Received February 1, 2018, accepted March 8, 2018, date of publication March 12, 2018, date of current version April

18, 2018.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2814981

Analysis and Mitigation of Power Quality Issues

in Distributed Generation Systems Using
Custom Power Devices
EKLAS HOSSAIN 1 , (Senior Member, IEEE), MEHMET RIDA TÜR2 ,
SANJEEVIKUMAR PADMANABAN 3 , (Senior Member, IEEE),
SELIM AY4 , AND IMTIAJ KHAN5
1 Department of Electrical Engineering and Renewable Energy, Oregon Institute of Technology, Klamath Falls, OR-97601, USA
2 Electrical and Energy Department, Mardin Artuklu University, 47500 Mardin, Turkey
3 Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University, 6700 Esbjerg, Denmark
4 Electrical Engineering Department, Yildiz Technical University, 34050 Istanbul, Turkey
5 Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh

Corresponding author: Eklas Hossain ([email protected])

ABSTRACT This paper discusses the power quality issues for distributed generation systems based on
renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind energy. A thorough discussion about the power quality
issues is conducted here. This paper starts with the power quality issues, followed by discussions of basic
standards. A comprehensive study of power quality in power systems, including the systems with dc and
renewable sources is done in this paper. Power quality monitoring techniques and possible solutions of
the power quality issues for the power systems are elaborately studied. Then, we analyze the methods of
mitigation of these problems using custom power devices, such as D-STATCOM, UPQC, UPS, TVSS, DVR,
etc., for micro grid systems. For renewable energy systems, STATCOM can be a potential choice due to its
several advantages, whereas spinning reserve can enhance the power quality in traditional systems. At Last,
we study the power quality in dc systems. Simpler arrangement and higher reliability are two main advantages
of the dc systems though it faces other power quality issues, such as instability and poor detection of faults.

INDEX TERMS DC system, mitigation, monitor, power quality, renewable energy, spinning reserve,
standards.

I. INTRODUCTION mainly affected by the balance of reactive power and the

The conventional large-scale generation of electricity at time constant of the excitation system [3]. A case study with
centralized facilities include fossil-fuel-fired power plants, wind farms (having 12 turbines), done in [4], shows that the
nuclear power plants, hydroelectric dams, wind farms etc. harmonic values affect slightly in a negative way. Typical
These are now being troubled with the shortage of fossil fuel, distribution of PQ disturbances by its duration shows that
the exceeding amount of emission and the electrical power disturbances lasting less than one second far outnumbers the
loss due to long transmission line [1]. ‘‘Power Quality’’ refers others in occurrence [5]. Standards have been introduced to
to the electrical system’s ability to create a perfect power define Power Quality, such as the ones defined by IEEE
supply that has a pure noise-free sinusoidal wave shape, and IEC [6]. Being integrated with the renewable energy
and is always stable if voltage and frequency is considered. systems such as solar and wind, distributed generation (DG)
However, practically many loads regularly impose distur- can lead to cleaner and more efficient power generation and
bances on the systems that make deviations from this ideal transmission [1], [7], [8], along with microgrids [9]–[11].
power supply [2]. EPRI carried out a study between 1992 and Electric power system operators often try to keep a certain
1997 in the US and characterized the average duration of fraction of their generation capacity as Spinning Reserve (SR)
disturbances. The result for a typical site, during this period for maintaining power quality, and employ custom power
is presented in fig. 1. devices (CPD) [12].
The most important power quality issue is voltage sta- Power quality issues can be studied from the examples
bility [2], which requires regulation. Voltage regulation is of data centres, residential power systems, and renewable

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E. Hossain et al.: Analysis and Mitigation of Power Quality Issues in DG Systems Using CPDs

The main goal of this paper is a detailed analysis of power

quality issues and suggesting their possible solutions. A thor-
ough study of power quality in power systems, including the
systems with DC as well as renewable sources are done in
this work, along with the standards that define these issues.
Power quality monitoring techniques and possible solutions
of power quality issues for the power systems are elaborately
studied. In short, a comprehensive analysis of overall power
quality issues is presented in a single work. The main focus
of this paper is on power quality issues. In section II, power
quality issues such as transients, long-duration voltage vari-
ations, short-duration voltage variations, voltage imbalance,
waveform distortion, voltage fluctuation, power frequency
FIGURE 1. Typical distribution of PQ disturbances by its duration, variation etc. are explained. Sources and parameters of power
disturbances lasting less than one second far outnumbers the
others in occurrence [5]. quality issues are also addressed in this section. In section III,
power quality standards such as IEEE, IEC etc. are discussed.
Power quality issues in renewable energy systems are stud-
ied in section IV. Tracking and detection of power quality
generation collector systems which can be the motivations issues are two main objectives of power quality monitoring.
of the discussion of DC distribution systems [13]. But they Such monitoring techniques - LabVIEW, FFT, ADALINE,
have many problems that are yet to be addressed, harmonics HT, TEO etc. are discussed in section V which primarily
being a prominent one among those. However, a study in focuses on harmonics and voltage flicker problems. Devices
data centre efficiency shows that 400V DC system has the used in mitigating power quality issues such as SST, SVT,
highest level of efficiency (∼73%) [13]. In the pursuit of STATCOM, UPQC etc. are discussed in section VI. The
solving power quality problems in Double Fed Induction applications of custom power devices (CPD) to mitigate those
Generator (DFIG) based grid connected wind power, Fuzzy power quality issues are studied in this section. Section VII
controlled UPQC method has been developed [14]. Power discusses ways of improving power quality in power systems
quality improvement in the integrated wind energy system employing renewable sources such as wind and solar gen-
using FACTS device has been discussed in [15]. Static Syn- eration. In section VIII, the power quality in DC system is
chronous Compensator (STATCOM) can be used for reactive analyzed. Finally, the outcomes of this work are presented in
power compensation and power factor improvement with a section IX, followed by the conclusion in section X.
model using Icosϕ algorithm [16], [17]. Another solution
which can reduce power quality problems is Uninterruptible II. POWER QUALITY ISSUES AND THEIR IMPORTANCE
Power Supply (UPS). UPS is usually used to protect comput- As mentioned earlier, power quality refers to maintaining
ers and telecommunication devices, and in off-line stand-by the rated magnitude and frequency of near sinusoidal rated
system in utilities [18], [19]. voltage and current of a power system. Any interruption of
Previous works have been carried out on various topics the power quality would cost the efficiency of the system.
such as power quality issues, standards, monitoring tech- In most of the cases, control of the power quality refers to
niques, mitigation techniques etc. This work aims at a com- the control of the voltage only. This is because in most cases
prehensive study combining all these aspects, especially in voltage can be controlled more easily than current [2]. More
the case of renewable energy sources, and perform an analysis specifically, the quality of power can be described by some
based on this study. A promising solution for the problems as parameters such as continuity of service, variation in voltage
sag, swell and flicker [2], [20], [21] can be UPQC [22]–[28]. magnitude, transient voltages and currents, harmonic content
Also, other issues and their corresponding mitigation tech- (for AC) etc. [29].
niques are summarized, with a performance evaluation for To describe the importance of power quality issues, we can
those techniques according to their effectiveness. Previously, say that poor power quality leads to unnecessary wastage of
no comprehensive reference paper on power quality and power and economy [24], [30]. It creates financial burden on
related issues in renewable energy systems was available that the suppliers and consumers. Unstable voltage and frequency
also includes mitigation techniques along with a performance often creates disturbance in the power flow through trans-
evaluation based on their effectiveness. An observation is mission line. Evaluation process of power quality problem
made in this work based on the severity of the power qual- is depicted in fig. 2. From the flow diagram, it can be seen
ity issues and the usefulness of mitigation techniques. This that the first stage of this evaluation is to identify the problem
finding will help to understand which power quality issues category. There are mainly five categories of problems: volt-
should be addressed with more attention in future and also age unbalance, voltage interruptions, flicker, transients, and
which mitigation techniques should be developed in a more harmonic distortion. After identifying the category, character-
advanced way. ization of the problem is done by measuring or collecting data

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 E. Hossain et al.: Analysis and Mitigation of Power Quality Issues in DG Systems Using CPDs

of problem causes malfunction in data processing equip-

ment [20]. ‘‘Noise’’ is the superimposing high frequency
signals with the main waveform of power system. It may
cause data loss too [5].
‘‘Flicker’’ is the fluctuation of voltage, which is between
90% to 110% of nominal, coming from the power supply.
This fluctuation damages the equipment at the load side [21].
Waveform distortion is a steady-state deviation from an ideal
sine wave of power frequency. It is usually characterized
by the spectral content of the deviation. The primary types
of waveform distortion are: DC offset harmonics, inter-
harmonics, notching, and noise. Power frequency variation
is the deviation of the power system fundamental frequency
from its specified nominal value (50 Hz or 60 Hz).
The term harmonics refers to a waveform distortion of the
voltages or currents, which are caused by nonlinear loads.
We can call a spectral component as harmonic [32] if,

f = nffund (1)

It will be a dc component if,

f=0 (2)

It will be called interharmonic if,

f = nffund (3)

And lastly, it will be subharmonic if,

f > 0 and f < nffund (4)

Where, n>0 and an integer, f = frequency, ffund = fundamen-

tal power system frequency. Intermittent lock-up and garbled
data can be caused by harmonics.
FIGURE 2. Flow diagram for evaluation of power quality problems, Voltage spike is the momentary increase of the voltage
solution of a problem comes through a process starting with
identification of the problem category [2]. beyond the normal tolerances. Its duration is more than one
cycle and typically less than a few seconds. To summarize the
discussions of this section, a list of power quality issues with
to find out the causes, characteristics, and equipment impacts. their effects are depicted in table 1.
The next two steps are identifying the range of solutions, According to EPRI, power quality issues vary with sever-
and evaluation of solutions. The final step is to evaluate the ity. One way to consider this severity is by considering the
optimum solution from all the possibilities to achieve the economic damage they do to the equipment. Ranking of
most economic outcome. this power quality issues according to their economic impact
One of the major power quality issues is ‘‘Voltage Fluc- have been demonstrated in table 1. According to the table,
tuation’’, which indicates changes in voltage amplitude. transient has the most severe impact on the economic aspect
‘‘Voltage Sag’’ [31] refers to the reduction in supply voltage of electrical equipment.
magnitude. The phenomenon called ‘‘Voltage Swell’’ refers To discuss about the sources of power quality problems,
to the momentary increase in the voltage beyond the normal two perspectives can be addressed. The first one is the utility
tolerance levels. It has duration of more than one cycle and sources and the latter one is the internal sources. The first one
it lasts typically less than a few seconds. [20]. Transient is a includes lightning, power factor correction equipment, faults,
short duration burst of energy. It is usually caused by a sudden switching [33] etc. while the second one includes individual
change of state, such as surges. This sudden change can occur loads, lighting ballasts, arc welders, and medical equipment.
in the steady-state condition of voltage, current, or both [2]. Another type of source can be added which can be described
Another important power quality issue is the ‘‘long time as power electronic source. Variable frequency drives, battery
voltage interruption’’. This problem refers to the total inter- chargers, smart grid, microgrid, electronic dimming system,
ruption or decrease of the voltage or load current for a large motors, UPS etc. fall into this category. Fig. 3 depicts
few milliseconds to one or two second durations. This type this classification.

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TABLE 1. Impacts of power quality issues.

FIGURE 3. Sources of power quality problems. The problems can

originate from the utilities, internally, or from power electronic sources.

FIGURE 4. Distinct types of facilities affected by power quality issues,

classified according to cost.

III. POWER QUALITY STANDARDS

Development of power quality standards is one of the key
factors in power quality analysis. Mainly there are two types
of standards: IEEE and IEC. Classifications of power qual-
ity issues according to IEEE 1159 standards are illustrated
in fig. 5. Power quality standards with their basic guidelines
are illustrated in table 2.
Apart from these, there are additional regulations for the
minimum power quality level. One of them was taken with
the Computer and Business Equipment Manufacturer’s Asso-
ciation (CBEMA) curve (Fig. 6). This standard specifies
the minimum withstanding capability of computer equip-
Impact of power quality issues can affect various equip- ment to voltage sags, micro-interruptions and over-voltages.
ment and systems. As discussed before, it can create eco- Fig. 6 states that, usually if the voltage is within the
nomic burden as well as loss of equipment. Its overall limits, the equipment functions normally. When the volt-
impact can affect every kind of facility: high cost, medium age is on the zone below the permitted area, the equip-
cost, and low cost. Fig. 4 shows various kinds of facili- ment may malfunction. When the voltage is comprised in
ties, classified by cost, which are affected by power quality the upper prohibited zone, damage on the equipment may
issues. occur [5].

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TABLE 2. Power standards and their guidelines.

FIGURE 5. Power quality disturbance classification according to

IEEE-1159 Standard. The primary categories are Transient, Long-Duration
Voltage Variations, Short-Duration Voltage Variations, Voltage Imbalance,
Flicker, and Consumer End Devices.

of green energy sources is increasing. In 2015, it has been

reported that, renewable energy sources provided 52.4% elec-
tricity generation in Latin America, about 34.2% in Europe,
and 27.7% in North America. Fig. 7 shows contribution of
renewable energy sources in different areas’ electricity gen-
eration. Despite being a promising source of clean energy,
renewable sources create significant technical challenges to
power system [48]–[53]. In the following part, the basics of
renewable sources such as wind energy systems and solar
PV panels, and power quality issues in these two systems are
discussed.
In 2014, Energy Modeling Forum’s EMF27 model showed
that, renewable sources provided more than 35% power sup-
FIGURE 6. Computer and Business Equipment Manufacturer’s ply in the last half of the century. In this period, the plants with
Association (CBEMA) curve showing overvoltage, undervoltage,
and acceptable power conditions for computer equipment [5]. predominantly wind and solar PV sources will provide 40%
in the second half of the century [55]. A study from Masirah
IV. POWER QUALITY FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY Island, Oman, shows that around 75% cost of energy could
SOURCES be reduced by using PV-wind-diesel hybrid power system.
One of our primary focuses are the renewable energy sources The study has also deduced that, 25% of greenhouse emission
such as wind turbines and solar photovoltaic (PV) systems could be reduced if diesel plants are replaced by hybrid
which are reliable sources of clean energy. Globally, pursuit systems [56].

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FIGURE 7. Contribution of renewable energy sources in different areas’

electricity generation in 2015, Latin America generated more than half of
its power from renewables – 52.4%. CIS: Commonwealth of Independent
States [54].

The offshore turbines which are mostly located in Europe

had an approximate cumulative wind capacity of 4 GW at the
end of 2011 [57]. The general configuration of a wind power
plant is shown in fig. 8(a) [57]; a more detailed topology
of the system connecting wind turbines to the grid is shown
in fig. 8(b) [58].
Solar PV power plants, residential or commercial PV can
create grid-connected solar PV power systems which can be
capable of generation exceeding 100 MW. Large power plants
are connected to transmission systems but residential (up to
several kilowatts) and commercial PV cells (up to several
megawatts) are connected to distribution networks [59]. Solar
PV systems had 22 GW of global capacity and produced
20 TWh of electricity in 2009 [57]. By 2013, total capacity
had become 138.9 GW globally [60].
Generally, sufficient amount of spinning reserve is pro-
vided in the power systems for frequency balancing with
load shedding. Thus, a high-quality energy sustainability is
achieved. In case of renewable energy systems, two major
types of power quality issues exist. Those are voltage and
frequency fluctuations and harmonics. Voltage and frequency
fluctuations are mainly caused by two reasons: i) non-
controllable variability of renewable energy resources, and
ii) power grid-side disturbances. Harmonics are produced
FIGURE 8. Wind power plant: (a) general configuration [57]; and
by power electronic converters which are used in renew- (b) detailed topology of the system connecting wind turbines
able energy generation. As defined by the IEEE Standard to the grid [58].
929-2000 there are four major parameters to evaluate the
power quality in PV systems such as voltage, voltage flicker,
frequency, and distortion. Deviation from these parameters these fluctuations additional energy is required to balance
creates power quality problems. The inverter may be required supply and demand of the power grid on an instantaneous
to cease power quality deviation in the utility lines in this basis; spinning reserve is also an option. Improved weather
case [22]. Those problems can be discussed from two angles: and generation forecasting technologies, which aim to predict
renewable energy side [61], and power grid side. weather and generation output from wind and solar resources
At first, we discuss about the renewable energy side. Wind more accurately at various timescales, can be another solution
and solar PV power generation both experience intermittency to mitigate the partial unpredictability features of wind and
due to a combination of partial unpredictability features of solar resources [57]. The power quality issue remains at
wind and solar resources and non-controllable variability - device level for low penetration and in that case usually the
which cause fluctuations in the performance of both wind solution is device specific. However, grid-level technologies
and PV power generation [62], [63]. Outputs of these two are required at high penetration – which can have serious
types of renewable energy sources vary greatly due to the impacts [64], [65].
variations in wind speed and incident solar energy. Major Another side is the power grid side. Apart from partial
problems are voltage and frequency fluctuations. To mitigate unpredictability features of wind and solar resources and

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TABLE 3. IEEE standard 1547a-2014 [47].

non-controllable variability, power grid-side disturbances

affect renewable energy integration. According to several
European grid codes, PV power plants must withstand spe-
cific disturbance levels without disconnections [22]. In 2014,
the IEEE Standard 1547a published a new guideline which is
related to voltage sag. This includes new settings that would
allow the equipment to tolerate voltage sag with more stabil-
ity. Besides, an agreement is reached among the distributed FIGURE 9. ADALINE based detection scheme, where time delayed
resource owner and the local utility to maintain these settings. samples are the inputs and predicted values of the signal are the outputs.

Table 3 depicts these settings which are to be maintained to

mitigate power quality issues due to disturbances regarding
voltage sag trip [47]. limited to the harmonics in supply voltage in the mode close
The oceans are vast sources of renewable energy which to a real-time mode. For this purpose, there exists Phasor
can be of six distinct types: ocean wave, tidal range, tidal Measurement Unit (PMU) structure, where instantaneous
current, ocean current, ocean thermal energy, and salinity values of electric current and voltage in different cutsets are
gradient [66]–[68]. Ocean wave and tidal current energy can measured. After that, their values are transferred to the control
contribute significantly to the supply of energy in future [66], centre [72].
[69], [70]. The ocean energy industry has made notewor- Another technique for detection and adjustment of har-
thy progress recently but is still at very early stage. Some monics problem is adaptive linear combiner (ADALINE)
advanced prototypes that are currently being tested are shown [78]. ADALINE is also effective for the detection of voltage
in [71]. Most important impact of ocean energy is on the sag, swell, transients, interruptions etc. This method removes
environment. Other major impacts of ocean wave and tidal the need of setting up a threshold value for power quality
current technology include impact on the benthic community, detection. Rather it provides an honest and high tracking
habitat change, and the entanglement of marine mammals, capability. The input of ADALINE are the time delayed sam-
turtles, larger fish and seabirds. ples. The output is the predicted value of the signal (Fig. 9).
High-Resolution Technique has been developed for moni-
V. POWER QUALITY MONITORING toring ‘‘flicker’’ problem [21]. According to this technique,
To guarantee a uniform power quality, proper monitoring the frequency spectrum of the signal is analyzed for the
is necessary. Monitor and analysis systems are widely used flicker detection purpose. Effective use of this method can
for power quality. Previously, fluctuated condition of power be achieved more easily than other techniques as it has used
quality index was monitored in [72]. This was done by means Pony’s Method which is more accurate and robust [21].
of frequency spectrum analysis method based on acquisition Kalman Filtering (KF) approach is very useful for the
of time domain signals. Influence factor of fluctuation of detection of sag, swell, brief time interruptions etc. Previ-
power quality was also analysed. LabVIEW - which is a ously, disturbance waveforms were automatically identified
monitoring and analysing tool - was also developed. in the time domain with an individual artificial neural net-
As mentioned earlier, harmonics threaten power quality of work. Using KF approach, this can be done in the wavelet
electric network and harm safety of equipment. Compensat- domain which has been proved to be more efficient [79].
ing harmonic signals is necessary to improve power quality. Application of KF approach for the tracking of harmonics
There are several methods of harmonic analysis to improve problems has also been investigated thoroughly in [80].
power quality such as: Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) [73], The Total Energy Operator (TEO) algorithm, which is a
singular value decomposition (SVD) [74], artificial neural non-linear operator, is used to track the instantaneous energy
network (ANN) [75] etc. content of the signal. Measurement of the mechanical process
Distributed system of power quality monitoring is nec- that generates the signal can be usefully done by TEO. The
essary for the detection of power quality issues [76], [77]. value of this operator is the square of the multiplication
In most of the cases, focus of monitoring scheme has been of the signal amplitude and frequency. The distorted signal

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FIGURE 10. Power quality monitoring techniques to measure different

parameters.

is divided into two separate signals: the smoothed version, FIGURE 11. System configuration of D-STATCOM with active filter and
and a detailed version. High frequency can be detected in PWM controller [1].
the detailed version where low frequency disturbances can
be detected from the smoothed version using TEO [81]. harmonic component generated by the load which is phase
Another mathematical approach to track the envelope of shifted by 180 degrees. D-STATCOM can also be used to
the signal is Hilbert Transform (HT) algorithm. HT method compensate poor power factor. Fig. 11 depicts the system
shifts each frequency component of the instantaneous spec- configuration of a D-STATCOM with PWM controller and
trum by 90 degrees. This method can be used in a spe- active filters.
cific frequency band, using an analog all-pass filter [82]. Unified Power Quality Controller (UPQC) is an integra-
Both TEO and HT are useful for monitoring voltage flicker tion of series and shunt active filters connected back to
problem. In fig. 10 power quality monitoring techniques are back. Usually these two filters are connected at the DC side
summarized. and they share a common DC capacitor. The series compo-
nents compensate the supply side disturbances such as volt-
VI. POWER QUALITY MITIGATION METHODS age sags/swells, flicker, voltage unbalance, and harmonics.
In this section, some basic mitigation methods of power qual- A UPQC supplies voltage to maintain the load voltages at
ity issues such as STATCOM, UPQC, UPS etc. are discussed. the target level. The shunt component mitigates the issues
Generally, in a traditional power system, SR allows systems such as poor power factor, load harmonic currents, and load
to compensate unpredictability, imbalances, and errors in unbalance. It injects currents in the system to make the
load and generation estimation [83], [84]. Spinning reserve source currents balanced sinusoids in-phase with the source
is defined by the ability of a generator to provide supply in voltages [18].
excess of its rated capacity if additional torque is applied. Fig. 12 illustrates the principal scheme of UPQC with
In case of renewables, there is now way to measure that. series and shunt active filters. UPQC compensates for distor-
Approaches to measure this parameter of renewables have tions such as unbalanced system voltages and load currents
produced different approaches, but they are hardly efficient of a three-phase system. The equivalent circuit of UPQC is
to provide a satisfactory result. shown in fig. 13.
A D-Statcom, which is a shunt connected custom power An unbalanced 3-phase system consists of positive,
device, corrects power factor and current harmonics, thus negative, and zero sequence fundamental and harmonic
improves the power quality [85], [86]. Also, it provides filter- components. The system voltage can be expressed as in
ing, voltage regulation at distribution bus, and load balancing. equation (5):
It is sometimes referred to as an active power filter con- X
sisting of a shunt-connected voltage source converter (VSC) Vs (t) =Vs+ (t) +Vs− (t) +Vs0 (t) + Vsh (t) (5)
mounting IGBTS, and operated with PWM [87]. It is called Here subscripts +, −, and 0 represent positive, negative
D-Statcom because of its being installed at the distribution and zero sequence components respectively. The series
side. IGBTs with high switching frequencies are mainly used converter compensates for the following components of
to improve the speed. Capacitor is used for energy storage voltage:
purpose and the L-C branch acts as a passive filter [87].
D-STATCOM compensates the harmonics by injecting the V0 (t) = VL (t) − VS (t) (6)

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FIGURE 12. Principal scheme of Unified Power Quality Controller (UPQC),

it has both series and shunt converters, with a DC link and control system
coordinating them [23].

FIGURE 14. Simplified diagram of off-line Uninterruptible Power

Supply (UPS) topology. The battery gets charged from the utility during
normal condition, and discharges through the inverter to supply the load
when power flow from utility gets disrupted [88].

quality than the original AC wave [87]. DC UPS has been

used to correct the power factor previously in [88]. Off-line
UPS is referred to as passive-standby UPS. It is usually used
in low power applications with power ratings less than 2 kVA.
Its basic schematic is illustrated in fig. 14 [88].
FIGURE 13. Equivalent circuit of Unified Power Quality A novel topology of a modular per-phase UPS sys-
Controller (UPQC) [11].
tem based on reduced-switch-count configuration has been
proposed previously in [19]. According to this proposed
topology, active front-end filtering and seamless transition
Control system automatically controls the series converter so
from normal to backup mode can be achieved. Grid isolation
that the output converter voltage is V0 (t). The nonlinear load
is also possible so that there is no backward power feed into
current (equation (7)) with distortion can be expressed as:
X the utility during power failure. As a result, it eliminates the
IL (t) = IL+ (t) + IL− (t) + IL0 (t) + Ilh (t) (7) need of circuit breaker [19].
Transient voltage surge suppressor, which is also known
The shunt converter provides compensation of the load har- as TVSS, provides the simplest structure to mitigate power
monic currents to reduce voltage distortion. Output current quality issues. It is used as an interface between power
with harmonic, negative and zero sequence currents controls load and sensitive load. It clamps transient voltage to a safe
the shunt converter so that load current distortions can be level. TVSS contains a component with a nonlinear resistance
nullified. The current component which is compensated by (such as Zener diode) to limit the excessive line voltage.
the shunt converter is given by equation (8), It conducts the excessive impulse to the ground. A complete
I0 (t) = IL (t) − IS (t) (8) TVSS system has been developed in [89] which consists of
shunt protectors at both input and output.
Equation (6) and equation (8) establish the basic principles of Isolation transformers are mainly used to isolate sensi-
an ideal UPQC. tive loads from transients. They also isolate sensitive loads
An Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) is mainly used to from noise. The main component of isolation transform-
provide emergency back-up power to the load when the main ers is a grounded shield made of nonmagnetic foil located
power fails. Its primary use is in telecommunication devices between the primary and the secondary. Any disturbance that
and computers, where data loss is a major concern. Though comes from the source is transmitted through the capaci-
static UPS is only suitable for small systems, rotating UPS tance between the primary and the shield. Then it conducts
is more useful in large systems [18]. Usually, high-quality the unnecessary disturbance to the ground. One additional
UPS units have double conversion topology which breaks advantage of isolation transformer is that it can improve the
down an incoming AC power into DC to charge the batteries. harmonics and neutral to ground voltage [90]. On the other
After that it reproduces the AC sine wave which has higher hand, one of the main limitations of isolation transformer

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is that it does not protect the system from voltage fluctua-

tion [91]. A dynamic voltage restorer (DVR) consists of a
voltage source connected in series with the load. The output
voltage is constant at the load terminals. It is done with a step-
up transformer. Additionally, both active and reactive powers
are injected in the output supply through a voltage converter.
This type of dynamic voltage restorer (DVR) is very effective
to mitigate some important power quality issues such as
voltage sag and swells [92]. For renewable energy sources,
STATCOM can be a suitable candidate for mitigating power
quality issues. STATCOM is a power electronics device
whose basic principle is injection or absorption of reactive
current at PCC. Additional converters and power condition-
ing instruments are required to integrate renewable energy
source with power electronic interface. The STATCOM unit
is mainly designed for reactive power compensation to the
load. This STATCOM unit is an inverter with DC link capaci-
tor. It receives control pulses which are generated using mod-
ified Icosϕ algorithm, which in turn causes the STATCOM
to provide real power and reactive power compensation [17].
The Icosϕ algorithm is developed to compensate harmonic,
FIGURE 15. Schematic of the three-phase grid system with the STATCOM
reactive and unbalance effects in a balanced or unbalanced interface for renewable energy source [94].
3-phase source/load [93].
The actual load current subtracted from the expected main
current per phase equals the compensation currents (ref) for To mitigate the power quality issues in a wind power
the STATCOM. system, STATCOM can be very useful [16]. It acts as a
Let Ua , Ub , Uc be the unit amplitudes in all the phases of Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) device used in
the phase-to-ground source voltages respectively, which are: transmission system in shunt manner. In this configuration,
VSC is connected to system bus through a coupling trans-
Ua = 1. sin(ωt), Ub = 1. sin(ωt − 120◦ ),
former. Reactive power depends on the amplitude of VSC.
Ub = 1. sin(ωt + 120◦ ); In overloading condition, STATCOM injects reactive power
The reference source currents in all the phases are: in system. And if terminal voltage (VDC ) is less than the
system voltage, which means it is facing under voltage, STAT-
Isa(ref) = K |Is(ref)| × Ua = K |Is(ref)| sin ωt (9) COM absorbs reactive power [94].
◦ The drawbacks of using the additional circuits in
Isb(ref) = K |Is(ref)| × Ub = K |Is(ref)| sin(ωt − 120 )
(10) STATCOM include high switching loss, increased costs, and
◦ a bulkier system. But the model described above replaces
Isc(ref) = K |Is(ref)| × Uc = K |Is(ref)| sin(ωt + 120 ) the additional converters with a STATCOM unit. There are
(11) several advantages of STATCOM. One of them is that the
where K = load factor. It determines the amount of real power compensating current does not get lowered as the voltage
drops. The other reasons for preferring a STATCOM are over-
that has to be supplied by the source/grid.
all superior functional characteristics, faster performance,
The reference compensation currents for the STATCOM
smaller size, cost reduction, and the ability to provide both
are:
active and reactive power. STATCOM can be used to improve
Ia(comp) = ILa − Isa(ref) (12) transient conditions as well as voltage fluctuations. It is also
Ia(comp) = ILa − Isa(ref) (13) very useful to control voltage flickers and power oscillatory
damping of system [17].
Ia(comp) = ILa − Isa(ref) (14)
Surge protector, varistor and capacitor can protect against
Additionally, a hysteresis current controller is also used. over-voltages for providing clean and reliable AC power.
If compensation current drops below the value of switch-off Voltage surges are voltage increases that typically last from
point, the relay is turned off. This pulse is then passed through about 15 milliseconds to one-half of a second. Surges are
a circuit block. The proportion of the gain factor decides the commonly caused by the switching of heavy loads and power
amount of real power supply from the mains while renewable network switching. A surge that lasts more than two sec-
energy sources supply the rest using STATCOM. onds is typically referred to as an overvoltage. Varistors such
The configuration of STATCOM interface for renewable as the metal oxide varistors (MOVs) are devices composed
energy source is shown in fig. 15. of ceramic-like material usually formed into a disk shape.

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FIGURE 17. Static Transfer Switch (STS) configuration. It can transfer the
load from the preferred source to an alternative healthy source in the
event of voltage disturbance [95].

FIGURE 16. V-I characteristics of metal oxide varistor [95].

They are typically constructed from zinc oxide mixed with

a suitable additive. Each intergranular boundary displays a
rectifying action and presents a specific voltage barrier. When
these conduct, they form a low ohmic path to absorb surge
energy. A varistor’s voltage-current behavior is defined by
fig. 16. High transient energy absorbent capability is achieved
by increasing the size of the disc. MOVs turn on in a few
nanoseconds and have high clamping voltages (fig.16). There
are some modern MOVs that prevent the device from over-
heating, smoke, and even potential fire. Thermally protected
MOVs (TPMOVs) are useful in occasions where continuous
AC line over-voltages could occur [95]. FIGURE 18. Principle scheme of a Static VAR Compensator (SVC) [87].
A Static transfer switch (STS) transfers the load from
the preferred source to an alternative healthy source in the
event of voltage disturbance. It helps mitigating interruptions of the inductor is changed continuously by controlling the
and voltage dips [87]. The STS consists of two three-phase firing angle of the thyristors, while each capacitor can only be
static switches, each constituted in turn by two anti-parallel switched on and off at the instants corresponding to the cur-
thyristors per phase (fig. 17). Normally, the static switch on rent zero crossings, to avoid inrush currents in the capacitors.
the primary source is fired regularly, while the other one is off. With this arrangement, the SVC can generate continuously
This results in a very effective way of mitigating the effects of variable reactive power in a specified range, and the size of
both interruptions and voltage dips by limiting their duration the TCR is limited to the rating of one TSC branch. However,
as seen by the load. The success of the STS is mainly due to its the ability of SVC to mitigate flicker is limited by its low
rather low cost compared with other solutions. A secondary speed of response [87]. Principle scheme of an SVC is shown
in-feed, independent from the main source is required [87]. in fig. 18.
A Static VAR compensator (SVC) can be used for AC volt- A simplified schematic is shown in Fig. 19, which is nor-
age control by generation and absorption of reactive power by mally used for frequency control. This embodiment generally
means of passive elements. The ability to absorb changes in includes three parts of control, which are named Tertiary,
reactive power makes the SVC suitable for flicker reduction Secondary and Primary control [97]. In big interconnected
to some extent. It can also be used for balancing unsymmet- systems, three forms of control are usually available. In small
rical loads [87]. It is normally constituted by one thyristor isolated system, secondary controller may not be present.
controllable reactor (TCR) and a few of thyristor switched In a simple manner, demand-side actions using the frequency
capacitor (TSC) branches [96]. The value of the reactance adjustment is not included in this scheme. Other schemes

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FIGURE 19. Frequency stabilization system., a closed loop system tracks

the variables and adjusts the frequency.

FIGURE 21. Frequency control system with dead band by HVDC [98].

of conventional governors. Control of short period compo-

nents are usually done by the Governor Free (GF) opera-
tion method while control of longer period components is
usually done by the Load Frequency Control (LFC) method.
Fig. 21 depicts this method of frequency control with dead
band by HVDC line.
FIGURE 20. Usage percentage of different mitigation techniques for
power quality issues, UPS being the most used one, followed closely by Storage system with solar resource is also an important
True RMS Metering and Surge Protection. issue that needs to be addressed. Massive storage systems
with solar energy resources require a high degree of sup-
ply/demand matching. Recently, a framework called Opti-
without conceptual changes could be considered. Control of Match has been developed to address this issue [93]. If the
the three types can be defined as follows: Primary Reserve aggregate power supply is made to be proportional to the
provides a power reserve against any frequency change, Input/Output (I/O) demand, then the maximum utilization of
which is local automated control. Secondary Reserve pro- renewable sources is possible. In this method, ∼94% utiliza-
vides back-up power for frequency and brings it back to tion has been made possible.
the target value of exchange programs, which is automatic In the case of Wind Energy System (WES), another
control. Tertiary Reserve is for the unit commitment (UC) and approach can be introduced which is the LCL filter interfaced
dispatches the secondary reserve to repair, to control the final grid connected Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator
congestions, and to bring back the frequency of their target (PMSG) based WES model. The proposed system can be
points if the secondary reserve is not enough. predicted to have good performance for reactive power com-
There are many more mitigation techniques such as: true pensation, DC link voltage control and LCL Filter [99]. The
RMS metering, equipment damaging, dedicated circuits, control algorithm has been developed on the basis of Syn-
total rewire, meshed earth, passive filters, active conditioner, chronous Rotating Frame (SRF) with Takagi-Sugeno (TS)
TN-S rewiring, upsized neutral etc. Not all of them are used fuzzy controller which is found to provide superior perfor-
by the same amount. Some are used more frequently than mance over conventional controller. The complete system is
the others. Fig. 20 illustrates the usage percentage of these depicted in Fig. 22. In this model, there are four components:
mitigation techniques. PMSG, MPPT control, LCL Filter, and DC link voltage. This
model has been discussed thoroughly by Gupta et al. [99].
VII. MITIGATION OF VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY The stability analysis of a multimachine power system con-
FLUCTUATIONS OF WIND AND SOLAR POWER SYSTEMS nected with a 375-MW hybrid wind-PV farm has been ana-
In the case of power systems with solar resources and wind lyzed previously [100]. Specific operating condition keeps
farms, there may be frequency and voltage fluctuations due to the system stable. When the wind speed and solar irradiance
the instability of output. Variations of wind speed and solar increases, the damping condition of the electromechanical
radiation intensity - the intermittent characteristics [98], are modes are improved [100]. Fluctuations in the power, wind
the main causes of this instability. For the case of the systems speed and solar irradiance can be suppressed with Super
with large amount of PV and wind farm installed, a possible Capacitor (SC). The diagram of the model used to study the
solution may be the frequency control with dead band by High stability of multimachine power system is depicted in Fig. 23.
Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) interconnection line [98]. In the proposed model of stability analysis in multimachine
Frequency fluctuations are suppressed by the turbine output system, the Wind Turbine Generator (WTG) and the PV array

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FIGURE 22. Grid Integrated PMSG based Wind Energy System

Configuration [75].

FIGURE 24. Integration of super capacitor into the common dc link

through bidirectional dc/dc converter [100].

FIGURE 23. Multimachine power system which is connected with a

large-scale hybrid wind-PV farm [100].

both are connected to a common dc link. The WTG is con-

nected through a voltage-source converter and the PV array
is connected through a dc/dc boost converter. In this model,
the power associated with the common dc link is conveyed
to the multimachine power system through a complex sys-
tem. The system comprises of voltage-source inverter, step-
up transformers, and a connection line. The super capacitor
based energy storage unit is integrated into the common dc
link through a bidirectional dc/dc converter (Fig. 24). This
unit is used to reduce power fluctuations caused by wind
FIGURE 25. Typical AC data center layout emphasizing power distribution
speed and/or solar irradiance variation [100]. voltage levels. IT Function indicates IT equipment those act as constant
power loads (CPL) and causes destabilization in the system [103].
VIII. POWER QUALITY IN DC SYSTEMS
To discuss power quality in DC distribution system, first significant obstacle for DC systems [13]. Furthermore, DC
the basic application of DC distribution system needs to systems have stability problems. Nonlinear dynamics of the
be studied. These types of systems support more efficient power electronic converters are used to create the DC voltage.
integration of energy storage and generation by eliminating In fig. 25, load converters point the interfaces where IT equip-
some rectifying and inverting power electronics converter ment act as constant power loads. These loads destabilize the
stages. Previously it has been demonstrated that DC systems system [102].
have enabled simpler integration of energy storage devices.
It can meet both energy and power buffer needs. From the IX. OUTCOMES
telecommunications industry where both AC and DC systems This paper focuses on the key power quality problems, stan-
have been used, it has been concluded that well designed dards regarding those issues, possible ways to mitigate those,
DC systems have superior reliability than AC system [101]. and power quality issues in DC systems. The overall out-
Additionally, integrating multiple sources into a DC system comes of this work can be classified among five parts.
does not require frequency control and phase synchroniza- The first one is that loss of efficiency of electrical equip-
tion which makes it simpler to design than AC. On the ment as well as over and under voltage are the two most
contrary, detection and clearing faults on the DC bus is a common impacts of power quality problems. Load switching

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TABLE 4. Power quality mitigation techniques with their performance

levels.

FIGURE 26. Economic impact vs duration of power quality issues, costs

are high for voltage fluctuations lasting less than one minute.

causes voltage fluctuations, start of heavy loads causes volt- LabVIEW tool, PMU technique, ADALINE, KF etc. are very
age sag/swell, insulation failure causes long time voltage effective for harmonic detection and monitoring. ADALINE
interruption, switching load causes long duration voltage technique is also effective for detection of other power quality
interruption and non-linear loads create harmonics problems. issues such as sag, swell, interruptions etc. High resolution
Guidelines to limit harmonic problems are provided in method, HT, and TEO methods are useful to monitor voltage
the IEEE- 519, IEC 61000-3-2 (1995-03), and IEC/TS flicker problem.
61000-3-4 (1998-10) standards. Voltage sag problem is Among the solutions of power quality problems, UPQC
addressed in IEEE Standard P1564 and IEEE Standard provides solution to voltage sags/swells, flicker, voltage
P1547a. The first one discusses about the impacts of volt- unbalance, and harmonics with its series circuit. With its
age sag and the second one discusses about the ways to shunt circuit, it provides solution to power factor, load har-
make a system more stable by mitigating voltage sag prob- monic currents, and load unbalance. D-STATCOM mitigates
lems. IEC Standard 61000-4-15 characterizes flicker prob- poor power factor and current harmonics. It also works as
lem. General power quality issues are characterized in IEEE filter, voltage regulator at distribution bus, and load balancer.
Standard 1159-1995. Impacts of power quality issues and Emergency power shortage can be handled by using UPS
the corresponding solutions are described in IEEE Standard which is mainly used for electronic and telecommunication
1250-1995 and IEEE Standard P1409. Characteristics of devices.
microgrid and its interconnections with the power system are Voltage transients are corrected by TVSS. Isolation of
discussed in IEEE Standard P1547. sensitive loads from transients can be done with isolation
Voltage and frequency fluctuations and harmonics are two transformer. To solve voltage sag/swell problems, DVR can
major power quality issues in renewable energy systems con- be a potential choice. STATCOM with modified Icosϕ algo-
sisting of wind farms and/or PV panels. Partial unpredictabil- rithm can be used to reduce power quality issues in renew-
ity features of renewable resources and non-controllable vari- able energy systems. Because of its various advantages such
ability are the causes of power quality issues in the renewable as superior functional characteristics, faster performance,
energy side. Power grid side disturbance is another reason of smaller size, cost reduction and the ability to provide both
power quality problems in renewable energy based systems. active and reactive power, STATCOM can be the best choice
All these issues last for different timespans or durations, to solve power quality problems in the systems with renew-
and different issues have different frequencies of occurrence. able energy sources. Table 4 depicts the mitigation techniques
Fig. 26 depicts the duration of power quality issues and the and their performance levels.
corresponding economic impact on the overall system. DC systems have higher reliability than AC systems. They
Monitoring of power quality is necessary. Several tech- also provide simpler integration of energy storage and gen-
niques have been developed for this purpose. Among them, eration by reducing the need of rectifications and power

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electronic converters. However, the DC systems face other quality, the devices used for that purpose, and application
obstacles such as stability problem. Detection and clearing of of CPDs for mitigating power quality problems have been
faults are other concerns in DC systems. described. Ways of improving power quality in renewable
Most of the literature cited in this work are from various systems, and analysis of power quality in DC systems have
countries or research works. There may be little variations in followed all these; and the outcomes have been presented
those studies which may affect the analysis. Moreover, among finally to summarize the findings of this work.
renewable energy sources, solar and wind sources are con- From the outcomes of this research, transient has been
sidered only. Other energy sources such as tidal energy and found out to be the most severe power quality issue, fol-
ocean energy are only briefly mentioned here. Also there may lowed by voltage spike and fluctuation. The power quality
be many more research works going on aiming at mitigation monitoring techniques have been found to be employed for
of power quality issues that are not addressed here. Only the monitoring harmonics mainly, while UPQC, STATCOM, and
most significant problems and solutions are discussed in this spinning reserve have been found out to be the most effective
work. CPDs. It has been resolved that STATCOM can be a potential
The scopes for future research in power quality issues are choice due to the advantages it offers.
many. These include, but not limited to:
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Department of Electrical Engineering and Renewable Energy since 2015.
Apr. 2013.
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Electron., vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 1002–1011, Jul. 2003. ACCESS.

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MEHMET RIDA TÜR was born in Turkey in 1983. SELIM AY was born in Turkey in 1959. He
He received the B.E. and M.E. degrees from Mar- received the B.E. degree from the Istanbul Pub-
mara University and Firat University in 2005 and lic Academy of Engineering and Architecture
2010, respectively. He is currently pursuing the in 1980, the M.E. degree from Yildiz Technical
Ph.D. degree at Yildiz Technical University, University in 1983, and the Ph.D. degree from
Istanbul, Turkey. In 2005, he was a designer of Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey,
system at a trade company in Istanbul. In 2010, he in 1989.
was a Lecturer with the Department of Electrical In 1990, he was an Associate Professor with
and Energy, Mardin Artuklu University, Mardin, the Department of Electrical Engineering, Yıldız
Turkey. Since 2010, he has been the Head of the Technical University, where he is currently a Pro-
Department of Electrical and Energy, Mardin Artuklu University. His main fessor. His main research interests include electricity energy transmission
field of interest is the reliability of power systems, power system quality, systems, electricity energy economy, and energy system harmonics. There
power system economy, protection systems, distributed generation, renew- are many books written in this area.
able energy, optimal control, and fuzzy control.

SANJEEVIKUMAR PADMANABAN (M’12–

SM’15) received the bachelor’s degree in electrical
engineering from the University of Madras, India,
in 2002, the master’s degree (Hons.) in electrical
engineering from Pondicherry University, India,
in 2006, the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering
from the University of Bologna, Italy, in 2012.
He was an Associate Professor with VIT Univer-
sity from 2012 to 2013. In 2013, he joined the
Faculty of the National Institute of Technology,
Pondicherry. In 2014, he was invited as a Visiting Researcher with the
Department of Electrical Engineering, Qatar University, Qatar, funded by the
Qatar National Research Foundation (Government of Qatar). He continued
his research activities with the Dublin Institute of Technology, Ireland,
in 2014. He is currently an Associate Professor with the Department of
Electrical and Electronics Engineering, University of Johannesburg, South
Africa, from 2016 to 2018. Since 2018, he has been with the Department of IMTIAJ KHAN received the B.Sc. degree in
Energy Technology, Aalborg University, Esbjerg, Denmark, as an Assistant electrical and electronic engineering from the
Professor. He has authored 300 scientific papers. He was a member on Bangladesh University of Engineering and Tech-
invitation with various capacities in the committee for over 4500 various nology in 2017. His undergraduate thesis was on
international conferences, include the IEEE and IET. He received the Best ‘‘Optimization and comparison of single-walled
Paper cum Most Excellence Research Paper Award from IET-SEISCON’13, and double-walled carbon nanotube field-effect
IET-CEAT’16, and the five Best Paper Awards from ETAEERE’16 spon- transistors.’’ He is currently involved in power
sored Lecture note in electrical engineering, Springer book series. He serves quality improvement and noble manipulation on
as an Editor/Associate Editor/Editorial Board of many refereed journals in particles by optical force. His research interests
particular the IEEE TRANSACTION ON POWER ELECTRONICS, the IEEE SYSTEMS include nanotechnology, plasmonics, photonics,
JOURNAL, the IET Power Electronics, the IET Renewable Power Generation, and smart grid. His previous works were presented at the IEEE NANO
the IET Generation, Transmission and Distribution, the IEEE ACCESS, and 2017 and TENCON 2017.
so on.

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