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Unit IV, Some Topics On Integration

This document provides an overview of integration by partial fractions. It discusses preparing rational functions for integration by factoring the numerator and denominator and rewriting the function as a sum of partial fractions. Examples are provided to demonstrate how to determine the coefficients of the partial fractions. The goal is to rewrite the rational function as a sum that can be integrated term-by-term using known antiderivatives. Basic algebraic facts and a proof related to factoring polynomials are also presented.

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Abush Nigussie
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
229 views14 pages

Unit IV, Some Topics On Integration

This document provides an overview of integration by partial fractions. It discusses preparing rational functions for integration by factoring the numerator and denominator and rewriting the function as a sum of partial fractions. Examples are provided to demonstrate how to determine the coefficients of the partial fractions. The goal is to rewrite the rational function as a sum that can be integrated term-by-term using known antiderivatives. Basic algebraic facts and a proof related to factoring polynomials are also presented.

Uploaded by

Abush Nigussie
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOC, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Unit IV Some Topics on Integration

Unit IV
Some Topics on Integration

4.1 Integration by Trigonometric Substitution

4.1.1 Integration by Partial Fraction


In this section we set up a procedure how to integrate rational functions.

Some Algebraic Preliminaries

The following are some basic facts from algebra that are very important for our discussion.

1. A non-constant polynomial is called reducible if it can be written as the product of two polynomials of
smaller degree; otherwise it is called irreducible.
2. A polynomial of degree 2, ax2 + b x + c is irreducible only if b2 – 4ac < 0.
3. Any polynomial of degree at least 3 is reducible.

Preparing Rational Functions for Integration


We normally use the following procedures:
I. When applicable, divide the numerator of the rational function by its denominator, to insure that the
degree of the numerator of the resulting remainder is less than the degree of the denominator.

2 x3
Example 1 Integrate 
x2  3
dx .

Solution Degree (2x3) = 3 and degree (x2 + 3) = 2. Hence we need to use long division.

2 x3 6x
Now = 2x − .
x2  3 x2  3

2 x3 x x
Thus  dx = 2  x dx − 6  dx = x2 − 6  dx
x2  3 x2  3 x2  3
x
Now let u = x2 + 3, then du = 2x dx and 6  dx = 3 du = 3 ln u + c.
x2  3  u
2 x3
Therefore,  2
dx = x2 − 3 ln (x2 +3) + c.
x 3
II. Factor the numerator and the denominator of the proper rational expression, obtained in 1, into
expressions of the form:
Constants, (x − a)r , and (x2 + bx + c)s where r and s are in N. Factor quadratic factors whenever
possible. Finally, reduce the fraction if any common factors appear in both the numerator and the
denominator.
2x  4
Example 2 Integrate  dx .
x 2  3x  2
Solution 2x + 4 = 2(x + 2) and x2 + 3x + 2 = (x + 1) (x + 2).
2x  4 2 2x  4 dx
Hence 2
x  3x  2
=
x 1
and  x 2  3x  2
dx = 2 
x 1
= 2 ln x 1 + c.

2x  4
Therefore,  x 2  3x  2
dx = 2 ln x 1 + c.

Lemma 4.1 The expression x − a is a factor of P(x) if and only if P(a) = 0.

Proof (  ) If x − a is the factor of P(x), then there is a polynomial R(x) such that
P(x) = (x − a) R(x).
Then P(a) = (a − a) R(a) = 0.

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Prepared by Tekleyohannes Negussie
Unit IV Some Topics on Integration
Therefore, P(a) = 0.

() Let P(x) = c n x n + c n - 1 x n - 1 + … + c1 x + c0.


Assume that P(a) = 0.
n n
j j j j
Now P(x) = P(x) − P(a) =  c j (x a ) =  c j (x a )
j 0 j 1
but for any integer k  2, we know that
k 1
k  j 1 j
x k  a k = (x − a)  x a .
j 0
n 1
j k  j 1
Hence P(x) = (x − a)  c ja x .
j 0
Therefore, (x − a) is the factor of P(x).
III. Rewrite the given rational function g(x) as:
n ci m r jx  s j
g (x) = P(x) +  i
+  j
i  1 (ax  b) j  1 (ax  b)

where ci , c j , r j , s j , a and b are constants and m, n  N.

2 x2  1
Example 3 Integrate  ( x 1)3
dx .

2 x2  1
Solution Let g (x) = .
( x 1)3
A B C
Then g(x) = + +  A (x – 1)2 + B (x – 1) + C = 2x2 + 1, x  1,
x 1 (x 1) 2 (x 1)3
where A, B and C are constants.
Now we need to determine values of the constants A, B and C.
The simples method is to replace x by the values of x for which the denominator is undefined.
If x = 1, then C = 3,
if x = 0, then A – B + C = 1, and hence B – A = 2, i)
and if x = 2, then A + B + C = 9, consequently B + A = 6. ii)
From i) and ii) we get:
B – A = 2 and B + A = 6  A = 2 and B = 4.

2 x2  1 dx dx dx
Thus,  dx = 2  + 4  (x 1) 2
+ 3  ( x 1)3
= 2 ln x 1 –
( x 1)3 x 1

4 3
– + c,
x 1 2 (x 1) 2
where c .
2x 2  1 4 3
Therefore,  (x 1)3
dx = 2 ln x 1 –
x 1

2 (x 1) 2
+ c, where c .

2x2  2x  1
Example 4 Integrate 
x3  x 2  2
dx .

Solution x3 + x2 – 2 = (x – 1) (x2 + 2x + 2 ).
Since 22 – 4  1 2 = – 4 and (  2) 2  4  2  1 = – 4, both x2 + 2x + 2 and 2 x 2  2 x  1 are
irreducible
and hence 2 x 2  2 x  1 and x2 + 2x + 2 are irreducible polynomials.
Now we need to determine A, B and C such that

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Prepared by Tekleyohannes Negussie
Unit IV Some Topics on Integration

2x2  2x  1 A Bx  C
= + 2
x3  x 2  2 x 1 x  2x  2

 2x2  2x  1 = A (x2 + 2x + 2) + (B x + C) (x – 1)  x   \ 1.

If x = 1, then A =1, if x = 0, then C = 1 and if x = – 1, then B = 1.

2x2  2x  1 dx x 1
Thus  dx =  +  x2  2x  2
dx
x3  x 2  2 x 1

x 1
= ln x 1 +  x2  2x  2
dx . iii)

Using substitution to integrate the right-hand side integral iii) we get:


Now let u = x 2  2 x  2 .
1
Then du = 2 (x + 1) dx and (x + 1) dx = du.
2
x 1 1 du 1
Thus, 
x2  2x  2
dx =
2 u
=
2 
ℓn u + c, where c  .

2x2  2x  1
Therefore, 3 
2
dx = ℓn x 1 +
x x
1
2
ℓn x 2  2 x  2 + c, where c  .
2
 
dx
Example 5 Integrate 
x (x 2  1) 2
.

Solution Determine the constants such that:


1 A Bx  C Dx  E
= + +
x( x 2  1) 2 x x2  1 ( x 2  1) 2
 A (x2 + 1) 2 + B x2 (x2 + 1) + C x (x2 + 1) + x (D x + C) = 1, x  0.
If x = 0, then A = 1. Now replace A by 1 and combine like powers.
Thus (1 + B) x4 + C x3 + (2 + B + D) x2 + (C + E) x = 0.
Hence B = – 1, C = 0, D = – 1 and E = 0.
dx dx x x dx
Therefore,  x(x 2  1) 2 x – =  x 2  1 dx –  (x 2  1) 2 .
1
Now let u = x2 + 1, then x dx = du.
2
x 1 du x dx 1 du
Thus  x2  1 dx = 2  u
and  2
(x  1) 2 =
2 u2
. 
dx 1 1
Therefore,  2 2 = ln x – ln (x2 + 1) + 2 + c, where c  .
x(x  1) 2 2 ( x  1)

4.1.2 Integration by Trigonometric Substitution

To evaluate an integral  f ( x ) dx we can make a substitution of the form:

x = g(u) so that dx = g(u) du .

Hence  f ( x ) dx =  f ( g (u )) g  (u ) du .

The corresponding definite integral formula is:


g (b ) b
 f ( x ) dx =
 f ( g (u )) g  (u ) du .
g (a) a
If g is a trigonometric function, then such substitution is called a trigonometric substitution. Trigonometric

substitutions are especially valuable when the integral contains square roots of the form a2  x2 ,

a 2  x 2 or x2  a2 , where a > 0.

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Prepared by Tekleyohannes Negussie
Unit IV Some Topics on Integration

I) Integrals containing a 2  x 2 .
If an integral contains a 2  x 2 with a > 0, then

 
let x = a sin u where – u so that a cos u  0. a
2 2 x
Then dx = a cos u du and a 2  x 2 = a cos u.


dx a2  x2
Example 6 Integrate 2 .
x 16  x 2
Solution Let x = 4 sin u, then dx = 4 cos u du.

4
dx 1 1 x
Thus  2 2 =
2
 csc u du = – 16 cot u  c
x 16  x 16

= –
16  x 2
+ c 16  x 2
16 x
dx 16  x 2
Therefore,  2 =– + c, where c  .
x 16  x 2 16 x
2
x dx
Example 7 Integrate  .
16  x 2
Solution Let x = 4 sin u, then dx = 4 cos u du.

2
x dx 2 u du
Thus  = 16  sin 4
16  x 2
x
1
2
since sin u = (1– cos 2u) and sin 2u = 2 sin u cos u,
2

2 1 1 x
2
dx 16  x 2
 sin u du = 2 u – 4 sin 2u + c. Hence  = 8u – 4 sin 2u + c
16  x 2
2
x dx x x
Therefore,  = 8 sin – 1   – 16  x 2 + c, where c  .
16  x 2 4 2
5
2
Example 8 Integrate  25  4 x 2 dx .
 5
2
Solution Let 2x = 5 sin u, then 2 dx = 5 cos u du.
5 
2 2
25
Thus  25  4 x 2 dx = cos
2
u du 5
2 2x
 5 
2 2

2525 4 x 2

2
25 2
=
4 (1  cos 2 u ) du =
25
4
1
(u  sin 2u )
2
=
4
.
  
2 2
5
2
Therefore,  25  4 x 2 dx = 25  .
4
 5
2
II) Integrals containing a 2  x 2 .

If an integral contains a 2  x 2 with a > 0, then


a2  x2
x
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Prepared by Tekleyohannes Negussie
a
Unit IV Some Topics on Integration
 
let x = a tan u where – u so that a sec u  0.
2 2

Then dx = a sec 2 u du and a 2  x 2 = a sec u.

dx
Example 9 Integrate  2 .
x 1  x2

Solution Let x = tan u, then dx = sec 2 u du.

1 x 2
dx sec u cos u
Thus  2 =  tan 2u du =  sin 2u du x
x 1  x2
1 1  x2 1
=  +c =– +c
sin u x
dx 1  x2
Therefore ,  2 =– + c, where c  .
x 16  x 2 x
dx
Example 10 Integrate  .
4  16 x 2

Solution Let 2x = tan u, then 2 dx = sec 2 u du.

dx 1 1 1 4 x 2
Thus  =  sec u du = ln sec u  tan u +c
4  16 x 2 4 4 2x
1
= ln ( 1  4 x 2  2 x) + c
4 1
dx 1
Therefore,  2 = ln ( 1  4 x 2  2 x) , where c  .
4  16 x 4
III) Integrals containing x 2  a 2 .

If an integral contains x2  a2 with a > 0, then

3
let x = a sec u where 0  u < or   u < so that x
2
x2  a2
x2  a2 = a tan u and dx = a tan u sec u du.
3
x2  9 a
Example 11 Integrate  x
dx .
6
Solution Let x = 3 sec u, then dx = 3 sec u tan u du.

3
x2  9 3 (sec 2 u  1) du
 x
Thus  dx = 2x
x 4
6
3

=
3 (tan u  u )

4 =  − 3 3.
a
3
3
x2  9
Therefore ,  dx =  − 3 3 .
6 x
6
dx
Example 12 Integrate  4
.
x2  9
3 2 x
Solution Let x = 3 sec u, then dx = 3 sec u tan u du.

6

3
x 2
dx 1
cos 3 u du
x 9
Thus  4 x2  9
= 
81 
5
3 2 x
4
3

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Prepared by Tekleyohannes Negussie
Unit IV Some Topics on Integration
 
3 3
1 1
=  cos u du −  sin 2 u cos u du
81  81 
4 4
 
3 3 1 3 3 5 2 
1 1   .
= sin u − sin 3 u =  8 
81  3  81  81  12 
4 4
6
dx 1 3 3 5 2 
Therefore,  = 
 8  .

3 2 x4 x2  9 81  12 

IV) Integrals containing b x2  c x  d .

By completing the square in x, b x2  c x  d can be expressed as a 2  x 2 , x2  a2 or x2  a2

for suitable a > 0 and then use trigonometric substitution.


dx
Example 13 Integrate  .
9 x2  6 x  2

Solution Since 9 x 2  6 x  2 = (3x + 1)2 + 1,


let 3x + 1 = tan u, then 3 dx = (1 + tan2 u) du.
dx
Thus  = 3  sec u du
3x + 1
9x2  6 x  2
1
= ln sec u  tan u + c
3 1
But sec u = (3x  1) 2  1 and tan u = 3x + 1.

dx 1
Therefore,  = ln 3 x 1  (3 x  1) 2  1 + c.
9x2  6 x  2 3

Example 14 Integrate
 x 2  6 x  5 dx .

Solution x2 + 6x + 5 = (x + 3)2 − 4.
Now let x + 3 = 2 sec u, then dx = 2 sec u tan u du. x 3 2
x  6x  5
2 5
Thus
 x 2  6 x  5 dx = 4  tan u sec u du
3
= 4  sec u du − 4  sec u du
2
= 2 sec u tan u − 2 ln sec u  tan u + c.

1 x3 x2  6x  5
= ( x  3) x2  6 x 5  2 ln  + c.
2 2 2

1 x3 x2  6x  5
x2  6 x 5
Therefore,
 x 2  6 x  5 dx = 2
( x  3)  2 ln
2

2
+

c.

4.2 Improper Integrals


b
We have defined  f ( x) dx only for a continuous function f on [a, b]. From the maximum-minimum
a
theorem such a function f is bounded on [a, b]. i.e. there is a real number M such that f ( x)  M,
 x  [a, b].
A function that is not bounded on a given interval I inside its domain is said to be unbounded on I.
1
f(x) = is an example of a function that is not bounded on + .
x

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Prepared by Tekleyohannes Negussie
Unit IV Some Topics on Integration
Definite integrals with either the integrand or the interval of integration is unbounded are called
Improper integral.

4.2.1 Integrals with unbounded integrands.

We say that f is unbounded near c if f is unbounded either on every open interval of the form (c, x) or (x, c).
1 1
f(x) = and g(x) = are examples of functions that are unbounded near 0.
x x
I) Consider a function f that is continuous on (a, b] and unbounded near a.
b
Now f is continuous on [c, b] for any c  (a, b) and hence  f ( x) dx is defined for such c. If the one sided
c
limit
b
lim
 f ( x) dx
c  a c
b b
Exists, then we define  f ( x) dx to be that limit and say that the integral  f ( x) dx converges.
a a
b b
Otherwise we say that  f ( x) dx diverges and we write  f ( x) dx = , where f is non-negative.
a a
2
dx
Example 15 Show that  1 converges and compute its value.
1 x (ln x ) 2
1
Solution Let f(x) = 1 . Now f is continuous on (1, 2] and is unbounded near 1.
x (ln x) 2
Let c  (1, 2). We need to compute:
2
dx
 1 .
c x (ln x ) 2

1 dx
Let u =
 ln x  2 , then du = 1 .
x (ln x ) 2
2
dx 1 2 1 1
Thus  1 = 2 (ln x )
2 =
2 (ln 2) 2 −
2 (ln c) 2
c x (ln x ) 2 c

2
lim dx  1
lim 1
and c 1  
1 = c 1  2 (ln 2 ) 2  2 (ln c ) 2

c x (ln x ) 2  
2
dx 1
Therefore,  1 = 2 (ln 2) 2 .
1 x (ln x ) 2
2
ln x
Example 16 Show that  x
dx diverges.
0
ln x
Solution Let f(x) = . Then f is continuous on (0, 2] and is unbounded near 0.
x

2 2
lim ln x lim 1 2
Now let c  (0, 2).
c  0  x dx 
c  0 2
(ln x )
c
c
1 2 lim 1
= (ln 2) −  (ln c) 2 = − 
2 c0 2

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Prepared by Tekleyohannes Negussie
Unit IV Some Topics on Integration
2
ln x
Therefore,  x
dx diverges.
0
b
II) If f is continuous on (a, b) and is unbounded near both a and b, we say that  f ( x) dx converges if for
a
d b
some point d in (a, b) both integrals  f ( x) dx and  f ( x) dx converge. Otherwise, we say that
a d
b
 f ( x) dx diverges.
a
1
3x 2  1
Example 17 Determine whether
x x
 3 3
dx converges.
0
Solution The integrand is unbounded near both 0 and 1 and is continuous on (0, 1).
1 1
3x 2  1
Let d =
1
. Now we need to analyze the convergence of
3 2
3x  1 
dx and 1 3 x3  x
dx
.
3  3 3
x x
0 3
1 1

 
3 2
 2

2
1 we’ve: 3x 2  1 = 3 x3  x 3 3 = 3 3
For 0 < c < − c c 3
3  3 x3  x
dx 2
c
3 2
c
1
3  lim
 
2
lim 3 2 2 3 3 = 2
and 3 x  1 = − c c
c0 
3  dx 3 2  c 0

 

3
c 3 x  x
c
3x 2  1 2 c
   
2
For
1 < c < 1, 
3 x3  x
dx
=
3
x  x 3 1 = 3 c3  c 3 −
3 2
3 1 2 2 3
3
3
c
3x 2  1
 
2
lim
 dx 3  lim 2 2
c c 3 −
3
and 3 x3  x =  =− .
c 1  1 2  c 1  3 3
 
3
1
3x 2  1
Therefore,  3 x3  x
dx = 0 and hence converges.
0
b
III) If f is continuous on [a, b] except at a point d in (a, b) near which f is unbounded. We say  f ( x) dx
a
d b
converges if both integrals  f ( x) dx and  f ( x) dx converge. Otherwise, we say that
a d
b
 f ( x) dx
a
diverges.
 1 2
Example 18 Show that 
x 3 dx converges.
1

Solution f(x) =  1 is continuous on [- 1, 0)  (0, 2] and f is unbounded near 0.


x 3
For – 1 < c < 0.
c  1 3
2 c
3
lim
lim
c0   x 3 dx =
c0  2
x3
1
=−
2
.
1
For 0 < c < 2.

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Unit IV Some Topics on Integration
2 1
 
2 2
lim lim 3 3 3 3
c0  
c
x 3 dx = c 0  2 x
c
=
2
4 .

 1 2
Therefore,
1

x 3 dx =
3
2
1  3 4   and hence converges.
2
1 1 
Example 19 Show that 
  2
x
 dx diverges.
1  x 
1 1
Solution f(x) =  is continuous on [- 1, 0)  (0, 2] and f is unbounded near 0.
x x2
Let – 1 < c < 0.
c
1 1 
Then
lim
    dx = lim   ln c  1  = − .
c0 
1 
x x2  c0  c 
2
1 1 
Therefore,    2
x
 dx diverges.
1  x 

4.2.2 Integrals over Unbounded Intervals

 a
Integrals of the form  f ( x) dx and  f ( x) dx are also called improper integrals.
a 
b b
If f is continuous on [a, ), then  f ( x) dx is a proper integral for any b  a. If  f ( x) dx exists,
a a
then

we say  f ( x) dx converges, and
a
 b
lim
 f ( x) dx =
b   f ( x) dx .
a a
Otherwise the integral diverges.
a
The improper integral 
f ( x ) dx is handled in an analogous way.

Example 20 Find the area of the region bounded by the graph of y = (x + 1) – 3 and the non-negative x-axis.

dx
Solution A =  ( x 1) 3 . For b  0 we get:
0
b
dx b 1
 (1 − (b  1)  2 ).
1 2
= ( x  1) =
3 2 2
0 ( x  1)
0

b
lim dx 1 lim 1

2
Hence = − (b  1) = .
b 
0 ( x 1) 3 2 b  2
1
Therefore, A = square units.
2

dx
Example 21 Show that  diverges.
11  x
Solution For b  1 we’ve:
b
dx b
 1  x = 2 ((1 + x ) − ln (1 + x )) 1
= 2 (1 + b ) − 2 ln (1 + b ) − 4 + 2 ln 2.
1
1 b
= 2 (− 1 + b ) − 2 ln ( ).
2

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Unit IV Some Topics on Integration
b
lim dx lim 1 b
Now
b  1  x
=2
b 
( (− 1 + b ) − ln (
2
)) = .
1

dx
Therefore, 1  x
diverges.
1
 d 
We say that  f ( x ) dx converges if both
 f ( x ) dx and  f ( x ) dx converge, for some d.
    d
In this case
 d 
 f ( x ) dx =
 f ( x) dx +  f ( x) dx .
    d

 x2
Example 22 Determine whether  xe dx converges.
 
Solution The integrand is continuous on (− ∞, ∞).
0 
 x2  x2
Now consider the integrals  xe dx and  xe dx .
  0
0 0
 x2 lim  x2 lim 1  x2 0 1
 xe dx =
b  xe dx =
b 2
e
b
=−
2
  b
 b
 x2 lim  x2 lim 1  x2 b 1
and  xe dx =
b   xe dx =
b 

2
e
0
=
2
.
0 0

 x2
Therefore,  xe dx = 0 and hence converges.
 
4.3 More on Applications
4.3.1 Volume.
I) Cross Section Method.
y
Consider a solid region D. Suppose x  [a, b] the
plane Perpendicular to the x-axis at x intersects D
A(x)
in a plane having a cross sectional area A(x).
If A(x) = A0 for a  x  b, then v = A0 (b − a)
and if A(x) =  r2 for a  x  b, then a x b x
v =  r2 (b − a) = volume of right circular cylinder
of radius r and height b − a.

Suppose the cross sectional area A of a three dimensional solid D is a continuous function on [a, b].
Let Ρ = x0, x1, x2, x3, … , xn be a partition of [a, b]. For each k  ℕ between 1 and n, let tk be an arbitrary
number in the sub-interval [xk – 1, xk].
As Δxk = xk − xk - 1 tends to zero Δvk = The volume of the part of D between xk and xk – 1
 A(tk)Δxk.
n n
Since v   vk   A(t k )xk . Which is the Riemann Sum for A on [a, b].
k 1 k 1
n b
lim
V=  A(tk ) .  xk =  A( x) dx
P k 1 a
Therefore if a solid region D has a cross sectional area A(x) for a  x  b and if A is continuous on [a, b],
then we can define the volume of D by the formula
b
V=  A( x) dx .
a
Example 23 Find the volume v of the solid D whose cross section at x is semicircular with radius

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Unit IV Some Topics on Integration

sin x for 0  x  .
2
Solution The cross sectional area at x is given by:

1 2 2
A(x) =  sin x and v = 1  sin 2 x dx
2 2
0


 2  1 2 2
Hence v =
4  (1  cos 2 x) dx = 4 (x 
2
sin 2 x )
0
=
8
0

Therefore, v =
 2 cubic units.
8
Note that: We can reverse the role of x and y and integrate with respect to y by the corresponding formula:
d
v=  A( y ) dy
c
Example 24 Find the volume v of the pyramid with square base 3 units on a side with height 4 units.
Solution Let the altitude of the pyramid coincides with the positive y-axis and the base with the x-axis.
Then the cross sectional area A(y) for any y  [0, 4] is:
9 4 4  y
A(y) = (4 − y)2 , since = from similarity theorem for triangles
16 3 s( y )

where s(y)  = side length of the square at y.


9
= (16 − 8y + y2).
16
4
9 4
(16  8 y  y 2 ) dy =
16 
9 1 3
Hence v = (16 y  4 y 2  y ) = 12
16 3 0
0
Therefore, v = 12 cubic units.
II) The Disc Method
When a non-negative continuous function f on [a, b] is revolved about the x-axis it generates a solid
region having cross sections that are circular discs of radius f(x) for each x  [a, b].
Thus A(x) =  (f(x) ) 2 .
b
   f ( x) 
2 dx
Therefore, v = .
a

Example 25 Find the volume of the sphere of radius r.


Solution Let f(x) = r 2  x 2 for − r  x  r.

Revolve f about the x-axis.


A(x) =  ( r 2  x 2 ) for − r  x  r.
r
  r  x  dx =
r
2 2 1 3 4
Hence v =   (r 2 x 
3
x ) =  r3
r r 3
4
Therefore, v =  r 3 cubic units.
3
Example 25 Find the volume of the frustum of the cone on [0, 1] whose lateral side passes through (0, b)
and (h, a).
 a b 
Solution. Let f(x) =   x  b for − r  x  r.
 h 
Now revolve f about the x-axis.
h
 a  b 2 h a  b h

3
Then v =  b    x  dx = 3 ( a  b)
(b 
h
x)
0   h   0

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Unit IV Some Topics on Integration
h 3 3 4
= (a  b )  r3
3 (a  b) 3
1 2 2
Therefore, v =  h ( a  ab  b ) cubic units.
3
III) The Washer Method.

If f and g are two non-negative continuous functions on [a, b] such that 0  g(x)  f(x) for a  x  b, then
the volume v of the region, bounded by f and g on [a, b], generated by revolving the graphs of f and g
about the x-axis is:

   f ( x)   dx .
b
v=  2   g ( x)  2
a
If g(x)  0 for a  x  b, then the method of finding the volume v of the solid is called the Washer Method.

Example 27 Find the volume v of the solid generated by revolving the region between the graphs of

y = cos x + sin x and y = cos x − sin x about the x-axis on [0, ].
4
 
Solution Observe that tan x  1  x  [0, ] and sin x, cos x  0  x  [0, ].
4 4

Hence cos x − sin x  0  x  [0, ].
4

 (cos x  sin x ) 
4
Thus v =  2  (cos x  sin x ) 2 dx
0


4
4 =

= 2 sin 2 x dx =   cos 2 x
0
0
Therefore, v =  cubic units.

Note that: The Washer method holds true if and only if both f and g are of the same parity on [a, b].

IV) The Shell Method.

Suppose a rectangle is bounded by the x-axis, the line y = c and the lines x = a and x = b where b  a  0 and
c  0. If we revolve this rectangle about the y-axis, then the volume v of the cylindrical shell is the difference
between the volumes of the outer and inner cylinders.
Thus v =  c (b2 − a2).
Now let f be a non-negative continuous function on [a, b] with a  0.
We wish to define the volume v of the solid region obtained by revolving about the y-axis, the region
between the graph of f and the x axis on [a, b].

Let P = x0, x1, x2, . . . ,xn be any partition on [a, b]. For k between 1 and n let tk be the mid-point of
[xk – 1, xk].
lim  f (t ) ( x 2  x 2
Now vk  k k k 1 )
xk  0 y

lim  f (t ) ( x  x x
k 1) ( k  k 1)
x
 k k
xk  0
lim 2  t f (t )  x
 x  0 k k k
k

lim 2  t f (t )  x b x

Thus v = x  0
k
k k k = 2  x f ( x ) dx 
a
Which is the Riemann Sum for 2  x f ( x ) on [a, b].

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Unit IV Some Topics on Integration
b
Therefore, v = 2   x f ( x ) dx .
a
This method of finding the volume v of a solid is called the Shell Method.

Example 28 Let R be the region between the graphs of y = x + x3 and y = x2 + 4x − 4 on [1, 2]. Find the
volume v generated by revolving R about the y-axis.
Solution Since x + x3  x2 + 4x − 4 x  [1, 2].
2 2
v = 2  x ( x3  x 2  3 x  4) dx = 2  (x
4  x3  3 x 2  4 x ) dx
1 1
 x5 2
x4  29
= 2     x3  2 x 2 
 = 
 5 4  1 10

29
Therefore, v =  cubic units.
10
Example 29 Find the volume v of the solid generated by revolving the region between the
1 1
graphs of y = x2 and y = ( x  2 )2 + about the y-axis.
2 2
1 1
Solution y = x2 and y = ( x  2 )2 +  y2 −2y +1 = 0  y = 1.Hence x = 1 or x = 3.
2 2
1 1
Since  x  [1, 3], ( x  2 )2 +  x2 ,
2 2
3 2
1 2 1  3 2
V = 2   ( x  2)   x  2  dx =   ( x  2 x  x) dx +
1
2 2  1

3
  ( x3  6 x 2  9 x) dx
2
7 3 4
=    = 
12 4 3
4
Therefore, v =  cubic units.
3

4.3.2 Length of Curves


Let f have continuous derivatives on [a, b].
If f is linear, then the length L of the graph of f on [a, b] is given by:

L=  b  a   f (b)  f ( a )  2

If f is not linear, then let P = x0, x1, x2, . . . , xnbe any partition of [a, b] and approximate the length of the
graph of f by a polygonal line whose vertices are (x0, f (x0)), (x1, f(x1)), . . . , (xn, f(xn)).

Let Lk be the length of the portion of the graph of f on [x k – 1, xk].


If xk = x k – 1 − xk tends to zero, then

 xk  xk  1 

 f ( xk )  f ( xk  1) 
2
Lk     
But by the mean value theorem we get:
f ( xk )  f ( xk  1 ) = ( xk  xk  1 ) f ' ( x ) for some tk  ( xk  xk  1 ).
k
Hence Lk  
1  f ' (tk ) 
2 x  x
( k k  1 ).

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n
Thus L   
1  f ' (t k ) 2 xk , which is the Riemann Sum for 
1  f ' (tk ) 2 on [a,
k 1
n
 2
lim b
b]. Therefore, P  0 k 1  1  f ' (tk ) xk =
 1   f ' ( x) 2 dx .
a

Definition 4.1 Let f have a continuous derivative on [a, b], then the length L of the
graph of f on [a, b] is defined by:
b
L=  1   f ' ( x) 2 dx
a
1 2
Example 30 Find the length L of the graph of f on [1, 2] where f(x) = ln x − x .
8
1 1
Solution f ΄ (x) = − x.
x 4
2 2
1 1 2 1 1 2
Thus L =  1    x  dx = 
x 4 
  x  dx
x 4 
1 1
2  2  2
1 1   ln x  x  3
= x 4 
  x  dx = 
 8 
 1
=
8
+ ln 2
1
3
Therefore, L = + ln 2 units.
8
1 3 1 1
Example 31 Find the length L of the graph of f on [0, 1] where f(x) = x +x− tan x.
3 4

  1  2 2
 4 x2  1  1   
x2  1 −
   
2
Solution f ΄ (x) = and (f ΄ (x)) =   .
4 x2  1  4 x2  1 
 
 2

 4 x2  1  1 
2

 x2  1 
1
 
Thus 1 
 4 x 1

2 




2
4 x 1
.
 
1 1
2 
Hence L =  x  1 dx 
1

dx

4 0 x2  1  
0
 1 3 1 1 1
1 1 
=  x x  + tan x = +
 3  0 4 0 4 16
1 
Therefore, L = + units.
4 16

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