LESSON 2– PROKARYOTIC CELLS

Although no well – defined nucleus is present in prokaryotes, the DNA of the cell is concentrated in one region called the nuclear
region. This part of the cell directs the workings of the cell, much as the eukaryotic nucleus does.
 HOW IS PROKARYOTIC DNA ORGANIZED WITHOUT A NUCLEUS?
The DNA of prokaryotes is not complexed with proteins in extensive arrays with specified architecture, as is the DNA of
eukaryotes. In general, there is only a single, closed, circular molecule of DNA in prokaryotes. This circle of DNA, which is the genome,
is attached to the cell membrane. Before a prokaryotic cells divide, the DNA replicates itself, and both DNA circles are bound to the
plasma membrane. The cell then divides, and each of the two daughter cells receives one copy of the DNA.
In a prokaryotic cell, the cytosol (the liquid portion of the cell outside the nuclear region) frequently has a slightly granular
appearance because of the presence of ribosomes. Because these consists of RNA and protein, they are also called ribonucleoprotein
particles; they are the sites of protein synthesis in all organisms. The presence of ribosomes is the main visible feature of prokaryotic
cytosol (Membrane – bound organelles, characteristic of eukaryotes are not found in prokaryotes)
Every cell is separated from the outside world by a cell membrane, or plasma membrane, an assemblage of lipid molecules
and proteins. In addition to the cell membrane and external to it, a prokaryotic bacterial cell has a cell wall which is made up mostly of
polysaccharide material, a feature it shares with eukaryotic plant cells. The chemical natures of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell walls
differ somewhat, but a common feature is that the polymerization of sugars produces the polysaccharides found in both. Because the
cell wall is made up of rigid materials, it presumably serves as protection for the cell.
LESSON 3 – EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Multicellular plants and animals are eukaryotes, as are Protista and fungi, but obvious difference exist among them. These
differences are reflected on the cellular level. One of the biggest differences between eukaryotes and prokaryotes is the presence of
subcellular organelles.
Three of the most important organelles in eukaryotic cells are the nucleus, the mitochondria, and the chloroplast. Each is separated
from the rest of the cell by a double membrane. The nucleus contains most of the DNA of the cell and is the site of RNA synthesis. The
mitochondria contain enzymes that catalyse important energy – yielding reactions.
Chloroplasts, which are found in green plants and green algae, are the sites of photosynthesis. Both mitochondria and chloroplast
contain DNA that differs from that found in the nucleus, and both carry out transcription and protein synthesis distinct from that directed
by the nucleus.
Plant cells, like bacteria, have cell walls. A plant cell wall is mostly made up of the polysaccharide cellulose, giving the cell its shape
and mechanical stability. Chloroplasts, the photosynthetic organelles, are found in green plants and algae. Animal cells have neither cell
walls nor chloroplasts; the same is true of some protists.
 WHAT ARE THE MOST IMPORTANT ORGANELLES?
The nucleus is perhaps the most important eukaryotic organelle. A typical nucleus exhibits several important structural
features surrounded by a nuclear double membrane (usually called the nuclear envelope). One of its prominent features is the
nucleolus, which is rich in RNA. The RNA of a cell (with the exception of the small amount produced in such organelles as mitochondria
and chloroplasts) is synthesized on a DNA template in the nucleolus for export to the cytoplasm through pores in the nuclear
membrane. This RNA is ultimately destined for the ribosomes. Also visible in the nucleus, frequently near the nuclear membrane, is
chromatin, an aggregate of DNA and protein. The main eukaryotic genome (its nuclear DNA) is duplicated before cell division takes
place in prokaryotes. In eukaryotes, both copies of DNA, which are to be equally distributed between the daughter cells, are associated
with protein. When a cell is about to divide, the loosely organized strands of chromatin become tightly coiled, and the resulting
chromosomes can be seen under a microscope. The genes, responsible for the transmission of inherited traits, are part of the DNA
found in each chromosome.
A second very important eukaryotic organelle is the mitochondrion, which, like the nucleus, has a double membrane. The
outer membrane has a fairly smooth surface, but the inner membrane exhibits many folds called cristae. The space within the inner
membrane is called the matrix. Oxidation processes that occur in mitochondrial yield energy for the cell. Most enzymes responsible for
these important reactions are associated with the inner mitochondrial membrane. Other enzymes needed for oxidation reactions, as
well as DNA that differs from that found in the nucleus, are found in the internal mitochondrial matrix. Mitochondrial also contain
ribosomes similar to those found in bacteria.
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is part of a continuous single – membrane system throughout the cell; the membrane
doubles back on itself to give the appearance of a double membrane in electron micrographs. The endoplasmic reticulum is attached to
the cell membrane and to the nuclear membrane. It occurs in two forms, rough and smooth. The rough endoplasmic reticulum is
studded with ribosomes bound to the membrane. Ribosomes, which can also be found free in the cytosol, are the sites of protein
synthesis in all organisms. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum does not have ribosomes bound to it.
Chloroplasts are important organelles found only in green plants and green algae. Their structure include membranes, and
they are relatively large. The photosynthetic apparatus is found in specialized structures called grana (singular granum), membranous
bodies stacked within the chloroplast. Grana are easily seen through an electron microscope. Chloroplast, like mitochondria, contain a
characteristic of DNA that is different from that found in the nucleus. Chloroplast, like mitochondria also contain ribosomes similar to
those found in bacteria
 ORGANELLES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
a. NUCLEUS – location of main genome; site of most DNA and RNA synthesis
b. MITOCHONDRION – site of energy – yielding oxidation reaction; has its own DNA
c. CHLOROPLAST – site of photosynthesis in green plants and algae; has its own DNA
d. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM – continuous membrane throughout the cell; rough part studded with ribosomes (the site of
protein synthesis)
e. GOLGI APPARATUS – series of flattened membranes; involved in secretion of proteins from cells and in reactions that link
sugars to other cellular components.
f. LYSOSOMES – membrane – enclosed sacs containing hydrolytic enzymes
g. PEROXISOMES – sacs that contain enzymes involved in the metabolism of hydrogen peroxide
h. CELL MEMBRANE – separate the cell contents from the outside world; contents include organelles (held in place by
cytoskeleton) and cytosol.
i. CELL WALL – rigid exterior layer of plant cells
j. CENTRAL VACUOLE – membrane – enclosed sac (plant cells)