Unit IV, Some Topics On Integration
Unit IV, Some Topics On Integration
Unit IV
Some Topics on Integration
The following are some basic facts from algebra that are very important for our discussion.
1. A non-constant polynomial is called reducible if it can be written as the product of two polynomials of
smaller degree; otherwise it is called irreducible.
2. A polynomial of degree 2, ax2 + b x + c is irreducible only if b2 – 4ac < 0.
3. Any polynomial of degree at least 3 is reducible.
2 x3
Example 1 Integrate
x2 3
dx .
Solution Degree (2x3) = 3 and degree (x2 + 3) = 2. Hence we need to use long division.
2 x3 6x
Now = 2x − .
x2 3 x2 3
2 x3 x x
Thus dx = 2 x dx − 6 dx = x2 − 6 dx
x2 3 x2 3 x2 3
x
Now let u = x2 + 3, then du = 2x dx and 6 dx = 3 du = 3 ln u + c.
x2 3 u
2 x3
Therefore, 2
dx = x2 − 3 ln (x2 +3) + c.
x 3
II. Factor the numerator and the denominator of the proper rational expression, obtained in 1, into
expressions of the form:
Constants, (x − a)r , and (x2 + bx + c)s where r and s are in N. Factor quadratic factors whenever
possible. Finally, reduce the fraction if any common factors appear in both the numerator and the
denominator.
2x 4
Example 2 Integrate dx .
x 2 3x 2
Solution 2x + 4 = 2(x + 2) and x2 + 3x + 2 = (x + 1) (x + 2).
2x 4 2 2x 4 dx
Hence 2
x 3x 2
=
x 1
and x 2 3x 2
dx = 2
x 1
= 2 ln x 1 + c.
2x 4
Therefore, x 2 3x 2
dx = 2 ln x 1 + c.
Proof ( ) If x − a is the factor of P(x), then there is a polynomial R(x) such that
P(x) = (x − a) R(x).
Then P(a) = (a − a) R(a) = 0.
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Unit IV Some Topics on Integration
Therefore, P(a) = 0.
2 x2 1
Example 3 Integrate ( x 1)3
dx .
2 x2 1
Solution Let g (x) = .
( x 1)3
A B C
Then g(x) = + + A (x – 1)2 + B (x – 1) + C = 2x2 + 1, x 1,
x 1 (x 1) 2 (x 1)3
where A, B and C are constants.
Now we need to determine values of the constants A, B and C.
The simples method is to replace x by the values of x for which the denominator is undefined.
If x = 1, then C = 3,
if x = 0, then A – B + C = 1, and hence B – A = 2, i)
and if x = 2, then A + B + C = 9, consequently B + A = 6. ii)
From i) and ii) we get:
B – A = 2 and B + A = 6 A = 2 and B = 4.
2 x2 1 dx dx dx
Thus, dx = 2 + 4 (x 1) 2
+ 3 ( x 1)3
= 2 ln x 1 –
( x 1)3 x 1
4 3
– + c,
x 1 2 (x 1) 2
where c .
2x 2 1 4 3
Therefore, (x 1)3
dx = 2 ln x 1 –
x 1
–
2 (x 1) 2
+ c, where c .
2x2 2x 1
Example 4 Integrate
x3 x 2 2
dx .
Solution x3 + x2 – 2 = (x – 1) (x2 + 2x + 2 ).
Since 22 – 4 1 2 = – 4 and ( 2) 2 4 2 1 = – 4, both x2 + 2x + 2 and 2 x 2 2 x 1 are
irreducible
and hence 2 x 2 2 x 1 and x2 + 2x + 2 are irreducible polynomials.
Now we need to determine A, B and C such that
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Unit IV Some Topics on Integration
2x2 2x 1 A Bx C
= + 2
x3 x 2 2 x 1 x 2x 2
2x2 2x 1 dx x 1
Thus dx = + x2 2x 2
dx
x3 x 2 2 x 1
x 1
= ln x 1 + x2 2x 2
dx . iii)
2x2 2x 1
Therefore, 3
2
dx = ℓn x 1 +
x x
1
2
ℓn x 2 2 x 2 + c, where c .
2
dx
Example 5 Integrate
x (x 2 1) 2
.
Hence f ( x ) dx = f ( g (u )) g (u ) du .
substitutions are especially valuable when the integral contains square roots of the form a2 x2 ,
a 2 x 2 or x2 a2 , where a > 0.
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Unit IV Some Topics on Integration
I) Integrals containing a 2 x 2 .
If an integral contains a 2 x 2 with a > 0, then
let x = a sin u where – u so that a cos u 0. a
2 2 x
Then dx = a cos u du and a 2 x 2 = a cos u.
dx a2 x2
Example 6 Integrate 2 .
x 16 x 2
Solution Let x = 4 sin u, then dx = 4 cos u du.
4
dx 1 1 x
Thus 2 2 =
2
csc u du = – 16 cot u c
x 16 x 16
= –
16 x 2
+ c 16 x 2
16 x
dx 16 x 2
Therefore, 2 =– + c, where c .
x 16 x 2 16 x
2
x dx
Example 7 Integrate .
16 x 2
Solution Let x = 4 sin u, then dx = 4 cos u du.
2
x dx 2 u du
Thus = 16 sin 4
16 x 2
x
1
2
since sin u = (1– cos 2u) and sin 2u = 2 sin u cos u,
2
2 1 1 x
2
dx 16 x 2
sin u du = 2 u – 4 sin 2u + c. Hence = 8u – 4 sin 2u + c
16 x 2
2
x dx x x
Therefore, = 8 sin – 1 – 16 x 2 + c, where c .
16 x 2 4 2
5
2
Example 8 Integrate 25 4 x 2 dx .
5
2
Solution Let 2x = 5 sin u, then 2 dx = 5 cos u du.
5
2 2
25
Thus 25 4 x 2 dx = cos
2
u du 5
2 2x
5
2 2
2525 4 x 2
2
25 2
=
4 (1 cos 2 u ) du =
25
4
1
(u sin 2u )
2
=
4
.
2 2
5
2
Therefore, 25 4 x 2 dx = 25 .
4
5
2
II) Integrals containing a 2 x 2 .
dx
Example 9 Integrate 2 .
x 1 x2
1 x 2
dx sec u cos u
Thus 2 = tan 2u du = sin 2u du x
x 1 x2
1 1 x2 1
= +c =– +c
sin u x
dx 1 x2
Therefore , 2 =– + c, where c .
x 16 x 2 x
dx
Example 10 Integrate .
4 16 x 2
dx 1 1 1 4 x 2
Thus = sec u du = ln sec u tan u +c
4 16 x 2 4 4 2x
1
= ln ( 1 4 x 2 2 x) + c
4 1
dx 1
Therefore, 2 = ln ( 1 4 x 2 2 x) , where c .
4 16 x 4
III) Integrals containing x 2 a 2 .
3
let x = a sec u where 0 u < or u < so that x
2
x2 a2
x2 a2 = a tan u and dx = a tan u sec u du.
3
x2 9 a
Example 11 Integrate x
dx .
6
Solution Let x = 3 sec u, then dx = 3 sec u tan u du.
3
x2 9 3 (sec 2 u 1) du
x
Thus dx = 2x
x 4
6
3
=
3 (tan u u )
4 = − 3 3.
a
3
3
x2 9
Therefore , dx = − 3 3 .
6 x
6
dx
Example 12 Integrate 4
.
x2 9
3 2 x
Solution Let x = 3 sec u, then dx = 3 sec u tan u du.
6
3
x 2
dx 1
cos 3 u du
x 9
Thus 4 x2 9
=
81
5
3 2 x
4
3
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Unit IV Some Topics on Integration
3 3
1 1
= cos u du − sin 2 u cos u du
81 81
4 4
3 3 1 3 3 5 2
1 1 .
= sin u − sin 3 u = 8
81 3 81 81 12
4 4
6
dx 1 3 3 5 2
Therefore, =
8 .
3 2 x4 x2 9 81 12
dx 1
Therefore, = ln 3 x 1 (3 x 1) 2 1 + c.
9x2 6 x 2 3
Example 14 Integrate
x 2 6 x 5 dx .
Solution x2 + 6x + 5 = (x + 3)2 − 4.
Now let x + 3 = 2 sec u, then dx = 2 sec u tan u du. x 3 2
x 6x 5
2 5
Thus
x 2 6 x 5 dx = 4 tan u sec u du
3
= 4 sec u du − 4 sec u du
2
= 2 sec u tan u − 2 ln sec u tan u + c.
1 x3 x2 6x 5
= ( x 3) x2 6 x 5 2 ln + c.
2 2 2
1 x3 x2 6x 5
x2 6 x 5
Therefore,
x 2 6 x 5 dx = 2
( x 3) 2 ln
2
2
+
c.
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Unit IV Some Topics on Integration
Definite integrals with either the integrand or the interval of integration is unbounded are called
Improper integral.
We say that f is unbounded near c if f is unbounded either on every open interval of the form (c, x) or (x, c).
1 1
f(x) = and g(x) = are examples of functions that are unbounded near 0.
x x
I) Consider a function f that is continuous on (a, b] and unbounded near a.
b
Now f is continuous on [c, b] for any c (a, b) and hence f ( x) dx is defined for such c. If the one sided
c
limit
b
lim
f ( x) dx
c a c
b b
Exists, then we define f ( x) dx to be that limit and say that the integral f ( x) dx converges.
a a
b b
Otherwise we say that f ( x) dx diverges and we write f ( x) dx = , where f is non-negative.
a a
2
dx
Example 15 Show that 1 converges and compute its value.
1 x (ln x ) 2
1
Solution Let f(x) = 1 . Now f is continuous on (1, 2] and is unbounded near 1.
x (ln x) 2
Let c (1, 2). We need to compute:
2
dx
1 .
c x (ln x ) 2
1 dx
Let u =
ln x 2 , then du = 1 .
x (ln x ) 2
2
dx 1 2 1 1
Thus 1 = 2 (ln x )
2 =
2 (ln 2) 2 −
2 (ln c) 2
c x (ln x ) 2 c
2
lim dx 1
lim 1
and c 1
1 = c 1 2 (ln 2 ) 2 2 (ln c ) 2
c x (ln x ) 2
2
dx 1
Therefore, 1 = 2 (ln 2) 2 .
1 x (ln x ) 2
2
ln x
Example 16 Show that x
dx diverges.
0
ln x
Solution Let f(x) = . Then f is continuous on (0, 2] and is unbounded near 0.
x
2 2
lim ln x lim 1 2
Now let c (0, 2).
c 0 x dx
c 0 2
(ln x )
c
c
1 2 lim 1
= (ln 2) − (ln c) 2 = −
2 c0 2
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Unit IV Some Topics on Integration
2
ln x
Therefore, x
dx diverges.
0
b
II) If f is continuous on (a, b) and is unbounded near both a and b, we say that f ( x) dx converges if for
a
d b
some point d in (a, b) both integrals f ( x) dx and f ( x) dx converge. Otherwise, we say that
a d
b
f ( x) dx diverges.
a
1
3x 2 1
Example 17 Determine whether
x x
3 3
dx converges.
0
Solution The integrand is unbounded near both 0 and 1 and is continuous on (0, 1).
1 1
3x 2 1
Let d =
1
. Now we need to analyze the convergence of
3 2
3x 1
dx and 1 3 x3 x
dx
.
3 3 3
x x
0 3
1 1
3 2
2
2
1 we’ve: 3x 2 1 = 3 x3 x 3 3 = 3 3
For 0 < c < − c c 3
3 3 x3 x
dx 2
c
3 2
c
1
3 lim
2
lim 3 2 2 3 3 = 2
and 3 x 1 = − c c
c0
3 dx 3 2 c 0
3
c 3 x x
c
3x 2 1 2 c
2
For
1 < c < 1,
3 x3 x
dx
=
3
x x 3 1 = 3 c3 c 3 −
3 2
3 1 2 2 3
3
3
c
3x 2 1
2
lim
dx 3 lim 2 2
c c 3 −
3
and 3 x3 x = =− .
c 1 1 2 c 1 3 3
3
1
3x 2 1
Therefore, 3 x3 x
dx = 0 and hence converges.
0
b
III) If f is continuous on [a, b] except at a point d in (a, b) near which f is unbounded. We say f ( x) dx
a
d b
converges if both integrals f ( x) dx and f ( x) dx converge. Otherwise, we say that
a d
b
f ( x) dx
a
diverges.
1 2
Example 18 Show that
x 3 dx converges.
1
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Unit IV Some Topics on Integration
2 1
2 2
lim lim 3 3 3 3
c0
c
x 3 dx = c 0 2 x
c
=
2
4 .
1 2
Therefore,
1
x 3 dx =
3
2
1 3 4 and hence converges.
2
1 1
Example 19 Show that
2
x
dx diverges.
1 x
1 1
Solution f(x) = is continuous on [- 1, 0) (0, 2] and f is unbounded near 0.
x x2
Let – 1 < c < 0.
c
1 1
Then
lim
dx = lim ln c 1 = − .
c0
1
x x2 c0 c
2
1 1
Therefore, 2
x
dx diverges.
1 x
a
Integrals of the form f ( x) dx and f ( x) dx are also called improper integrals.
a
b b
If f is continuous on [a, ), then f ( x) dx is a proper integral for any b a. If f ( x) dx exists,
a a
then
we say f ( x) dx converges, and
a
b
lim
f ( x) dx =
b f ( x) dx .
a a
Otherwise the integral diverges.
a
The improper integral
f ( x ) dx is handled in an analogous way.
Example 20 Find the area of the region bounded by the graph of y = (x + 1) – 3 and the non-negative x-axis.
dx
Solution A = ( x 1) 3 . For b 0 we get:
0
b
dx b 1
(1 − (b 1) 2 ).
1 2
= ( x 1) =
3 2 2
0 ( x 1)
0
b
lim dx 1 lim 1
2
Hence = − (b 1) = .
b
0 ( x 1) 3 2 b 2
1
Therefore, A = square units.
2
dx
Example 21 Show that diverges.
11 x
Solution For b 1 we’ve:
b
dx b
1 x = 2 ((1 + x ) − ln (1 + x )) 1
= 2 (1 + b ) − 2 ln (1 + b ) − 4 + 2 ln 2.
1
1 b
= 2 (− 1 + b ) − 2 ln ( ).
2
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Unit IV Some Topics on Integration
b
lim dx lim 1 b
Now
b 1 x
=2
b
( (− 1 + b ) − ln (
2
)) = .
1
dx
Therefore, 1 x
diverges.
1
d
We say that f ( x ) dx converges if both
f ( x ) dx and f ( x ) dx converge, for some d.
d
In this case
d
f ( x ) dx =
f ( x) dx + f ( x) dx .
d
x2
Example 22 Determine whether xe dx converges.
Solution The integrand is continuous on (− ∞, ∞).
0
x2 x2
Now consider the integrals xe dx and xe dx .
0
0 0
x2 lim x2 lim 1 x2 0 1
xe dx =
b xe dx =
b 2
e
b
=−
2
b
b
x2 lim x2 lim 1 x2 b 1
and xe dx =
b xe dx =
b
2
e
0
=
2
.
0 0
x2
Therefore, xe dx = 0 and hence converges.
4.3 More on Applications
4.3.1 Volume.
I) Cross Section Method.
y
Consider a solid region D. Suppose x [a, b] the
plane Perpendicular to the x-axis at x intersects D
A(x)
in a plane having a cross sectional area A(x).
If A(x) = A0 for a x b, then v = A0 (b − a)
and if A(x) = r2 for a x b, then a x b x
v = r2 (b − a) = volume of right circular cylinder
of radius r and height b − a.
Suppose the cross sectional area A of a three dimensional solid D is a continuous function on [a, b].
Let Ρ = x0, x1, x2, x3, … , xn be a partition of [a, b]. For each k ℕ between 1 and n, let tk be an arbitrary
number in the sub-interval [xk – 1, xk].
As Δxk = xk − xk - 1 tends to zero Δvk = The volume of the part of D between xk and xk – 1
A(tk)Δxk.
n n
Since v vk A(t k )xk . Which is the Riemann Sum for A on [a, b].
k 1 k 1
n b
lim
V= A(tk ) . xk = A( x) dx
P k 1 a
Therefore if a solid region D has a cross sectional area A(x) for a x b and if A is continuous on [a, b],
then we can define the volume of D by the formula
b
V= A( x) dx .
a
Example 23 Find the volume v of the solid D whose cross section at x is semicircular with radius
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Unit IV Some Topics on Integration
sin x for 0 x .
2
Solution The cross sectional area at x is given by:
1 2 2
A(x) = sin x and v = 1 sin 2 x dx
2 2
0
2 1 2 2
Hence v =
4 (1 cos 2 x) dx = 4 (x
2
sin 2 x )
0
=
8
0
Therefore, v =
2 cubic units.
8
Note that: We can reverse the role of x and y and integrate with respect to y by the corresponding formula:
d
v= A( y ) dy
c
Example 24 Find the volume v of the pyramid with square base 3 units on a side with height 4 units.
Solution Let the altitude of the pyramid coincides with the positive y-axis and the base with the x-axis.
Then the cross sectional area A(y) for any y [0, 4] is:
9 4 4 y
A(y) = (4 − y)2 , since = from similarity theorem for triangles
16 3 s( y )
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Unit IV Some Topics on Integration
h 3 3 4
= (a b ) r3
3 (a b) 3
1 2 2
Therefore, v = h ( a ab b ) cubic units.
3
III) The Washer Method.
If f and g are two non-negative continuous functions on [a, b] such that 0 g(x) f(x) for a x b, then
the volume v of the region, bounded by f and g on [a, b], generated by revolving the graphs of f and g
about the x-axis is:
f ( x) dx .
b
v= 2 g ( x) 2
a
If g(x) 0 for a x b, then the method of finding the volume v of the solid is called the Washer Method.
Example 27 Find the volume v of the solid generated by revolving the region between the graphs of
y = cos x + sin x and y = cos x − sin x about the x-axis on [0, ].
4
Solution Observe that tan x 1 x [0, ] and sin x, cos x 0 x [0, ].
4 4
Hence cos x − sin x 0 x [0, ].
4
(cos x sin x )
4
Thus v = 2 (cos x sin x ) 2 dx
0
4
4 =
= 2 sin 2 x dx = cos 2 x
0
0
Therefore, v = cubic units.
Note that: The Washer method holds true if and only if both f and g are of the same parity on [a, b].
Suppose a rectangle is bounded by the x-axis, the line y = c and the lines x = a and x = b where b a 0 and
c 0. If we revolve this rectangle about the y-axis, then the volume v of the cylindrical shell is the difference
between the volumes of the outer and inner cylinders.
Thus v = c (b2 − a2).
Now let f be a non-negative continuous function on [a, b] with a 0.
We wish to define the volume v of the solid region obtained by revolving about the y-axis, the region
between the graph of f and the x axis on [a, b].
Let P = x0, x1, x2, . . . ,xn be any partition on [a, b]. For k between 1 and n let tk be the mid-point of
[xk – 1, xk].
lim f (t ) ( x 2 x 2
Now vk k k k 1 )
xk 0 y
lim f (t ) ( x x x
k 1) ( k k 1)
x
k k
xk 0
lim 2 t f (t ) x
x 0 k k k
k
lim 2 t f (t ) x b x
Thus v = x 0
k
k k k = 2 x f ( x ) dx
a
Which is the Riemann Sum for 2 x f ( x ) on [a, b].
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Unit IV Some Topics on Integration
b
Therefore, v = 2 x f ( x ) dx .
a
This method of finding the volume v of a solid is called the Shell Method.
Example 28 Let R be the region between the graphs of y = x + x3 and y = x2 + 4x − 4 on [1, 2]. Find the
volume v generated by revolving R about the y-axis.
Solution Since x + x3 x2 + 4x − 4 x [1, 2].
2 2
v = 2 x ( x3 x 2 3 x 4) dx = 2 (x
4 x3 3 x 2 4 x ) dx
1 1
x5 2
x4 29
= 2 x3 2 x 2
=
5 4 1 10
29
Therefore, v = cubic units.
10
Example 29 Find the volume v of the solid generated by revolving the region between the
1 1
graphs of y = x2 and y = ( x 2 )2 + about the y-axis.
2 2
1 1
Solution y = x2 and y = ( x 2 )2 + y2 −2y +1 = 0 y = 1.Hence x = 1 or x = 3.
2 2
1 1
Since x [1, 3], ( x 2 )2 + x2 ,
2 2
3 2
1 2 1 3 2
V = 2 ( x 2) x 2 dx = ( x 2 x x) dx +
1
2 2 1
3
( x3 6 x 2 9 x) dx
2
7 3 4
= =
12 4 3
4
Therefore, v = cubic units.
3
L= b a f (b) f ( a ) 2
If f is not linear, then let P = x0, x1, x2, . . . , xnbe any partition of [a, b] and approximate the length of the
graph of f by a polygonal line whose vertices are (x0, f (x0)), (x1, f(x1)), . . . , (xn, f(xn)).
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Unit IV Some Topics on Integration
n
Thus L
1 f ' (t k ) 2 xk , which is the Riemann Sum for
1 f ' (tk ) 2 on [a,
k 1
n
2
lim b
b]. Therefore, P 0 k 1 1 f ' (tk ) xk =
1 f ' ( x) 2 dx .
a
Definition 4.1 Let f have a continuous derivative on [a, b], then the length L of the
graph of f on [a, b] is defined by:
b
L= 1 f ' ( x) 2 dx
a
1 2
Example 30 Find the length L of the graph of f on [1, 2] where f(x) = ln x − x .
8
1 1
Solution f ΄ (x) = − x.
x 4
2 2
1 1 2 1 1 2
Thus L = 1 x dx =
x 4
x dx
x 4
1 1
2 2 2
1 1 ln x x 3
= x 4
x dx =
8
1
=
8
+ ln 2
1
3
Therefore, L = + ln 2 units.
8
1 3 1 1
Example 31 Find the length L of the graph of f on [0, 1] where f(x) = x +x− tan x.
3 4
1 2 2
4 x2 1 1
x2 1 −
2
Solution f ΄ (x) = and (f ΄ (x)) = .
4 x2 1 4 x2 1
2
4 x2 1 1
2
x2 1
1
Thus 1
4 x 1
2
2
4 x 1
.
1 1
2
Hence L = x 1 dx
1
dx
4 0 x2 1
0
1 3 1 1 1
1 1
= x x + tan x = +
3 0 4 0 4 16
1
Therefore, L = + units.
4 16
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