108 CHAPTER 3 POWER TRANSFORMERS

NONSINUSOIDAL EXCITING CURRENT

When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to one winding of a transformer with the

other winding open, the flux fðtÞ and flux density BðtÞ will, from Faraday’s
law, (3.1.9), be very nearly sinusoidal in steady state. However, the magnetic
field intensity HðtÞ and the resulting exciting current will not be sinusoidal in
steady state, due to the nonlinear B–H curve. If the exciting current is mea-
sured and analyzed by Fourier analysis techniques, one finds that it has a fun-
damental component and a set of odd harmonics. The principal harmonic is
the third, whose rms value is typically about 40% of the total rms exciting
current. However, the nonsinusoidal nature of exciting current is usually
neglected unless harmonic e¤ects are of direct concern, because the exciting
current itself is usually less than 5% of rated current for power transformers.

SURGE PHENOMENA

When power transformers are subjected to transient overvoltages caused by

lightning or switching surges, the capacitances of the transformer windings
have important e¤ects on transient response. Transformer winding capaci-
tances and response to surges are discussed in Chapter 12.

3.3
THE PER-UNIT SYSTEM
Power-system quantities such as voltage, current, power, and impedance are
often expressed in per-unit or percent of specified base values. For example,
if a base voltage of 20 kV is specified, then the voltage 18 kV is ð18=20Þ ¼
0.9 per unit or 90%. Calculations can then be made with per-unit quantities
rather than with the actual quantities.
One advantage of the per-unit system is that by properly specifying base
quantities, the transformer equivalent circuit can be simplified. The ideal
transformer winding can be eliminated, such that voltages, currents, and ex-
ternal impedances and admittances expressed in per-unit do not change when
they are referred from one side of a transformer to the other. This can be a
significant advantage even in a power system of moderate size, where hun-
dreds of transformers may be encountered. The per-unit system allows us
to avoid the possibility of making serious calculation errors when referring
quantities from one side of a transformer to the other. Another advantage of
the per-unit system is that the per-unit impedances of electrical equipment of
similar type usually lie within a narrow numerical range when the equipment
ratings are used as base values. Because of this, per-unit impedance data can
 SECTION 3.3 THE PER-UNIT SYSTEM 109

be checked rapidly for gross errors by someone familiar with per-unit quanti-
ties. In addition, manufacturers usually specify the impedances of machines
and transformers in per-unit or percent of nameplate rating.
Per-unit quantities are calculated as follows:
actual quantity
per-unit quantity ¼ ð3:3:1Þ
base value of quantity
where actual quantity is the value of the quantity in the actual units. The base
value has the same units as the actual quantity, thus making the per-unit quan-
tity dimensionless. Also, the base value is always a real number. Therefore, the
angle of the per-unit quantity is the same as the angle of the actual quantity.
Two independent base values can be arbitrarily selected at one point in
a power system. Usually the base voltage VbaseLN and base complex power
Sbase1f are selected for either a single-phase circuit or for one phase of a three-
phase circuit. Then, in order for electrical laws to be valid in the per-unit sys-
tem, the following relations must be used for other base values:

Pbase1f ¼ Qbase1f ¼ S base1f ð3:3:2Þ

S base1f
I base ¼ ð3:3:3Þ
VbaseLN
2
VbaseLN VbaseLN
Z base ¼ Rbase ¼ Xbase ¼ ¼ ð3:3:4Þ
I base S base1f
1
Ybase ¼ G base ¼ Bbase ¼ ð3:3:5Þ
Z base

In (3.3.2)–(3.3.5) the subscripts LN and 1f denote ‘‘line-to-neutral’’ and

‘‘per-phase,’’ respectively, for three-phase circuits. These equations are also
valid for single-phase circuits, where subscripts can be omitted.
By convention, we adopt the following two rules for base quantities:
1. The value of Sbase1f is the same for the entire power system of
concern.
2. The ratio of the voltage bases on either side of a transformer is se-
lected to be the same as the ratio of the transformer voltage ratings.
With these two rules, a per-unit impedance remains unchanged when referred
from one side of a transformer to the other.

EXAMPLE 3.3 Per-unit impedance: single-phase transformer

A single-phase two-winding transformer is rated 20 kVA, 480/120 volts,

60 Hz. The equivalent leakage impedance of the transformer referred to the
120-volt winding, denoted winding 2, is Zeq2 ¼ 0:0525 78:13 W. Using the
110 CHAPTER 3 POWER TRANSFORMERS

transformer ratings as base values, determine the per-unit leakage impedance

referred to winding 2 and referred to winding 1.

SOLUTION The values of S base , Vbase1 , and Vbase2 are, from the transformer
ratings,
S base ¼ 20 kVA; Vbase1 ¼ 480 volts; Vbase2 ¼ 120 volts
Using (3.3.4), the base impedance on the 120-volt side of the transformer is
2
Vbase2 ð120Þ 2
Z base2 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:72 W
S base 20;000
Then, using (3.3.1), the per-unit leakage impedance referred to winding 2 is
Zeq2 0:0525 78:13
Zeq2p:u: ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:0729 78:13 per unit
Zbase2 0:72
If Zeq2 is referred to winding 1,
 2  
N1 480 2
Zeq1 ¼ at2 Zeq2 ¼ Zeq2 ¼ ð0:0525 78:13 Þ
N2 120
¼ 0:84 78:13 W
The base impedance on the 480-volt side of the transformer is
2
Vbase1 ð480Þ 2
Zbase1 ¼ ¼ ¼ 11:52 W
S base 20;000
and the per-unit leakage reactance referred to winding 1 is
Zeq1 0:84 78:13
Zeq1p:u: ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:0729 78:13 per unit ¼ Zeq2p:u:
Zbase1 11:52
Thus, the per-unit leakage impedance remains unchanged when referred from
winding 2 to winding 1. This has been achieved by specifying
 
Vbase1 Vrated1 480
¼ ¼ 9
Vbase2 Vrated2 120
Figure 3.9 shows three per-unit circuits of a single-phase two-winding
transformer. The ideal transformer, shown in Figure 3.9(a), satisfies the
per-unit relations E1p:u: ¼ E 2p:u: , and I1p:u: ¼ I2p:u: , which can be derived as
follows. First divide (3.1.16) by Vbase1 :
E1 N1 E2
E1p:u: ¼ ¼  ð3:3:6Þ
Vbase1 N2 Vbase1
Then, using Vbase1 =Vbase2 ¼ Vrated1 =Vrated2 ¼ N1 =N2 ,
N1 E2 E2
E1p:u: ¼   ¼ ¼ E 2p:u: ð3:3:7Þ
N2 N1 Vbase2
Vbase2
N2
 SECTION 3.3 THE PER-UNIT SYSTEM 111

FIGURE 3.9
Per-unit equivalent
circuits of a single-phase
two-winding transformer

Similarly, divide (3.1.17) by Ibase1 :

I1 N 2 I2
I1p:u: ¼ ¼ ð3:3:8Þ
Ibase1 N1 Ibase1

Then, using Ibase1 ¼ S base =Vbase1 ¼ S base =½ðN1 =N2 ÞVbase2  ¼ ðN2 =N1 ÞIbase2 ,

N2 I2 I2
I1p:u: ¼   ¼ ¼ I2p:u: ð3:3:9Þ
N1 N2 Ibase2
Ibase2
N1

Thus, the ideal transformer winding in Figure 3.2 is eliminated from the
per-unit circuit in Figure 3.9(a). The per-unit leakage impedance is included
in Figure 3.9(b), and the per-unit shunt admittance branch is added in Figure
3.9(c) to obtain the complete representation.
When only one component, such as a transformer, is considered, the
nameplate ratings of that component are usually selected as base values.
When several components are involved, however, the system base values may
be di¤erent from the nameplate ratings of any particular device. It is then
necessary to convert the per-unit impedance of a device from its nameplate
112 CHAPTER 3 POWER TRANSFORMERS

ratings to the system base values. To convert a per-unit impedance from

‘‘old’’ to ‘‘new’’ base values, use
Zactual Zp:u:old Zbaseold
Zp:u:new ¼ ¼ ð3:3:10Þ
Zbasenew Zbasenew
or, from (3.3.4),
 2  
Vbaseold S basenew
Zp:u:new ¼ Zp:u:old ð3:3:11Þ
Vbasenew S baseold

EXAMPLE 3.4 Per-unit circuit: three-zone single-phase network

Three zones of a single-phase circuit are identified in Figure 3.10(a). The zones
are connected by transformers T1 and T2 , whose ratings are also shown. Using
base values of 30 kVA and 240 volts in zone 1, draw the per-unit circuit and

FIGURE 3.10
Circuits for Example 3.4
 SECTION 3.3 THE PER-UNIT SYSTEM 113

determine the per-unit impedances and the per-unit source voltage. Then cal-
culate the load current both in per-unit and in amperes. Transformer winding
resistances and shunt admittance branches are neglected.

SOLUTION First the base values in each zone are determined. S base ¼
30 kVA is the same for the entire network. Also, Vbase1 ¼ 240 volts, as
specified for zone 1. When moving across a transformer, the voltage base
is changed in proportion to the transformer voltage ratings. Thus,
 
480
Vbase2 ¼ ð240Þ ¼ 480 volts
240
and  
115
Vbase3 ¼ ð480Þ ¼ 120 volts
460
The base impedances in zones 2 and 3 are
2
Vbase2 480 2
Zbase2 ¼ ¼ ¼ 7:68 W
S base 30;000
and
2
Vbase3 120 2
Zbase3 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:48 W
S base 30;000
and the base current in zone 3 is
S base 30;000
Ibase3 ¼ ¼ ¼ 250 A
Vbase3 120
Next, the per-unit circuit impedances are calculated using the system
base values. Since S base ¼ 30 kVA is the same as the kVA rating of trans-
former T1 , and Vbase1 ¼ 240 volts is the same as the voltage rating of the zone
1 side of transformer T1 , the per-unit leakage reactance of T1 is the same as
its nameplate value, XT1p:u: ¼ 0:1 per unit. However, the per-unit leakage
reactance of transformer T2 must be converted from its nameplate rating to
the system base. Using (3.3.11) and Vbase2 ¼ 480 volts,
  
460 2 30;000
XT2p:u: ¼ ð0:10Þ ¼ 0:1378 per unit
480 20;000
Alternatively, using Vbase3 ¼ 120 volts,
  
115 2 30;000
XT2p:u: ¼ ð0:10Þ ¼ 0:1378 per unit
120 20;000
which gives the same result. The line, which is located in zone 2, has a per-
unit reactance
Xline 2
Xlinep:u: ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:2604 per unit
Z base2 7:68
114 CHAPTER 3 POWER TRANSFORMERS

and the load, which is located in zone 3, has a per-unit impedance

Zload 0:9 þ j0:2
Zloadp:u: ¼ ¼ ¼ 1:875 þ j0:4167 per unit
Zbase3 0:48
The per-unit circuit is shown in Figure 3.10(b), where the base values
for each zone, per-unit impedances, and the per-unit source voltage are
shown. The per-unit load current is then easily calculated from Figure 3.10(b)
as follows:
Vsp:u:
Iloadp:u: ¼ Isp:u: ¼
jðXT1p:u: þ Xlinep:u: þ XT2p:u: Þ þ Zloadp:u:
0:9167 0
¼
jð0:10 þ 0:2604 þ 0:1378Þ þ ð1:875 þ j0:4167Þ
0:9167 0 0:9167 0
¼ ¼
1:875 þ j0:9149 2:086 26:01
¼ 0:4395 26:01 per unit
The actual load current is
Iload ¼ ðIloadp:u: ÞIbase3 ¼ ð0:4395 26:01 Þð250Þ ¼ 109:9 26:01 A
Note that the per-unit equivalent circuit of Figure 3.10(b) is relatively easy
to analyze, since ideal transformer windings have been eliminated by proper
selection of base values. 9

Balanced three-phase circuits can be solved in per-unit on a per-phase

basis after converting D-load impedances to equivalent Y impedances. Base
values can be selected either on a per-phase basis or on a three-phase basis.
Equations (3.3.1)–(3.3.5) remain valid for three-phase circuits on a per-phase
basis. Usually S base3f and VbaseLL are selected, where the subscripts 3f and
LL denote ‘‘three-phase’’ and ‘‘line-to-line,’’ respectively. Then the following
relations must be used for other base values:
S base3f
S base1f ¼ ð3:3:12Þ
3
VbaseLL
VbaseLN ¼ pffiffiffi ð3:3:13Þ
3
S base3f ¼ Pbase3f ¼ Qbase3f ð3:3:14Þ
S base1f S base3f
I base ¼ ¼ pffiffiffi ð3:3:15Þ
VbaseLN 3VbaseLL
2
VbaseLN VbaseLN V2
Zbase ¼ ¼ ¼ baseLL ð3:3:16Þ
I base S base1f S base3f
1
Rbase ¼ Xbase ¼ Z base ¼ ð3:3:17Þ
Ybase
 SECTION 3.3 THE PER-UNIT SYSTEM 115

EXAMPLE 3.5 Per-unit and actual currents in balanced three-phase networks

As in Example 2.5, a balanced-Y-connected voltage source with Eab ¼ 480 0

volts is applied to a balanced-D load with ZD ¼ 30 40 W. The line impedance
between the source and load is ZL ¼ 1 85 W for each phase. Calculate the
per-unit and actual current in phase a of the line using S base3f ¼ 10 kVA and
VbaseLL ¼ 480 volts.

SOLUTION First, convert ZD to an equivalent ZY ; the equivalent line-

to-neutral diagram is shown in Figure 2.17. The base impedance is, from
(3.3.16),
2
VbaseLL ð480Þ 2
Zbase ¼ ¼ ¼ 23:04 W
S base3f 10;000

The per-unit line and load impedances are

ZL 1 85
ZLp:u: ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:04340 85 per unit
Zbase 23:04

and

ZY 10 40
ZYp:u: ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:4340 40 per unit
Zbase 23:04

Also,

VbaseLL 480
VbaseLN ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 277 volts
3 3
and
Ean 277 30
Eanp:u: ¼ ¼ ¼ 1:0 30 per unit
VbaseLN 277

The per-unit equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 3.11. The per-unit line cur-
rent in phase a is then

FIGURE 3.11
Circuit for Example 3.5
116 CHAPTER 3 POWER TRANSFORMERS

Eanp:u: 1:0 30

Iap:u: ¼ ¼
ZLp:u: þ ZYp:u: 0:04340 85 þ 0:4340 40
1:0 30
¼
ð0:00378 þ j0:04323Þ þ ð0:3325 þ j0:2790Þ
1:0 30 1:0 30
¼ ¼
0:3362 þ j0:3222 0:4657 43:78
¼ 2:147 73:78 per unit
The base current is
S base3f 10;000
I base ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 12:03 A
3VbaseLL 3ð480Þ
and the actual phase a line current is
Ia ¼ ð2:147 73:78 Þð12:03Þ ¼ 25:83 73:78 A 9

3.4
THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS AND
PHASE SHIFT

Three identical single-phase two-winding transformers may be connected to

form a three-phase bank. Four ways to connect the windings are Y–Y, Y–D,
D–Y, and D–D. For example, Figure 3.12 shows a three-phase Y–Y bank.
Figure 3.12(a) shows the core and coil arrangements. The American standard
for marking three-phase transformers substitutes H1, H2, and H3 on the
high-voltage terminals and X1, X2, and X3 on the low-voltage terminals in
place of the polarity dots. Also, in this text, we will use uppercase letters ABC
to identify phases on the high-voltage side of the transformer and lowercase
letters abc to identify phases on the low-voltage side of the transformer. In
Figure 3.12(a) the transformer high-voltage terminals H1, H2, and H3 are
connected to phases A, B, and C, and the low-voltage terminals X1, X2, and
X3 are connected to phases a, b, and c, respectively.
Figure 3.12(b) shows a schematic representation of the three-phase Y–
Y transformer. Windings on the same core are drawn in parallel, and the
phasor relationship for balanced positive-sequence operation is shown. For
example, high-voltage winding H1–N is on the same magnetic core as low-
voltage winding X1–n in Figure 3.12(b). Also, VAN is in phase with Van .
Figure 3.12(c) shows a single-line diagram of a Y–Y transformer. A single-
line diagram shows one phase of a three-phase network with the neutral wire
omitted and with components represented by symbols rather than equivalent
circuits.