has contributed immensely and made significant advances in the
fields of astronomy, mathematics, and medicine.

The development of geometry was a product of necessity to preserve the layout ownership of
farmlands of the Egyptians living along the Nile River. Egyptians pyramids and the early dams built to divert
water from the Nile River are some proof of their advanced civilization.

Egypt was known to be the center of alchemy, which is known as the medieval fore runner of
chemistry. Egyptians tried to study human anatomy and pharmacology.

Astronomy- Africans used three types of calendar; lunar, solar and stellar, or a combination of the
three.

Metallurgy – invented metal tools used in their homes, in agriculture and in building their
magnificent architectures.

Mathematics – The Lebombo Bone from the mountains between Swaziland and South Africaa,
which may have been tool for multiplication, division and simple mathematical calculation or a six-month
lunar calendar. They have basic knowledge of the concept of algebra and geometry.