Infrastructure

 
 What is Infrastructure?
Infrastructure provides supporting services in the main areas of industrial and agricultural production, domestic and
foreign trade and commerce.
These services include roads, railways, ports, airports, dams, power stations, oil and gas pipelines, telecommunication
facilities, the country’s educational system including schools and colleges, health system including hospitals, sanitary
system including clean drinking water facilities and the monetary system including banks, insurance and other financial
institutions.
Some of these facilities have a direct impact on production of goods and services while others give indirect support by
building the social sector of the economy.
 
Some divide infrastructure into two categories — economic and social. Infrastructure associated with energy,
transportation and communication are included in the former category whereas those related to education, and health and
housing are included in the latter.
 
Relevance of Infrastructure

 Infrastructure is the support system on which depends the efficient working of a modern industrial economy.
 Modern agriculture also largely depends on it for speedy and large scale transport of seeds, pesticides, fertilizers
and the produce using modern roadways, railways and shipping facilities.
 In recent times, agriculture also depends on insurance and banking facilities because of its need to operate on a
very large scale.
 Infrastructure contributes to economic development of a country both by increasing the productivity of the factors
of production and improving the quality of life of its people.
 Inadequate infrastructure can have multiple adverse effects on health.
 Improvements in water supply and sanitation have a large impact by reducing morbidity from major waterborne
diseases and reducing the severity of disease when it occurs.
 In addition to the obvious linkage between water and sanitation and health, the quality of transport and
communication infrastructure can affect access to health care.
 Air pollution and safety hazards connected to transportation also affect morbidity, particularly in densely
populated areas.
  
 The State of Infrastructure in India

 Traditionally, the government has been solely responsible for developing the country’s infrastructure.
 But it was found that the government’s investment in infrastructure was inadequate. Today, the private sector by
itself and also in joint partnership with the public sector has started playing a very important role in infrastructure
development.
 A majority of our people live in rural areas. Despite so much technical progress in the world, rural women are still
using bio-fuels such as crop residues, dung and fuel wood to meet their energy requirement. They walk long distances to
fetch fuel, water and other basic needs.
 The census 2001 shows that in rural India only 56 per cent households have an electricity connection and 43 per
cent still use kerosene.
 About 90 per cent of the rural households use bio-fuels for cooking.
 Tap water availability is limited to only 24 per cent rural households.
 About 76 per cent of the population drinks water from open sources such as wells, tanks, ponds, lakes, rivers,
canals, etc.
 Access to improved sanitation in rural areas was only 20 per cent.
 
 

Energy

 Energy is a critical aspect of the development process of a nation. It is, of course, essential for industries.
 Now it is used on a large scale in agriculture and related areas like production and transportation of fertilizers,
pesticides and farm equipment.
 It is required in houses for cooking, household lighting and heating.

Sources of Energy: 
There are commercial and non-commercial sources of energy.
Commercial sources are coal, petroleum and electricity as they are bought and sold.
Non-commercial sources of energy are firewood, agricultural waste and dried dung. These are non-commercial as they
are found in nature/forests.
 
While commercial sources of energy are generally exhaustible, non-commercial sources are generally renewable. More
than 60 per cent of Indian households depend on traditional sources of energy for meeting their regular cooking and
heating needs.
Non-conventional Sources of Energy: Both commercial and non-commercial sources of energy are known as
conventional sources of energy.
There are three other sources of energy which are commonly termed as non-conventional sources — solar energy, wind
energy and tidal power.
Being a tropical country, India has almost unlimited potential for producing all three types of energy if some appropriate
cost effective technologies that are already available are used. Even cheaper technologies can be developed.
 
Consumption Pattern of Commercial Energy: 

 At present, commercial energy consumption makes up about 65 per cent of the total energy consumed in India.
 This includes coal with the largest share of 55 per cent, followed by oil at 31 per cent, natural gas at 11 per
cent and hydro energy at 3 per cent.
 Non-commercial energy sources consisting of firewood, cow dung and agricultural wastes account for over 30
per cent of the total energy consumption.
 The critical feature of India’s energy sector, and its linkages to the economy, is the import dependence on crude
and petroleum products, which is likely to grow rapidly in the near future.
 
Health

 Health is not only absence of disease but also the ability to realize one’s potential. It is a yardstick of one’s well
being.
 Health is the holistic process related to the overall growth and development of the nation. Though the twentieth
century has seen a global transformation in human health unmatched in history, it may be difficult to define the health
status of a nation in terms of a single set of measures.
 Generally scholars assess people’s health by taking into account indicators like infant mortality and maternal
mortality rates, life expectancy and nutrition levels, along with the incidence of communicable and non- communicable
diseases.
 Development of health infrastructure ensures a country of healthy manpower for production of goods and
services.
 In recent times, scholars argue that people are entitled to health care facilities. It is the responsibility of the
government to ensure the right to healthy living. Health infrastructure includes hospitals, doctors, nurses and other
paramedical professionals, beds, equipment required in hospitals and a well-developed pharmaceutical industry.
 

 It is also true that mere presence of health infrastructure is not sufficient to have healthy people: the same should
be accessible to all the people.
 Since, the initial stages of planned development, policy-makers envisaged that no individual should fail to secure
medical care, curative and preventive, because of the inability to pay for it.
 
State of Health Infrastructure: 

 The government has the constitutional obligation to guide and regulate all health related issues such as medical
education, adulteration of food, drugs and poisons, medical profession, vital statistics, mental deficiency and lunacy.
 The Union Government evolves broad policies and plans through the Central Council of Health and Family
Welfare. It collects information and renders financial and technical assistance to state governments, union territories and
other bodies for implementation of important health programmes in the country.
 Over the years, India has built up a vast health infrastructure and manpower at different levels.
 At the village level, a variety of hospitals technically known as Primary Health Centers (PHCs) has been set up
by the government.
 India’s health infrastructure and health care is made up of a three-tier system — primary, secondary and
tertiary.
 Primary health care includes education concerning prevailing health problems and methods of identifying,
preventing and controlling them; promotion of food supply and proper nutrition and adequate supply of water and basic
sanitation; maternal and child health care; immunization against major infectious diseases and injuries; promotion of
mental health and provision of essential drugs. 
 Since independence, there has been a significant expansion in the physical provision of health services.
 During 1951-2000, the number of hospitals and dispensaries increased from 9,300 to 43,300 and hospital beds
from 1.2 to 7.2 million, during 1951-99, nursing personnel increased from 0.18 to 8.7 lakhs and allopathic doctors from
0.62 to 5.0 lakhs.
 Expansion of health infrastructure has resulted in the eradication of smallpox, guinea worms and the near
eradication of polio and leprosy.
 
Private Sector Health Infrastructure: 

 More than 70 per cent of the hospitals in India are run by the private sector. They control nearly two-fifth of beds
available in the hospitals.
 Nearly 60 per cent of dispensaries are run by the same private sector. They provide healthcare for 80 per cent of
out-patients and 46 per cent of in-patients.
 In recent times, private sector has been playing a dominant role in medical education and training, medical
technology and diagnostics, manufacture and sale of pharmaceuticals, hospital construction and the provision of medical
services.
 In 2001-02, there were more than 13 lakhs medical enterprises employing 22 lakhs people; more than 80 per cent
of them are single person owned, and operated by one person occasionally employing a hired worker.
 Scholars point out that the private sector in India has grown independently without any major regulation; some
private practitioners are not even registered doctors and are known as
  
Indian Systems of Medicine (ISM):

 It includes six systems—Ayurveda, Yoga, Unani, Siddha, Naturopathy and Homeopathy (AYUSH).
 At present there are 3,004 ISM hospitals, 23,028 dispensaries and as many as 6, 11, 431 registered practitioners in
India.
 But little has been done to set up a framework to standardize education or to promote research.
 ISM has huge potential and can solve a large part of our health care problems because they are effective, safe and
inexpensive.
 
 
Indicators of Health and Health Infrastructure—
A Critical Appraisal: As pointed out earlier, the health status of a country can be accessed through indicators such as
infant mortality and maternal mortality rates, life expectancy and nutrition levels, along with the incidence of
communicable and non-communicable diseases.
 
Women’s Health: 

 Women constitute about half the total population in India.

 They suffer many disadvantages as compared to men in the areas of education, participation in economic
activities and health care.
 The deterioration in the child sex ratio in the country from 945 in 1991 to 927, as revealed by the census of 2001,
points to the growing incidence of female feticide in the country.
 Close to 3, 00,000 girls under the age of 15 are not only married but have already borne children at least once.
 More than 50 per cent of married women between the age group of 15 and 49 have anemia and nutritional anemia
caused by iron deficiency, which has contributed to 19 per cent of maternal deaths.
 Abortions are also a major cause of maternal morbidity and mortality in India.
  
Conclusion 

 Infrastructure, both economic and social, is essential for the development of a country. As a support system, it
directly influences all economic activities by increasing the productivity of the factors of production and improving the
quality of life.
 In the last six decades of independence, India has made considerable progress in building infrastructure;
nevertheless, its distribution is uneven.
 Many parts of rural India are yet to get good roads, telecommunication facilities, electricity, schools and hospitals.
 As India moves towards modernization, the increase in demand for quality infrastructure, keeping in view their
environmental impact, will have to be addressed.
 The reform policies by providing various concessions and incentives, aim at attracting the private sector in
general and foreign investors in particular.
 While assessing the two infrastructures — energy and health — it is clear that there is scope for equal access to
infrastructure for all.
 Health is a vital public good and a basic human right. All citizens can get better health facilities if public health
services are decentralized.
 Success in the long-term battle against diseases depends on education and efficient health infrastructure.
 It is, therefore, critical to create awareness on health and hygiene and provide efficient systems. The role of
telecom and IT sectors cannot be neglected in this process.
 The effectiveness of healthcare programmes also rests on primary healthcare. The ultimate goal should be to help
people move towards a better quality of life.
 There is a sharp divide between the urban and rural healthcare in India. If we continue to ignore this deepening
divide, we run the risk of destabilizing the socio- economic fabric of our country.
 In order to provide basic healthcare to all, accessibility and affordability need to be integrated in our basic health
infrastructure.

NCERT SOLUTIONS

1. Explain the term ‘infrastructure’.

Solution 1 : Infrastructure refers to the supporting services in the main areas of industrial and agricultural development,
trade and commerce. It includes roads, railways, ports, airports, dams, telecommunication, schools and hospitals. It is the
foundation of all activities in an economy. It supplies the basic input for the production process. Installed infrastructure
can be used for long periods and enhances productivity in an economy.

2. Explain the two categories into which infrastructure is divided. How are both interdependent?
Solution 2 : Economic infrastructure and social infrastructure are the two categories of infrastructure.
Economic infrastructure refers to all such elements of economic change which serve as a foundation for economic growth.
For example, adequate supply of power to increase the production level, means of transport to distribute goods from
producers to consumers and movement of goods from the place of goods in abundance to the place of goods in scarce. So,
an economy can have an efficient system through proper economic infrastructure facilities. These facilities increase the
standard of living of the people and pick up the pace in the process of growth.
Social infrastructure refers to the main elements of social change which serve as a base for social development of a
country. It contributes to economic processes indirectly and from outside the systems of production and distribution. For
example, hospitals, educational institutions, sanitary conditions and housing facilities provide the scope for development
of skilled personnel and efficient resources. These facilities increase the quality of life of the people and pick up the pace
in human development.
However, these elements of change in economic infrastructure will be useful only if an economy has an educated and
healthy population. This emphasises the importance of elements of change in social infrastructure along with changes in
economic infrastructure. It is clear that these two categories of infrastructure are combined in growth and development of
an economy. Hence, they both are interdependent.

3. How do infrastructure facilities boost production?

 Solution 3
Infrastructure facilitates the support system in an economy. This brings about economic development of a country both by
increasing the productive efficiency of the factors of production and by developing the quality of life of the people. An
efficient system of an economy highlights the significance of the infrastructure facilities in development. For example,
agriculture production hardly depends on the natural means of irrigation in recent days. This implies that agricultural
productivity will be much lower than the potential productivity in the absence of a permanent means of irrigation. So,
agricultural production can increase only with the expansion and development of irrigation facilities and power supply.
On the other hand, industrial production can increase with the development of energy, transport and communication. For
example, energy is more widely used in industries for production and transport of goods. Thus, infrastructure boosts
production and contributes to economic development.

4. Infrastructure contributes to the economic development of a country. Do you agree? Explain.

Solution 4
Yes, infrastructure contributes to the economic development of a country. The significant role of infrastructure can be
observed from the following information: 
i. Increase in productivity: Investment in modern infrastructure provides the foundation for the development of an
economy. If infrastructure is maintained and modernised as new technologies emerge, then it will improve the
efficiency and productivity of goods and services in an economy. Construction of roads and bridges,
telecommunication and internet helps society to increase the productivity and standard of living of the people. This
implies that good quality road connectivity is required for transporting raw materials to manufacturing industries and
finished goods to the market for satisfying the consumer's demand.
ii. Encourages investors: Infrastructure encourages investors to invest in many productive activities. Low
investment leads to low level of production and backwardness of an economy. Well-developed infrastructure attracts
foreign investors, stimulates commerce and supports local businesses. It creates more job opportunities, and hence, the
people enjoy quality life, better health care, sanitation and other markings of well being.
iii. Generates linkage in production: When one industry operates efficiently with better infrastructural facilities
such as modern roadways, railways, shipping, banking and insurance, it enables the other related industries to grow
along with it. So, infrastructural development ensures better inter-industrial linkages.
iv. Enhances market size: Better road connectivity provides smooth movement of raw materials to manufacturing
industries and final goods to the market. This enables large-scale production, and thus, it captures more market at the
national and international levels.
v. Enhances ability to work: Development of social infrastructure improves the standard of living of workers. It
enhances the productivity of human beings and contributes to increasing labour productivity, encouraging innovation
and creating the ability for new technology. 

5. What is the state of rural infrastructure in India?

Solution 5
Because of a rapid growth of population, providing safe and sufficient drinking water supply and proper sanitation for the
community becomes very difficult. This leads to many health risks in rural areas. In rural areas, PHCs do not have
diagnostic labs for blood testing.
Poor households survive in crowded and insanitary places. They face the problem of contaminated food, water and live in
sub-standard dwellings lacking space, air and sunlight. According to the estimates, the housing shortage in the country is
about 31 million houses with a shortage of 20.6 million houses in rural areas. Only 56% of households have an electricity
connection and 43% still use kerosene. Only 20% of the rural people have access to improved sanitation.
Despite so much of technological progress, women of rural India are still using cow dung, agricultural waste and firewood
for their regular cooking and heating requirements.  Tap water is available only to 24% of rural households, and 76% of
rural households drink water from wells and ponds. They go long distances to fetch water and other basic requirements.
So, the government needs to focus on providing infrastructure facilities to the rural people which in turn promotes the
development of the nation.

6. What is the significance of ‘energy’? Differentiate between commercial and non-commercial sources of energy.
Solution 6
Energy is an important aspect for the development of an economy. It is widely used in industries, and recently, it is used
in agriculture and allied activities such as production, transport and fertilisers. It is also used for cooking, heating and
lighting houses. 
 Commercial energy Non-commercial energy
 Commercial energy is energy which is available to users at Non-commercial energy is energy which is available free of
some price. cost to users.

Examples: Coal, petroleum, natural gas, electricity Examples: Fire wood, agricultural waste, cow dung

It is used for commercial purposes in factories and farms. It is used for domestic and consumption purposes.

It is a non-renewable form of energy. It is a renewable form of energy.

7. What are the three basic sources of generating power?

Solution 7
Basic sources of energy generation:
i. A thermal power plant converts heat energy to electric power for industrial purposes.
ii. Hydroelectric power produces electricity through the use of kinetic force of falling water.
iii. Nuclear plant produces electricity through the fission of uranium and not the burning of fuels. These power plants
do not pollute the air with nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, dust or greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide.
In 2010-11, the thermal sources accounted for 65%, hydroelectric sources accounted for 32.5% and nuclear power
accounted for only 2.5% generation capacity in India.

8. What do you mean by transmission and distribution losses? How can they be reduced?
Solution 8
While distributing generated electric power to power stations, it passes through huge complex networks (such as
transformers, cables, other equipment) and finally reaches consumers. Generally, the units of power generated in the
power station will not be equal to the units of power reaching consumers. This is because some portion of the power is
lost in distribution. So, the transmission and distribution loss is the difference between the units of power generated and
the units of power distributed. These units of loss are not paid by consumers.  
 
Measures to reduce the loss in power transmission and distribution: 
i. Improved technology is required in distribution. For example, the grid which synchronises power generation with
transmission and distribution of power. This facilitates economising and increasing reliability to avoid loss of power.
ii. Participation of the private sector is needed in the generation of power to improve efficiency and avoid wastages
in distribution.
iii. The government should follow firm rules and regulations to handle cases of electricity theft. This may minimise
the loss in power transmission and distribution. 

9. What are the various non-commercial sources of energy?

Solution 9
Non-commercial sources of energy are available free of cost to users. For example, fire wood, agricultural waste and cow
dung. These are used for domestic and consumption purposes.

10. Justify that energy crisis can be overcome with the use of renewable sources of energy.
Solution 10
The energy crisis in India is the result of extreme use of non-renewable sources of energy in the present scenario. They are
coal, petroleum products, natural gas and electricity (thermal power and atomic power) which are mostly exhaustible
except hydro power. These resources are in limited quantity and cannot be replenished by nature. So, these resources
should be used for fulfilling the present needs in such a manner that they can also be used by future generations. If the
resources are not absorbed and used sustainably, it will lead to energy crisis in India. This has created a threat for
sustainable development of an economy. Renewable sources of energy are inexhaustible and can be replenished by nature
such as solar energy, wind energy and tidal energy. These resources can be used to produce energy through cost-effective
technologies. Thus, energy crisis can be overcome with the use of renewable sources of energy. 

11. How has the consumption pattern of energy changed over the years?
Solution 11
 In India, the percentage use of different sources of energy is analysed on the basis of a common unit known as million
tonne of oil equivalent (MTOE). 
Change in the consumption pattern of energy over the years can be observed from the following points:
i. Primary sources of energy-coal, lignite, petroleum and gas-have shown a drastic change in the consumption
pattern. These resources for non-commercial purpose have increased from 36% in 1953-54 to 63% in 2014-15.
ii. Consumption of coal has increased from 95 million tonnes in 1980-81 to 656 million tonnes in 2010-11.
However, the direct final consumption of coal has significantly declined.
iii. Consumption of oil has increased over the years, and hence, there is an increase in oil imports from gulf countries.
iv. With improvement in irrigation facilities and modernisation of agriculture, consumption of electricity has
increased to 18% in the agricultural sector in 2009-2010. However, consumption of electricity is the highest in the
industrial sector. 

12. How are the rates of consumption of energy and economic growth connected?
Solution 12
Rate of consumption of energy is directly related to the rate of economic growth. This is clearly specified in the following
points:
i. An increase in the production of the agricultural sector depends largely on the adequate expansion and
development of irrigation facilities and use of modern technology in the form of mechanised agriculture. So, there will
be an increase in energy consumption to encourage agricultural production, and thus, it leads to economic growth.
ii. An increase in production of the industrial sector depends on the development of electricity generation, transport
and communication. This in turn requires energy from different sources. This increase in energy consumption for
increasing industrial productivity leads to economic growth.
iii. This economic growth raises the standard of living of the people, and therefore, an increase in the demand for
electrical home appliances which requires more energy from different sources. 

13. What problems are being faced by the power sector in India?
Solution 13
Problems faced by the power sector in India:
i. Insufficient electricity generation: The total installed power generation of electricity in India was 2,33,929 MW
in 2013. However, India is still unable to meet the increasing demand for electricity. This excess demand raised many
problems such as excessive load, low voltage, fluctuations in the distribution of electricity and frequent power supply
disruption.  
ii. Underutilisation of production capacity: The utilisation of power capacity is measured by plant load factor
(PLF), i.e. dividing electricity generated by production capacity. In 2001-02, the PLF was only 60% and the remaining
40% was wasted in the process. The PLF increased to 78.6% in 2007-08 and it further reduced to 65.09% in 2014. So,
there is underutilisation of production capacity in thermal power plants. 
iii. Loss by electricity boards: State electricity boards incurred heavy losses. This is because of the loss of
electricity during transmission and distribution, theft of electricity and supply of electricity at low prices to farmers and
small industries.  

14. Discuss the reforms which have been initiated recently to meet the energy crisis in India.
Solution 14
Reforms which have been initiated recently to meet the energy crisis in India:
i. Power generation sector: The power generation sector has been opened to the private sector, and monopoly
control of the government in the generation and distribution of electricity has been removed. This raised
competitiveness among players in an open economy.  
ii. Power transmission and distribution: The government has allowed private companies such as Tata
Power and Reliance Energy along with Power Grid Corporation of India to construct transmission networks and
distribute power supply in certain states.
iii. Regulatory system: The Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC) and State Electricity Regulatory
Commission (SERC) have been established in 19 states under the Electricity Regulatory Commission Act, 1998, to
regulate tariff and to promote efficiency and competition.
iv. Tariff: Tariff rates have been restructured upwards to discourage unnecessary consumption of power and reduce
the losses of state electricity boards.
 v. Initiation of new programmes: Accelerated Power Development and Reform Programme (APDRP) was
initiated in 2000-01 with the objectives of improving financial profitability, reducing loss in transmission and
distribution, and promoting transparency through a computerised system.
vi. Awareness programmes: The government created awareness among the public about the conservation of energy.
It initiated various programmes such as National Energy Efficiency Programme (NEEP) to conserve petroleum
products and use of non-conventional sources of energy (e.g. solar energy). 

15. What are the main characteristics of health of the people of our country?
Solution 15
According to World Health Organization (WHO), health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and
not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. The health status is usually measured in terms of life expectancy at birth,
infant mortality rate, fertility rate, crude birth rate and crude death rate. As investment on health increases, the productive
capacity of the working population and the level of income rise which contribute to a decline in the incidence of poverty.
But the health status of a great majority of the people is far from satisfactory as compared to other developed countries.
However, over the last five decades, India has built up health infrastructure and manpower at the primary, secondary and
tertiary care levels in government, voluntary and private sectors and made considerable progress in improving the health
of its population.
Health indicators in India:
Health Indicators India
Infant mortality rate/1,000 live births 34
Under-5 mortality/1,000 live births 39.4
Birth by skilled attendants (% of total) 85.7
Fully immunised 88
Health expenditure (% of GDP) 3.9
Out of pocket expenditure as a (%) of current health expenditure 65
 
Source: Human development Indices and Indicators. 2018. 
 
16. What is a ‘global burden of disease’?
Solution 16
Global burden of disease is an indicator which assesses the burden of disease by using the disability adjusted life year
(DALY) according to the World Health Organization (WHO). This measure shows the number of years of life lost
prematurely because of communicable or non-communicable diseases or the number of years lost because of time lived in
states of less than full health.

17. Discuss the main drawbacks of our health care system.

Solution 17
Drawbacks of the Indian health system:
i. Lack of facilities to rural population: The most serious drawback of the healthcare system in India is the lack of
facilities to rural population. The data reveals more number of private healthcare centres and rural hospitals but still the
urban bias exists. There are 31.5% of hospitals and 16% hospital beds for 75% of the total population living in rural
areas. There is a lack of access to specialised medical care such as paediatrics, gynaecology, obstetrics and anaesthesia.
In rural areas, PHCs do not have diagnostic labs for blood testing. Also, many doctors are not interested in providing
health services in rural areas.
ii. Inadequate investment in health: According to the budget allocation, expenditure on the health sector is 4.2%
of the total expenditure, which is low as compared to that of other countries. This investment is not adequate in the
health sector, and hence, it leads to a low standard of living.
iii. Inadequate medical personnel: In the health sector, medical personnel are not adequate to provide timely and
quality health services for society. In 1999-2000, there were 5.5 doctors per 10,000 people in India. Hospitals are also
comparatively less for the high population in India. There is a lack of measures to fight against AIDS in our health
system.
iv. Lack of medical research: Medical research on drugs and vaccines for tropical diseases are overlooked by
foreign pharmaceutical industries as it fetches less profit. So, the government has to allocate funds for national medical
research centres to undertake research in this area. 
 18. How has women’s health become a matter of great concern?
Solution 18
Women constitute about 50% of the total population in India. They have less opportunity as compared to men in the fields
of education, health care and participation in economic activities. The child sex ratio has declined from 927 in 2001 to 914
in 2011. There is growing incidence of female foeticide in India. The data shows that nearly 300000 girls under the age
group of 15 years were married and gave birth to a child at least once. More than 50% of the women aged between 15 and
49 years are anaemic because they are iron deficient and thus lead to 19% of maternal deaths in India. The main cause of
maternal morbidity and mortality is abortion. So, women's health across the country should be taken into more concern as
a healthy mother gives birth to healthy offspring, and thereby the health status of people can be improved.

19. Describe the meaning of public health. Discuss the major public health measures undertaken by the state in
recent years to control diseases.
Solution 19
Public health is the science and practice of protecting the health of a community through preventive medicines, health
education, control of communicable diseases, application of sanitary measures and monitoring of environmental hazards.  
Measures to control diseases
i. In many areas, camps are organised for the immunisation of children against tetanus, polio and diphtheria.
ii. National anti-malaria eradication programme has been initiated to protect from malaria, encephalitis and filaria.
iii. National leprosy eradication programme has been initiated to care for more than 5 lakh leprosy patients.
iv. There are national control programmes for TB, goitre and the prevention of blindness.
v. National AIDS Control Organisation cares, prevents and provides treatment for STD, HIV positive and AIDS-
infected patients.
vi. Safe and sufficient drinking water supply and proper sanitation for the community to control many health risks in
society.
vii. The government has developed health infrastructure equipped with trained manpower at different levels.
viii. India has made good progress with respect to the service infrastructure. 

20. List out the six systems of Indian medicine.

Solution 20
Six systems of Indian medicine are Ayurveda, Yoga, Unani, Siddha, Naturopathy and Homeopathy (AYUSH).
i. Ayurveda: Ayurveda is basically a traditional system which was organised and introduced about 1500 BC. It is
not considered an ethno medicine in India. Also, it is known for being a whole medical system taking into account the
physical, ethical, psychological, spiritual and philosophical well-being of people. It gives importance to living
peacefully in the Universe. So, this universal and holistic approach makes Ayurveda more unique in the medical
system. Medical practitioners of this system suggested diet and lifestyle along with drug therapy. This system
emphasised three elemental energies-wind, bile and phlegm. These three substances need to exist in equal quantities for
a healthy body.
ii. Yoga: Yoga is the physical, spiritual and mental practice which originated in ancient India. In the Vedic period, it
was referred to in the Upanishads and Puranas by the Aryans. Many researchers determined the effectiveness of yoga as
a complementary intervention for asthma, cancer and heart disease. Later, few others recommended yoga to reduce risk
factors.
iii. Unani: Unani (medicine in Arabic) is a widely accepted traditional medicine in South Asia. This system of
medicine is based on Greek philosophy. This medicine relies on humoral theory which consists of the four humours in
the body-blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile. These humours affect the state of health and disease of the body.
iv. Siddha: Siddha is derived from the word siddhi which means an object to reach heaven. Traditionally, it is taught
that the siddhars laid the foundation for the medical system. Many medical siddha practitioners are trained traditionally
either in families or by gurus. This helps cure mental illness and provides a well-balanced mental state.
v. Naturopathy: Naturopathy is a form of pseudoscientific medicine. This method is based on vitalism and self-
healing. Generally, naturopathy medical practitioners suggest against modern medical practice. 
vi. Homeopathy: Homeopathy was introduced in 1796. This treatment is based on two references-
Material Medica (collection of drug pictures) and Repertories (index of disease symptoms). Medical practitioners
prescribe medicines based on symptoms of the body.  
 21. How can we increase the effectiveness of health care programmes?
Solution 21
Increase in effectiveness of healthcare programmes:
i. Huge investment for health facilities in rural and backward areas to bridge the gap between rich and poor and
rural and urban areas.
ii. Government regulation in the private health sector, participation of non-governmental organisations and
community to create healthcare awareness. For example, SEWA in Ahmedabad and ACCORD in Nilgiris are NGOs
working for health care in India.
iii. Ayurveda, Yoga, Unani, Siddha, Naturopathy and Homeopathy (AYUSH) are included in the Indian Systems of
Medicine (ISM). There are 3,529 ISM hospitals, 24,943 dispensaries and 6.5 lakh registered practitioners in India.
AYUSH has the potential to solve healthcare problems as it is effective, inexpensive and safe.   
iv. Women's health across the country should be considered because a healthy mother gives birth to healthy
offspring, and thereby the health status of the people can be improved.