I CHAPTER 4 Rotary drilling with rolling tricone bits 4.1 INTRODUCTION Until 1949, almost all blastholes were drilled with rotary percussive rigs and only in very soft rocks were rotary drils applicable with drag bits. ‘The opening of large surface coal mining operations in the United States, with overburdens that went up 0 40 m, and the appearance on the market of a low cost bulk explosive of high energy efficiency, such as ANFO, were events tha stimulated the manufacturers of rock drills to design large capacity equipment that were capable of siving high penetration rates At the same time roller tricone bits became popular in ‘mining, developed inthe ol fields from around 1907, and compressed air came into use for flushing away the drill cuttings , ‘The blasthole diameters varied between 2” and 17!” (500 44 mm), with the most frequent range for surface ‘mining from 6 to 12/*” (152 to 311 mm). Larger diame- ters are limited to mines with large productions, and under 6” is almost never used because of the limited wear ‘of the tricone bits due tothe reduced size ofthe bearings, ‘This drilling methods very versal as itcovers a wide range of rocks, from the very soft where its application started, 0 the very hard where its use has replaced other ‘once popular systems, such as Jet Piercing in taconites, AAs rotary drilling with roller tricone bits is the most widely used method, this chapter will focus its attention ‘on the large rigs that are capable of giving high feed force on the bit, considering thatthe units that work with drag bits are of amore simple design and smaller in size. Rotary rock drils essentially consist of a power source, 1 sting of pipes, individual or connected in series that transmit the load, rotation and flushing air to a bit with steel teeth or tungsten carbide inserts that, in turn, acts upon the rock, Fig. 4.1 4.2 MOUNTING AND PROPULSION SYSTEMS ‘There are two basic mounting systems for rotary drilling rigs: on crawler tacks or on rubber tytes. The factors that dictate which type of mounting should be chosen are the ground conditions and the degree of movability required. Ifthe work surface has steep grades, isuneven or offers ‘maneuvering difficulties, crawler mounting is the most indicated as it offers maximum stability, maneuverability and floebility 48 “Aheavy axle at the drill end of the machine and a pivc axle permit the rig to oscillate and maintain full crawle ground contact at all times, Fig. 4.2 ‘The majority of the large rigs are mounted on rugge crawlers, as these can support heavier loads with les pressure on the ground when moving from one place t another. The drils that are mounted on tractor type crawlers ar ‘useful in difficult and abrupt terrain such as can be foun in civil engineering. ‘The main disadvantage of crawler mountings is its los translation velocity, 2 to 3 kmJh, Therefore, if man benches are to be drilled and they are quite far away fron ‘each other, it would be more advisable to mouat the rig 0: truck, which moves an average of ten times faster ‘However in large operations the equipment isnot usuall: moved very much as they drill a high number of blast holes in a reduced area, ‘Much lighter rigs are usually mounted on trucks, witl chasis of 2 or 3 axles, and only those of larger dimen sions, more than 60.000 pounds of feed force, an ‘mounted on 4 axle chasis. During drilling, these units are supported by 3 or 4 hydraulic jacks which also serve tc level the machine. 4.3 POWER SOURCES The primary sources of power can be: diesel or electric engines. In rock drills with a drilling diameter above 9” (23¢ mm), electric energy is normally used, at half tension, supplying the drill with alternating current (AC) by ‘means of a four conduct power cable covered with rubber. ‘The small and medium sized rigs, which are usually ‘mounted on trucks, cam be run by one or two diesel ‘The average distribution of the power installed on these rigs for different operations and mechanisms is as follows: ~ Elevation and translation movement: 18% ~ Rotation: 18% ~ Thrust load: 39% Levelling: 2% ~ Dustcollector: 3% lushing and removal of drill cuttings with com- pressed air: 53%Rotary drilling with rolling tricone bits 49 coean sox / z Fig. 4.1 Principal component ofan electrically diven tary rig (Marion), crAWLER PIVOT AXLE Heavy AXLE Fig 42 Rugged crawler mounting = Auxiliary equipment: 3% ‘When diesel power is used, this can be from the truck engine, Fig. 4.3, or with an independant engine. Nowa- days, the later is usually the case owing tothe different charaeteristies required. There are also diesel-electric drills that have been designed for large production mines without an electric power layout, ‘The electric rigs have lower maintenance costs, 10 10 15%, than those driven by diesel power. The latter are chosen when there is no reliable electric power source near the operation, or when the rig is mounted on a tuck, 4.4 ROTATION SYSTEMS, With the purpose of making the drill pipes rotate and the transmission ofthe rotary torque, the drilling rigs have a rotation system mounted on a frame that slides up and down the mast. ‘The system of top head drive can be run by an electric ‘or hydraulic engine, The first isthe most commonly used for large rigs, as the continuous current engines are easily regulated, from 0 to 150 rpm. In the older designs, the Ward Leonard system was used, and in the more modern the thyristor converter D.C. motorsystem. ‘The hydraulic system consists of aclosed circuit with a constant pressure pump and a rotary torgue converterwv 50 Drilling and blasting of rocks cancuse., COMPRESSED Am Le Truccengice desl dive forarock dei ge FST fore eh, ggg “L qin pur cows * j mags iad | measress ells ¢ 7 — = J 1 (a) (b) (ec) wih which ory spre ofteop eddie hyiaae 45, ate known as 2) dct ak and pinion, ) diet lcengne can beste: This eed wily saan iim 2,0) ie ack nd ‘rated wet Te inh ys ig ets of one o wo The mechani onde ystems ate Kelly bar, yar Serer si a Foe ceroary able, wich very poplin ol fest nage ate PRES haste flowing a fot muth uel im ming taney and he sad eagles hima ne fie Rly ba wicharom ise od mechani a eapliag 2 perfectly controlled, balanced feed force, the hoisting of the pipes that constitute the drill string, 4.5 PULLDOWN/HOISTING SYSTEMS ‘The weight of the whole set up behaves as a reaction against the feed applied to the bit, from whiich one can Im order to achieve « good drilling rate in rock, acettain deduce that the weight of the rock drill should be above pulldown or feed is necessary. This depends upon the and normally double that of the maximum intended Compressive strength ofthe rock and the blastholediame- thrust. ter. As the weight ofthe bars is not sufficient to obtain the ‘The hoisting rate ofthe string is usually from 18 t0 21 Precise thrust load, extra forces must be applied through __meters/inin; higher rates are not recomunendable due t0 hydraulic energy tranmission. vibration problems ‘There are four systems. The fist three, shown in Fig.Rotary drilling with rolling sricone bits 51 Fig. 4.6 Pl down system with cylinder (agers Rae. 4.6 MAST AND PIPE CHANGER ‘The masts that accomodate the drill steel and rotary head are the most critical structure on the drill and should be designed to resist bending from weight, the thrust load and the strains originated by the rotary torque. The most common designs are constructed in a truss pattem of tubular or normal section steel. The modem rigs have a siructure made of box «ype girders that can withstand, longer single-pass masts and high rotary torques. ‘Masts are usually hinged and connected to hydraulic cylinders that permit them to be lowered to a horizontal position for moving. Mast elevation time is usually around 210 5 minutes Inclined hole drilling is usually harmful because ofthe fatigue forces placed upon the mast and drill pipes, apart from a lower pull down load and flushing difficulties, all of which lower production which, in hard rocks, can Photo 4.1, Crawler mounted oar ig, 49 R. (Courtesy of Bucyrus Ere)2 Drilling and blasting of rocks ror etare J Postion Fig. 4.7. Carowsellerype pipe changer, reach 20%, The pinning or inclination can be as much as 30% in 5° intervals. Even though itis recommended that the machine se- lected be capable of drilling the blastholes with only one pipe, there is always the possibility of having to drill longer holes. Therefore, the mast should carry acarousel- le type pipe changer as well as a mechanism for placing and removing them. . ‘The rigs are equipped with tay like sistems with from ‘one to three pipes, or carouselle type with four or more pipes with a drilling capacity of 50 to 60 meters. Both systems are hydraulically driven, Fig. 47, Pipe changing usually takes between 2 to 6 minutes cach, 4.7 CONTROL CABIN ‘The control cabin, pressurized and air conditioned, has all the controls and instruments required for handling the rig during drilling, as follows: ~ Control of the principal motor and gear box. = Control of elevation and lowering ofthe mast, ~ Control of the leveling jacks. ~ Control of pulldown on the bit, = Control of water injection ~ Control of the carousele, Usually the cabin is located near the mast so that all ‘movements of the pipes during work can be observed. 438 "EM FOR FLUSHING DRILL CUTTINGS ‘Compressed air caries out the following functions = Cooling and lubrication of the roller tricone bear ~ Cleaning the boitom of the blasthole. ~ Bailing out of the drill cutings with adequate up. ward velocity ‘The air circulates through a pipe from the compress, tothe mast and from it, by aprotected flexible hose, to the rotary head from which it enters into the drill pipe anc eventually artives at the bit, The air flushes out from passages in the bit through the teeth to swirl up the cuttings and bail them upwards to the surface. IF the tricones are large and the flow of air insufficient, the cuttings fall back tothe bottom to swirl around until they reach a large enough size to be swept upwards, Lack of air, therefore, produces an unnecessary Waste of energy, a Jower penetration rate and more wear on the bit. On the other hand, if the upward velocity is too high, the centra- lizer and the drill pipes will suffer more wear. Ifthe rock density and the diameter of the chips are known, two equations can be used to calculate the mini- ‘mum upward velocity 573 x p,+1 ¥,= 250% px Where: V, = Minimum upward velocity (am/min), p, = Rock Density (g/cm), d, = Chip diameter (mm), ‘The air flow necessary is determined by: (P-#) 127 2, XV a Vx where: A,, = Cross-sectional area ofthe annulus between the blasthole wall and the drill pipe (m:), Q, = Required air flow (m/min), V, = Upward velocity (tn/min), D = Blasthole diameter (ri) d = Drill pipe diameter (m). Another equation to determine the approximate flow Q,= 24x D% where: 0, (mn, ‘The recommended bailing velocities, in function with the type of rock, are the following: Airflow (m°/min), D = Blasthole diameter Tables. ‘Type of rock Minimum velocity Maximum velocity auimin) "(eetmin) (oma) oot Som 120° 4009 1.800 6.000 Medium 150 S00 210000 Hard 008.000— Rotary drilling with rolling tricone bits 33 Z oY a Fig 4.8 Dill pipe sing, ‘Thus, the dril pipe diameter recommended, according to the rock type, should be 3” (75 mm) smaller than that of the tricone bitin soft material, 2” (50 mm) in medium rocks and 1”2” (38 mm) in hard rock, as the particle or chip size deereases with an increase in rock compressive strength. From the nomograph below, the diameter of commer- cial drill pipes can be determined more exactly, once the air flow, upward velocity and blasthole diameter are known ‘When the compressive rock strength is under 100, MPa, the high diling rate achieved retains the cuttings in the blasthole if the annulus or ring of space isnot large enough. The following should comply: Blasthole area divided by the annulus area Which is the equivalent of: Drill pipe diameter divided by blasthole diameter = 7 Normally low pressure compressors are used in rotary dlills, 50 p.s.i. (350 kPa). However, the number of rigs that have medium to high pressure compressors, 100-150 si. (T00-1050 kPa), is increasing owing to improved cooling ofthe bearings and the possibility of using down- the-hole hammer. 49 DRILL STRING ‘The dri string, Fig. 4.9 is composed of the rotary coup- ling, the drill pipe, the stabilizer and the rolling cone oF rotary tricone rock bit 49.1 Rotary coupling ‘This element transmits the rotary torque from the rotary head to the drill string which is underneath. 49.2 Drill pipe The length of the dil pipes depends upon the length of the blasthole. They transmit the pulldown o fed force to the bit and fo canalize the compressed air required to clean the hoe and cool the bearings. The pipes ae usually made of ste! with 1” thickness 25 mum) and sometimes up to 1" G8 mm), The most common treads used in the couplings are API, BECO, or similar 493 Stabilizer ‘The stabilizer is placed on top of the drill bit, Fig. 4.10, and its mission is to make the tricone bit rotate correctly depending upon the axis ofthe blasthole and avoid oscil- lations and bending of the drill stel ‘The advantages ofits use are: — Fewer blasthole deviations, above all in inclined arilling = Less wear on the tricone and better drilling rates due to improved feed force. ~ Less skirt, gauge insert and bearing wear, = Improved blasthole wall stability asthe deil pipes do not bend. Improved bulk explosive loading, a the distribution is more uniform, The stabilizer should have a diameter similar to that of the hole, usually 4” (3 mm) smaller than that of the tricone bit There are two types of stabilizers: blade type and roller ‘ype. ‘The blade type is least expensive but the disadvantages are that it must be used with wear bars, it reduces the available rotary torque and is unstable in hard ground, after drilling the first holes,wv 54 Drilling and blasting of rocks & J Fp. 4.10 Rollrype bier The roller type stabilizers with tungsten carbide but tons do not require much rotary torque, are more expens- ive and also more efficient than the blade type. 4.94 Single pass drilling These of high masts, up to27 m, which allow each hole to be drilled in a single pass with lengthening the drill string has the following advantages: ‘Noadded drill pipes which takes from 2 to 6 minutes each, = Reduced thread wear. ~ 10% 15% increase in production. ~ Easier blasthole cleaning. ~ Permits a continuous ar flow through the bit which is especially interesting in blastholes with water. ~ Reduces loss of feed and rotation force transmission as there are no unions between pipes ‘There are a few disadvantages to single pass drilling such as ~ Higher masts are mote unstable, especially in the rotary head. ~ The mast requires stronger anchoring to the rig, ~ More care has to be taken when moving, = The feed transmission chain needs an improved design 49.5 Vibration and shock subs Since 1967 a series of vibration and shock absorption systems have been developed which give the following benefits: ~ Lower rock drill maintenance cost by reducing axial ‘and torsional shock loads transmitted tothe mast. ~ Increase in drilling rate by improving bit contact withthe rock and enabling a better use of the combination feed force/driling rate for each type of formation q eae U Fig. 411, Ant-shoek coupling placement ~ Increased service life ofthe bt asthe impacts to the bearings and cutting structure are absorbed. ~ Less noise level in the operator cabin as the direct contact rotary head/ dil bars eliminated Aantishock couplings should be used in broken ground, altemating hard and soft layers and in hard formations. ‘The typeof shock subs used ae: ~ Horizontal shock absorbers = Verical shock absorbers (swivel mounted) = Nitrogen shock absorbers (gs spring) Horizontal shock absorber Performs as a flexible and compressible unit and reduces vertical and transversal vibration. Field tests have shown ‘an inctease in penetration rate of 5% in soft rocks and. 20% in hard rocks, with a 259 increase in tricone life. One ofthe characteristics of tis system is that it only has two elements that can be worn out. Vertical shock absorber (swivel mounted) ‘This type has an assembly of 18 elastic segments that are mounted vertically, giving a performance similar (0 that of the horizontal shock absorber, Fig. 412, Nitrogen shock absorber (gas spring) ‘This system uses pressurized nitrogen. fts main disad- vantage is the high initial cost and maintenance. 49.6 Blasthole reamers This is an interesting practice as it permits the use of explosive columns similar to spherical charges. The ad- vantages of the system of chambering against the con ventional uniform blasthole can be summed up as fol- lows: ~ Less volume of rock drilled. ~ Higher production output. ~ Less manuevering time. ~ Lower volume of stemming, and — Improved muckpile profile for front end loader,Rotary drilling with rolling tricone bits 35 Fig. 4.12 Vercl shock absorber (B. Hughes, ne.) SF Fig. 4.13. Sytem for widening blastholes. 4.10 AUXILIARY ELEMENTS 4.10.1 Dustelimination A large amount of dust builds up during drilling and if not eliminated, apart from affecting the health of personnel, it ccan create maintenance problems inthe rock drill. Dust suppression can be carried in two ways: ~ Wet system. = Dry system, ‘The wet system consists in adding a small amount of ‘water, with or without foam, into the flushing air. The dust that has formed in the bottom of the hole becomes caked andis bailed upwards withthe cuttings. ‘This system is simple but has disadvantages, which — Lower service life of the tricone bit ~ between 15 to 20%. ~ If too much water is injected the dust ean become pasty thick and abrasive, whichis difficult to bail out and could cause great wear on the drill string. ~ Incold climates it produces operative problems. The dry dust suppression system consists of a dust collector mounted on the rig and composed of cyclones, and filters. The big advantage ofthis method is that it does not affect the bits and is very efficient. However, when ‘water is present in the hole is efficiency is quite reduced and the maintenance is high. The operators cabin and the engine room are usually pressurized to keep the dust out. 4.10.2 Leveling ‘When the machine is drilling, its weight rests on leveling jacks which are pinned to the drills main structure and can be regulated from the operator cabin, Each rig usually has from three 1 four jacks and ittakes about I minute to set them up. ‘A hydraulic jack at each comer of the machine is usually the best arrangement to evenly distribute the weight, reducing strain on the rig, mast vibrations and general damage, Fig. 4.14 4.10.3 Stability In order to obtain high productivity, the rigs should be able to move with the mast and drill string in the verticalwv 56 Drilling and blasting of rocks HYORAUUG CYLINDER FRAME ee PAD Fig 4.14 Hydraulic jack, Position. For this reason, the equipment should be de- signed in such a manner that its center of gravity is as low as possible and close tothe centerline of the crawler. The crawlers can be oversized to increase stability and carry ballast to keep the rig in balance. 4.10.4 Gradeability Rigs on crawlers are capable of propelling up 10 to 129% grades for one hour and reach peak gradeability of 20% fora shor time. 4.10.5 Oil or grease injection ‘The injection of oil into the flushing air provides extra lubrication to the bearings ofthe tricone bit, helping to cut down on wear, Fig.15. : Ifthe low is excessive, the air passages inthe bearings can become blocked and premature failure could occur, as well asthe dust taking on a pasty consistency which is an obstacle for uphole baling, [compressors with sliding-vanes are used, it has been found thatthe service life of the bits increases noticeably, as the air caries a small amount of oil with it. For this reason, ifthe compressors that are mounted on the rigs are of rotary screw type then itis recommended that oil be injected into the flushing ait 4.11 OPERATIVE PRACTICE, DRILLING PARAMETERS The internal parameters that intervene in rotary drilling ~ Feed or pulldown force on the bit. Rotation speed, = Bit wear, ~ Blasthole diameter, and Flushing air low. The external parameters are the following: \. BR 7 an waren on 7 A Sry Wa ices A nS Fig 4.15.Oitinjetion system ina rotary rock dil. ~ Characteristics and compressive strength of the rocks, and ~ Operator efficiency. 4.11.1 Feed or thrust load on the bit ‘The feed force applied to the bit should be sufficient to overcome the compressive strength of the rock, but not excessive to avoid premature or abnormal failure of the tricone bit The drilling rate increases proportionately with the feed, up tothe point where the bit becomes locked against the rock as the teeth or inserts bury into the material, Fig. 4.16, or because of the high drilling rate and the large volume of cuttings produced the blasthole is not adequa- tely cleaned ‘In hard formations, a high thrust force on the bit ean produce breakage of the inserts before the bit becomes: stuck or the hole cleaning is defective, Also the bearing, lifeis diminished, but not necessarily the length drilled by the rolling cone bit, ‘When rock is drilled, the tricones can work in three different situations, Fig. 417. «) With insufficient feed or pulldown, ») With efficient advance, and ©) When the tool becomes buried The minimum pulldown under which a rock is not rilled can be estimated from the following equation: E,,= 285 x RCxD where: £,, = Minimum pulldown (pounds), RC = Com pressive strength ofthe rock (MPa), D = Diameter ofthe tricone bit (inches).Rotary drilling with rolling tricone bits 37 Fig, 4.16. Rock breakage. Excessive fed wont erriciency PENETRATION RATE Fig A.17.Puldownetfectoncilingrate, PUK DOWN “ables2. Diameter ofthe be Timigguildown finches) si 21,000 om 31.000 4 37.000 va 50.000 9 65.000 st 79.000 ni 121.000 ‘The maximum pulldown, above which the tricone is buried, is considered to be double the previous value. Eq=2X Eq limit pulldown that a roller tricone can withstand is in function with the size of its bearings which, at the same time, depends upon the diameter ofthe bit: 10 x Dt Limit pulldown on the tricone (pounds), D = Diameter (inches). ‘Table 4.2 gives the limit values for tricones of different diameters. gE, 4.11.2 Rotation speed Penetration rate increases with rotation speed in a propor- tion that is slightly lower than the unit, up to a limit imposed by the bailing out of drill cuttings, Fig. 4.18. Rotary speeds vary from 60 to 120 cmin for steel toothed roller ticones, and from 50 to 80 r/min for those with tungsten carbide inser. Table 4.3 gives the rotary speeds that are adequate for different types of rock. ‘The rotary speed limit is set by bearing wear, which itself depends upon the pulldown, the cleaning of the blasthole and the temperanure; and upon breakage of the inserts produced by impacts against the rock, in which the intensity is proportional tothe square ofthe rotary speed. ALLS Wear of the bit ‘When steel tooth roller tricones are used, the drilling rate goes down considerably as the wear onthe bit increases. Fig, 4.19, shows how, for a haf used roller tricone bit, the penetration rate can be reduced by 50 to 75% when ‘compared to that obtained with a new tricone. 4114 Drilling diameser Fig. 4.20 shows how the drilling rate obtained with ‘constant feed force and rotation speed is proportional 19 the inverse ofthe squared drilling diameter. 4.11.5 Airflow ‘When drilling is carried out with less airthan necessary t0 Fp. 4.18 Etec rary speed upon the penetration ate ‘Tables, ‘Type ofrk oar sped nin) Sof 5 Hirewv 58 Drilling and blasting of rocks 2 WEAR ON THE Bt () Fig. 4.19 Effect bit wear a the penetration ate 20. Intuenee of diameter on the ding rate. clean the blasthole, the following negative effects ap- pear ~ Decrease in drilling rat, ~ Higher pulldown required to continue drilling. = Increase in drill damage owing to higher rotary torque necessary to rotate the tricone. ~ More wear on the stabilizer, drill pipe and bt. 4.11.6 Criteria for rock drill election Once the drilling diameter has been determined, which depends upon: ~ Required output. ~ Capacity and number of loading and haulage equip- ‘ment ~ Bench height. ~ Environmental limitations and ~ Operation costs And taking into consideration the geomechanics of the rock tobe dried, the following can be determined: ~ Rock drill characteristics, Type of roller tricone bit. = Drill steel and accessories ‘The adequate design of arock drill requires taking i account the rotary power necessary to rotate the bit ¢ the method of bailing out the drill cuttings. Rotary power ‘The required rotary power is equal to the product of 1 rotary torque necessary to rotate the bit by the rotat speed NXT, HP, = 5.250 where: HP, = Rotary power (HP), N, = Rotation spe (iin), 7, = Rotary torque Ib/). The rotary torque increases with the thrust load on t bitand the depth ofthe blasthole. Normally, the drills 3 signed with a torque capacity in the range of 10 to lb/ft for each pound of pulldown load ‘When the necessary torque is not known, the rote ower can be calculated from the following equation: HP, = KN, x DS x B'S where: HP, ‘tary power (HP), N, = Rotary spe (min), D> Drilling diameter (inches), E = Pulldox (feed) force (thousands of pounds per inch of diamete K = Constant of the rock formation (Table 4.4). In Fig. 4.21, the drilling energy per unit of volume represented as function ofthe compressive strength, Necessary pulldown force ‘The power necessary for the pulldown is low wh, compared to that of rotation, Fig. 4.22, Besides, the pulldown on the bit, as seen before, d pends upon the diameter and the compressive strength the rock, Fig. 4.23. ‘The feed capacity of the machine should be 30% mo than the maximum working feed. ‘Once this design parameter is known, the weight oft ‘machine will be defined, as the feed is usually 50% of t working weight, with a 10 to 15% in reserve to assure t stability during operation and movement. Compressor ‘There are two most commonly used types of compresse nowadays: sliding-vane or rotary-screw type. The ran, of capacities goes from 7 10 70 m/min approximate Both the size and type of this equipment is optional Rotary-screw type compressors work at higher press re than those of sliding-vane type, have a more simp design and are more compact and give higher mechanic availabilty Type of rolling cone or tricone bit One ofthe most important aspects of rotary drilling is t choice ofthe proper bit. If not, the following will occur: ~ Penetration rate lower than optimum. — Reduced bit life, giving a higher cost per met: drilledRotary drilling with rolling tricone bits 59 “abe ook Compreve Contant) —_ sucgh (M2) Wert 7 1410! sot : to Mesa sot us to108 Medium 560 510: Hand 200 eins Nery tad 60 ios Fe ccuenceaie Smear oP rt Fig. 421. Dring energy as function ofthe compressive strength. ” Fig, 4:22. Comparison of rotary power an pulldown force fr dite. enteypesof Rock, 4.12 PENETRATION RATE, Penetration rate depends upon many external factors: aeologies, physical properties of the rocks, distribution of stresses and internal structure, This makes it dificult for a PULDOWN ( 3 BLASTHOLE OIAMETER (nck) Fig. 423. Plldown force on he bias function ofthe dameter and ‘ypeot rock (1 Kip= 4.448 kN), the project engineer to determine the drilling rate during the actual planning of the project, but highly necessary as the decision taken will effect the rest ofthe operations. ‘There are two procedures that can be used for deter- ‘mining the penetration rate: 1. The taking of representative samples and carrying ‘out scaled down tests by the bit manufacturers. They will then send a report in which the following will be cated: ~ The type of roller tricone recommended. = Suggested thrust load and rotary speed. Estimated penetration rate, and ~ Predicted service life ofthe bit. ‘The reliability ofthe results depends on the represen- tivity of the samples sent to the manufacturer and, in general, the reports are usually conservative in their production and cost calculations because the effects of | discontinuities and their infiling are not taken into account. 2, Calculation of the penetration rate from the com- pressive strength ofthe rock. This procedure is based upon use of empirical for- smulas suggested by several investigators. 4.12.1 Tests on samples There are two procedures known as Microbit and In- enter Test ‘The first and oldest, has been used since the decade of the fifties. In consists of drilling small formation samples with a4” 32 ma) microbit witha 200 pounds toad on the bit and at 60 rfmin Each testis cated out by driling a holes” 2.4 mm) deep and recording the diling time each !” (0.8 mm), “After each test the bit wear is measured and registered. ‘The results obtained are corelated with real data, Fig 4.24, and the life ofthe tricone bits estimate. The system gives good results in sft to medium for ‘mations, that canbe deiled with tee! tooth roller bits, but in hard formations where tungsten carbide inset bits hhave to be used, very low penetration rates are obtainedwv v 0 Drilling and blasting of rocks Photo 4.2 Microbit tse pn u.som be Scorn oF amveres Fig-4.24.Caleulation ofthe penetration ite fom the Microbes, with the microbit and the cutter wear is so high that the results donot give an accurate estimate. In the second test a hemispherical shaped tungsten carbide tooth or indenter is applied tothe sample and the {oad increased in 500 pounds intervals up to a maximum. 69f $000 to 6000 pounds, until rock failure occurs, Photo 4.3, establishing the indenter or &, value which is consi- dered to be the threshold force at time of fracture. ‘The feed force that must be applied tothe bit is: E=E, xt, where: E = Feed force, E, = Threshold force, J, = Num- ber of inserts of the tricone that are in contact with the rock ata given instant However, /, usually represents an 8% of the total number C, of tricone inserts, so the previous equation changes t: E=008xE, x C, ‘The penetration rate willbe given by: Photo 43. Inder test V=N,xp where: VP = Penetration rate, WV, = Revolutions per ‘minute, p = Tricone penetration per revolution, Also, the advance of the tricone bit in a revolution p should be proportional to the penetration p obtained in the test p=Kxp" ‘where K is a constant that covers the actual field condi- tions thatthe test cannot reproduce. ‘The final equation for penetration rate is as follows: €) XE aKXN, (B= (tea) bey kz) =(2 VP =KxN,p =KXN, ‘This equation gives the penetration rate ftom a group of known parameters As in most cases the roller tricone bits are thrown away when there is bearing failure, their useful lives can be estimated in meters by multiplying the penetration rate by the number of hours of bearing service life. 4.12.2 Empirical formulas for estimating the penetration rate ‘This procedure is very simple and is based upon empi- ‘ical formulas that were developed from field tests. They Usually take into account the following parameters ~~ Drilling diameter = Pulldown force on the bit. ~ Rotary speed, and = Uniaxial compressive strength, The unknown parameter is the Compressive Strength, which can easily be determined by a field or laboratory ‘est, from the Point Load Strength Index. In 1967, after investigation work was carried out in iron mining exploitations in Canada, A. Bauer and P Calder suggested the following equationRotary drilling with rolling tricone bits 6 ‘where: VP = Penetration rate (eet/hour), K = Factor that depends on the rock and varies between 1.4 and 1.75 for rocks with compressive strength in the range of 15.000 to 50.000 pounds per square inch, £ = Pulldown force (pounds per inch of diameter), RC = Compressive rock strength (pounds per square inch). In 1971, Bauer modified the equation by introducing another parameter rotary speed: y, E = (61-28 logy RC] x = D> 300 where: VP = Penetration rate (feet/hour), RC = Com- pressive strength (thousands of pounds per square inch), E/D = Unitary feed force (thousands of pounds per inch of diameter), N, = Rotary speed 0/min). ‘This equation gives good results in the range of com- pressive strengths mentioned. In Fig. 4.25, there is a nomograph to calculate the penetration rate as function ofthe compressive strength. R, Prille, in 1978, deducted the following empi- tical equation: 218 x EX, vi 0.2% REx DP? x 10,000 where: VP = Penetration rate (mm/h), E = Feed force (kg), N,=Rotaxy speed (min), RC Compressive rock sifength (MPa), D = Diameter of the roller tricone bit (mm). ‘This formula is more celiale in the whole range of compressive rock trengths and permis calculation of the RC valueina working operation, Fig. 425, Estimation ofthe Penezaton Rae from the Compressive Stength (Bauer and Calder, Fig 4.26. Nomograph of penetration res. ‘And lastly the manufacturers of roller tricone bits have drawn up simple nomographs where, in function withthe compressive rock strength, the penetration rate can be calculated for a constant rotary speed of 60 r/min Fig. 4.26. 4.123 Average drilling rate (Once the penetration rate has been calculated, the average rate should be estimated after including the non- productive times and the mechanical availability of the ‘machine which is usually 80%. It is calculated by the equation: VM = 2x vposs where: VM = Average drilling rate (m/h), VP = Penetra- tion rate (rt). ‘Another more exact way of calculating VM is taking {nto account the individual non-productive times, ccussed before in the chapter on rotary percussive dril- ling. 4.13 CALCULATION OF DRILLING CosTS ‘The drilling costs per meter drilled is calculated withthe following equation: Ct G4 Cy + Cot Cet G, C= ATL ro et cy vM where: Indirect costs: C, = Depreciation (Sih), C, = In- terest rates, taxes and ‘insurance (Sih). Direct costs; Cy = Maintenance (S/n), Cy =Labor costs (Sih), Power costs ($/h), C, © Grease and lubrication (Gin), Cy = Bit, stabilizer dnd deil pipe (S/>), VM = Average diling rate (mh).vv 7 Drilling and blasting of racks 4.13.1 Depreciation The estimated operative life of these machines can be from 50,000 to 100.000 hours for electric rock drills and from 16.000 to 30.000 hours for the diesel-hydraulic units mounted on trucks. In order to caleulate the depre- ciation cost, the purchase price less the residual value is divided by the number of estimated hours Purchase price ~ Residual value Hours of operative life 4.13.2 Interest rates, insurance and taxes Most of the machinery is purchased with borrowed ‘money, thus the interest rates must be taken into account, plus the insurance costs and taxes. In order to calculate the total, the following equation is used: Nel x Purchase price x 9% (interest + 2N insurance + taxes) Work hours per year ‘where: N= Number of years of service life. 4.13.3 Maincenance costs ‘This includes repairs due to breakdown and those for preventative maintenance. [t can be estimated by mul- liplying the cost ofthe machine by 5 x 10° for electric, rigs, and by 6 x 10- for diesel units. 4,134 Labor costs ‘This corresponds tothe cost/hour ofthe driller, including social security, vacations, etc, and also that of the helper, when necessary. 4135 Powercosts ‘This cost can be electric or diesel energy, and itis caleu- lated from the engine specifications. 4.13.6 Oil and grease (lubrication) ‘This cost is determined from the data supplied by the ‘manufacturer, with reference tothe oil changes, hydraulic systems and carter or deposit capacity. The estimate is usually between 15 and 20% of the power costs 4.13.7 Average rate ‘This is determined from the what was exposed in Section 12of this chapter 4.13.8 Bit, stabilizer and drill pipe This is one of the eritical areas, as there is a lack of previous information from the technicians, and also for its importance as its influence on drilling costs can run up from 15 to 40% of the total, depending upon the hardness ofthe rock, The service life of a tricone bit can be estimated from the following equation: 8.140 x DI x BN ®, LIFE (m) = x3x0P Pulldown force on Rotary speed (efmin), where: D = Diameter (inches), the bit (thousands of pounds), N, VP = Penetration rate (m/h) ‘The drill pipes and stabilizers usually have an average life of 30.000 and 11.000 m, respectively. 4.139 Example Ina mining operation, an electric drill is used with a total pulldown force of 70,000 pounds that drills rock with a ‘compressive strength of 75 MPa, with a 9” (229 mm) diameter. The actual data ofthe operation are: Feed force on the bit: 39.000 pounds. ~ Penetration rate: 34 ra/h. = Rotary speed: 60 r/min The purchase price of the equipment is 1.85 million dollars, and the administration wants to calculate the ‘costs per lineal meter drilled “The areas that make up the total costae: 850,000 > = 23.12.$/h (without residual 80,0008 ‘value) 13 ee 33x 185 x 108s x02 46.60 4:300h where: Cy = 1.85 x 10° x 5 x 10° = 92.50$/h, C5 =26.00$/h, C2. = 185 KWMh 0.13 S/KW = 24.05 $/h, C= 02x Cy =4815S/h, Indirect Costs = C, + C, = 69.725/h, Direct Costs = Cyt Cy + Cp + C, = 147.36 S/n, VM =2 x 3405" 19.$ mh, Life ofthe roller tricone bit 28,140 x 915 x 39°18? 2 — x3x3423.174m 0 1.496 $/m (Tricone bit) 256 S/m (Stabilizer) 108 $/m (Drill pipe)Rotary driling with rolling tricone bits 6 Cy = Cai + Can * Cop = 186 8/m. 69,72 + 147.36 198 C= 4+ 1.86 = 12.82:8/m REFERENCES Bauer, As Dring and Blasting. Bucy Fri. 1979 Bemaola. 1: Predicin dela Velocidad de Perforacion a Percuson median Ensayo de Laboratorio sobre Muestas de Roca, Tis Doctoral TS. Ingeniers de Minas de Maid 1988 Cciewood. B.& Nort. NE. Blasiole Dring Economics a Lok ‘the Coat Behind the Cost FIM. Jane, 1979 Chugh CP Manat ofDrlng Techology. 1985. FHemanz, E: Perforacén Rotativa en Minera a Cielo Abierto. NP 1913 Lauvell, GW: The Pro's and Con's of Rotary Blasihole Design Mining Engieering. une Jly. 1978, oper meno. CEs La Perforaci Rottiva con Ticonos, Ca easy Faploaiones. Ener, 199, Lope Jimeno, E Implonacin de un Método de Clculo de Vla- unas on Banco. Tess Doctoral. ES. Ingenieos de Minas de Madi 1988, ‘Manrbia, Fetal: Crteras para a Selec de na Peforadora de Roca, Indust Minera. 1986. Morin otal: Surface Mining Equpmen. 1982 Morales, Vs Moning Engineering Handbook ~ Dring Machines 'AIME, (973. \elmark, 1D. Large Diameter Blanhole Drs. Mining congress “ural, Angst, 1970 Neliark, iD. Blathole Design & Applications. AMF, Febrsry, 1983, elma, Ds Inlined Hole Dring with Large Basho Dil Can “Sometimes be Used. Minin Engineering, September, 1984 la Fetal: Curso de Perforacién yVoladuras. Fundacion Gomez. Pars, 978. ral. Consderacions de wr Fabricante de Maguines de Perfo actin. Cateras Expoaciones. Septiemtre, 1984, wiliamson, TN Surface Mining Rotary Diling, AIME, 168,