Prose & Poetry, or 

Prose-Poetry, is a competitive speech event practiced by state high-school forensics/public

speaking or debating associations such as the Ohio High School Speech League and the California High School
Speech Association, and the National Forensic League (NFL). The NFL does have consolation events in Prose
Interpretation and Poetry Interpretation at the National Tournament, but these are only open to competitors who
qualified in other events and were eliminated before the late elimination rounds.

Competitors in Prose & Poetry (short form: P-P) read an unmemorized cut of prose or poetry, which is typically read
from a small black binder. A short memorized introduction precedes the prose or poetry reading. The time limit for
these events is typically five minutes, occasionally with a 30 second grace period, though in some areas the time
limit is seven minutes. Competition rules are the same as for NFL interpretation events.

Trigonometry (from Greek trigōnon, "triangle" and metron, "measure"[1]) is a branch of mathematics that studies

relationships involving lengths and angles of triangles. The field emerged in the Hellenistic world during the 3rd
century BC from applications of geometry to astronomical studies.[2]

The 3rd-century astronomers first noted that the lengths of the sides of a right-angle triangle and
the angles between those sides have fixed relationships: that is, if at least the length of one side and the value of
one angle is known, then all other angles and lengths can be determined algorithmically. These calculations soon
came to be defined as the trigonometric functions and today are pervasive in both pure and appliedmathematics:
fundamental methods of analysis such as the Fourier transform, for example, or the wave equation, use
trigonometric functions to understand cyclical phenomena across many applications in fields as diverse as physics,
mechanical and electrical engineering, music and acoustics, astronomy, ecology, and biology. Trigonometry is also
the foundation of surveying.

Trigonometry is most simply associated with planar right-angle triangles (each of which is a two-dimensional triangle

with one angle equal to 90 degrees). The applicability to non-right-angle triangles exists, but, since any non-right-
angle triangle (on a flat plane) can be bisected to create two right-angle triangles, most problems can be reduced to
calculations on right-angle triangles. Thus the majority of applications relate to right-angle triangles. One exception
to this is spherical trigonometry, the study of triangles on spheres, surfaces of constant positive curvature, in elliptic
geometry (a fundamental part of astronomy and navigation). Trigonometry on surfaces of negative curvature is part
of hyperbolic geometry.

Trigonometry basics are often taught in schools, either as a separate course or as a part of a precalculus course.

Introduction to Trigonometry
Trigonometry  (from Greek trigonon "triangle" + metron "measure")

Want to Learn Trigonometry? 

Here is a quick summary. 
Follow the links for more, or go to Trigonometry Index

 
 Trigonometry ... is all about triangles.

Right Angled Triangle

The triangle of most interest is the  right-angled triangle .

The right angle is shown by the little box in the corner.

We usually know another angle θ.

And we give names to each side:

 Adjacent is adjacent (next to) to the angle θ

 Opposite is opposite the angle θ
 the longest side is the Hypotenuse

"Sine, Cosine and Tangent"

Trigonometry is good at find a missing side or angle in a triangle.

The special functions  Sine, Cosine and Tangent help us!

They are simply one side of a right-angled triangle divided by another.

For any angle "θ":

Sine Function: sin(θ) = Opposite / Hypotenuse

Cosine Function: cos(θ) = Adjacent / Hypotenuse

Tangent Function: tan(θ) = Opposite / Adjacent

(Sine, Cosine and Tangent are often abbreviated to  sin, cos and tan.)

Example: What is the sine of 35°?

Using this triangle (lengths are only to one decimal place):

sin(35°) = Opposite / Hypotenuse = 2.8/4.9 = 0.57...

Calculators have sin, cos and tan, let's see how to use them:

Example: What is the missing length here?

 We know the Hypotenuse
 We want to know the Opposite

Sine is the ratio of Opposite / Hypotenuse

Get a calculator, type in "45", then the "sin" key:

sin(45°) = 0.7071...

Now multiply by 20 (the Hypotenuse length):

Opposite length = 20 × 0.7071... = 14.14 (to 2 decimals)

Try Sin Cos and Tan!

Move the mouse around to see how different angles affect sine, cosine and tangent:

And you will also see why trigonometry is also about  circles ! In this animation the
hypotenuse is 1, making the  Unit Circle .

Notice that the sides can be positive or negative according to the rules of  Cartesian
coordinates . This makes the sine, cosine and tangent change between positive and
negative also.

Unit Circle
What you just played with is the  Unit Circle .

It is a circle with a radius of 1 with its center at 0.

Because the radius is 1, we can directly measure sine, cosine and tangent.

Here we see the sine function being made by the unit circle:

© 2015 MathsIsFun.com v 0.81

You can also see the nice  graphs made by sine, cosine and tangent .

Degrees and Radians

Angles can be in  Degrees  or  Radians . Here are some examples:

Angle Degrees Radians

Right Angle  90° π/2

__ Straight Angle 180° π

 Full Rotation 360° 2π

Repeating Pattern
Because the angle is rotating around and around the circle the Sine, Cosine and
Tangent functions repeat once every full rotation (see  Amplitude, Period, Phase Shift
and Frequency ).

When we need to calculate the function for an angle larger than a full rotation of 2 π (360°)
we subtract as many full rotations as needed to bring it back below 2 π (360°):

Example: what is the cosine of 370°?

370° is greater than 360° so let us subtract 360°

370° − 360° = 10°

cos(370°) = cos(10°) = 0.985 (to 3 decimal places)

And when the angle is less than zero, just add full rotations.

Example: what is the sine of −3 radians?

−3 is less than 0 so let us add 2π radians

−3 + 2π = −3 + 6.283 = 3.283 radians

sin(−3) = sin(3.283) = −0.141 (to 3 decimal places)

Solving Triangles

A big part of Trigonometry is  Solving Triangles . "Solving" means finding missing sides and
angles.

Example: Find the Missing Angle "C"

Angle C can be found using  angles of a triangle add to 180° :

So C = 180° − 76° − 34° = 70°

It is also possible to find missing side lengths and more. The general rule is:

When we know any 3 of the sides or angles we can find the other 3
(except for the three angles case)

See  Solving Triangles  for more details.

Other Functions (Cotangent, Secant, Cosecant)

Similar to Sine, Cosine and Tangent, there are three other trigonometric functions which
are made by dividing one side by another:

Cosecant Function: csc(θ) = Hypotenuse / Opposite

Secant Function: sec(θ) = Hypotenuse / Adjacent

Cotangent Function: cot(θ) = Adjacent / Opposite

Trigonometric and Triangle Identities

And as you get better at Trigonometry you can learn these:

The  Trigonometric Identities  are equations that

are true for all right-angled triangles.

The  Triangle Identities  are equations that are

true for all triangles (they don't have to have a
right angle).

Different Types of Sets

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There are different types of sets in set theory. They are listed below:

 Empty set
  Singleton set
 Finite and Infinite set
 Union of sets
 Intersection of sets
 Difference of sets
 Subset of a set
 Disjoint sets
 Equality of two sets

Empty Set
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A set that has no element should be called as Empty set. Another name for Empty set could be Null set and Void set.
Number of element in set X is represented as n(X). The empty set is denoted as Φ. Thus, n(Φ) = 0. The cardinality of an
empty set is zero since it has no element.
→ Read More
Singleton Set
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A set that has one and only one element should be called as Singleton set. Sometimes, it is known as unit set. The
cardinality of singleton is one. If A is a singleton, then we can express it as
A = {x : x = A}

Example: Set A = {5} is a singleton set.

Finite and Infinite Set
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A set that has predetermined number of elements or finite number of elements are said to be Finite set. Like {1 ,2, 3, 4, 5,
6} is a finite set whose cardinality is 6, since it has 6 elements. 

Otherwise, it is called as infinite set. It may be uncountable or countable. The union of some infinite sets are infinite and
the power set of any infinite set is infinite.

Examples: 

1. Set of all the days in a week is a finite set.

2. Set of all integers is infinite set.

Union of Sets
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Union of two or else most numbers of sets could be the set of all elements that belongs to every element of all sets. In the
union set of two sets, every element is written only once even if they belong to both the sets. This is denoted as ‘∪’. If we
have sets A and B, then the union of these two is A U B and called as A union B.

Mathematically, we can denote it as A U B = {x : x [Math Processing Error] A or x[Math Processing Error] B}

The union of two sets is always commutative i.e.A U B = B U A.

Example: A = {1,2,3}

B = {1,4,5}

A [Math Processing Error] B = {1,2,3,4,5}→ Read More

Intersection of Sets
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It should be the set of elements that are common in both the sets. Intersection is similar to grouping up the common
elements. The symbol should be denoted as ‘∩’. If A and B are two sets, then the intersection is denoted as A [Math
Processing Error] B and called as A intersection B and mathematically, we can write it as
[Math Processing Error]

Example: A = {1,2,3,4,5}
B = {2,3,7}
A [Math Processing Error] B = {2,3}→ Read More
Difference of Sets
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The difference of set A to B should be denoted as A - B. That is, the set of element that are in set A not in set B is
A - B = {x: x [Math Processing Error] A and x ∉ B}

And, B - A is the set of all elements of the set B which are in B but not in A i.e.
B - A = {x: x [Math Processing Error] B and x ∉ A}.

Example: 

If A = {1,2,3,4,5} and B = {2,4,6,7,8}, then

A - B = {1,3,5} and B - A = {6,7,8}
Subset of a Set
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In set theory, a set P is the subset of any set Q, if the set P is contained in set Q. It means, all the elements of the set P
also belongs to the set Q. It is represented as '⊆’ or P [Math Processing Error] Q.

Example:

A = {1,2,3,4,5}
B = {1,2,3,4,5,7,8}
Here, A is said to be the subset of B.
Disjoint Sets
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If two sets A and B should have no common elements or we can say that the intersection of any two sets A and B is the
empty set, then these sets are known as disjoint sets i.e. A [Math Processing Error] B = [Math Processing Error]. That
means, when this condition n (A ∩ B) = 0 is true, then the sets are disjoint sets.

Example: 
A = {1,2,3}
B = {4,5}
n (A ∩ B) = 0.
Therefore, these sets A and B are disjoint sets.
Equality of Two Sets
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Two sets are said to be equal or identical to each other, if they contain the same elements. When the sets P and Q is said
to be equal, if P ⊆ Q and Q ⊆ P, then we will write as P = Q.

Examples: 

1. If A = {1,2,3} and B = {1,2,3}, then A = B.

2. Let P = {a, e, i, o, u} and B = {a, e, i, o, u, v}, then P [Math Processing Error] Q, since set Q has element v as the
extra element.

3. Empty Set or Null Set:

4. A set which does not contain any element is called an empty set, or the null set or the void set and it is
denoted by ∅ and is read as phi. In roster form, ∅ is denoted by {}. An empty set is a finite set, since
the number of elements in an empty set is finite, i.e., 0.
5. For example: (a) The set of whole numbers less than 0. 

(b) Clearly there is no whole number less than 0. 

Therefore, it is an empty set. 

(c) N = {x : x ∈ N, 3 < x < 4} 

• Let A = {x : 2 < x < 3, x is a natural number} 

Here A is an empty set because there is no natural number between

2 and 3. 

• Let B = {x : x is a composite number less than 4}. 

Here B is an empty set because there is no composite number less than 4. 

Note:
6. ∅ ≠ {0} ∴ has no element. 

{0} is a set which has one element 0. 

 The cardinal number of an empty set, i.e., n(∅) = 0 

Singleton Set:
7. A set which contains only one element is called a singleton set. 

For example:
8. • A = {x : x is neither prime nor composite} 

It is a singleton set containing one element, i.e., 1. 

• B = {x : x is a whole number, x < 1} 

This set contains only one element 0 and is a singleton set. 

• Let A = {x : x ∈ N and x² = 4} 

Here A is a singleton set because there is only one element 2 whose square is 4. 

• Let B = {x : x is a even prime number} 

Here B is a singleton set because there is only one prime number which is even, i.e., 2. 

Finite Set:
9. A set which contains a definite number of elements is called a finite set. Empty set is also called a finite
set. 

For example:
10. • The set of all colors in the rainbow. 

• N = {x : x ∈ N, x < 7} 

• P = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, ...... 97}

Infinite Set:
11. The set whose elements cannot be listed, i.e., set containing never-ending elements is called an infinite
set. 

For example:
12. • Set of all points in a plane 

• A = {x : x ∈ N, x > 1}

• Set of all prime numbers 

• B = {x : x ∈ W, x = 2n} 

Note:
13. All infinite sets cannot be expressed in roster form. 

For example:
14. The set of real numbers since the elements of this set do not follow any particular pattern.

Cardinal Number of a Set:

15. The number of distinct elements in a given set A is called the cardinal number of A. It is denoted by
n(A). 
 For example:
16. • A {x : x ∈ N, x < 5} 

A = {1, 2, 3, 4} 

Therefore, n(A) = 4 

• B = set of letters in the word ALGEBRA 

B = {A, L, G, E, B, R} 

Therefore, n(B) = 6 

Equivalent Sets:
17. Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent if their cardinal number is same, i.e., n(A) = n(B). The
symbol for denoting an equivalent set is ‘↔’. 

For example:
18. A = {1, 2, 3} Here n(A) = 3 

B = {p, q, r} Here n(B) = 3 

Therefore, A ↔ B 

19. Equal sets:

20. Two sets A and B are said to be equal if they contain the same elements. Every element of A is an
element of B and every element of B is an element of A. 

For example:
21. A = {p, q, r, s} 

B = {p, s, r, q} 

Therefore, A = B 

The various types of sets and their definitions are explained above with the help of examples. 
22. What is set (in mathematics)?
23. The collection of well-defined distinct objects is known as a set. The word well-defined refers to a
specific property which makes it easy to identify whether the given object belongs to the set or not. The
word ‘distinct’ means that the objects of a set must be all different. 

For example: 

1. The collection of children in class VII whose weight exceeds 35 kg represents a set. 

2. The collection of all the intelligent children in class VII does not represent a set because the word
intelligent is vague. What may appear intelligent to one person may not appear the same to another
person. 

Elements of Set:
24. The different objects that form a set are called the elements of a set. The elements of the set are written
in any order and are not repeated. Elements are denoted by small letters. 

Notation of a Set:
25. A set is usually denoted by capital letters and elements are denoted by small letters 
 If x is an element of set A, then we say x ϵ A. [x belongs to A]

If x is not an element of set A, then we say x ∉ A. [x does not belong to A] 

For example: 

The collection of vowels in the English alphabet. 

Solution : 

Let us denote the set by V, then the elements of the set are a, e, i, o, u or we can say, V = [a, e, i, o,
u]. 

We say a ∈ V, e ∈ V, i ∈ V, o ∈ V and u ∈ V. 

Also, we can say b ∉ V, c ∉ v, d ∉ v, etc.

26. How to state that whether the objects form a set or not?
27. 1. A collection of ‘lovely flowers’ is not a set, because the objects (flowers) to be included are not well-
defined.
28. Reason: The word “lovely” is a relative term. What may appear lovely to one person may not be so to
the other person.
29. 2. A collection of “Yellow flowers” is a set, because every red flowers will be included in this set i.e., the
objects of the set are well-defined.
30. 3. A group of “Young singers” is not a set, as the range of the ages of young singers is not given and so
it can’t be decided that which singer is to be considered young i.e., the objects are not well-defined.
31. 4. A group of “Players with ages between 18 years and 25 years” is a set, because the range of ages of
the player is given and so it can easily be decided that which player is to be included and which is to be
excluded. Hence, the objects are well-defined.
32.
33. Now we will learn to state which of the following collections are set.
34. State, giving reason, whether the following objects form a set or not:
35. (i) All problems of this book, which are difficult to solve.
36. Solution:
37. The given objects do not form a set.
38. Reason: Some problems may be difficult for one person but may not be difficult for some other
persons, that is, the given objects are not well-defined.
39. Hence, they do not form a set.
40.
41. (ii) All problems of this book, which are difficult to solve for Aaron.
42. Solution:
43. The given objects form a set.
44. Reason: It can easily be found that which are difficult to solve for Aaron and which are not difficult to
solve for him.
45. Hence, the objects form a set.
46.
47. (iii) All the objects heavier than 28 kg.
48. Solution:
49. The given objects form a set.
50. Reason: Every object can be compared, in weight, with 28 kg. Then it is very easy to select objects
which are heavier than 28 kg i.e., the objects are well-defined.
51. Hence, the objects form a set.
52. The members (objects) of each of the following collections form a set:
53. (i) students in a class-room
54. (ii) books in your school-bag
55. (iii) counting numbers between 5 to 15
56. (iv) students of your class, which are taller than you and so on.

The objects used to form a set are called its element or its members.

Generally, the elements of a set are written inside a pair of curly (idle) braces and are represented by commas. The
name of the set is always written in capital letter.
What are the two basic properties of sets?
The two basic properties to represent a set are explained below using various examples.

1. The change in order of writing the elements does not make any changes in the set.

In other words the order in which the elements of a set are written is not important. Thus, the set {a, b, c} can
also be written as {a, c, b} or {b, c, a} or {b, a, c} or {c, a, b} or {c, b, a}.

For Example:

Set A = {4, 6, 7, 8, 9} is same as set A = {8, 4, 9, 7, 6}

i.e., {4, 6, 7, 8, 9} = {8, 4, 9, 7, 6}

Similarly, {w, x, y, z} = {x, z, w, y} = {z, w, x, y}    and so on.

2. If one or many elements of a set are repeated, the set remains the same.

In other words the elements of a set should be distinct. So, if any element of a set is repeated number of times
in the set, we consider it as a single element. Thus, {1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4} = {1, 2, 3, 4}

The set of letters in the word ‘GOOGLE’ = {G, O, L, E}

For Example:

The set A = {5, 6, 7, 6, 8, 5, 9} is same as set A= {5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

i.e., {5, 6, 7, 6, 8, 5, 9} = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

In general, the elements of a set are not repeated. Thus,

(i) if T is a set of letters of the word ‘moon’: then T = {m, o, n},

There are two o’s in the word ‘moon’ but it is written in the set only once.

(ii) if U = {letters of the word ‘COMMITTEE’}; then U = {C, O, M, T, E}

Solved examples using the properties of sets:

1. Write the set of vowels used in the word ‘UNIVERSITY’.

Solution:

Set V = {U, I, E}

2. For each statement, given below, state whether it is true or false along with the explanations.

(i) {9, 9, 9, 9, 9, ……..} = {9} 

(ii) {p, q, r, s, t} = {t, s, r, q, p}

Solution:
(i) {9, 9, 9, 9, 9, ……..} = {9} 

True, since repetition of elements does not change the set.

(ii) {p, q, r, s, t} = {t, s, r, q, p}

True, since the change in order of writing the elements does not change the set.

Radian Measure of an Angle

The measure of an angle is determined by the amount of rotation from the initial side to the terminal side.  One
way to measure angles is in radians.  To define a radian, use a central angle of a circle (an angle whose vertex
is the center of the circle).  One radian is the measure of a central angle that intercepts an arc s equal in length to
the radius r of the circle.

Since the circumference of a circle is 2πr, one revolution around a circle of radius r corresponds to an angle of

2π radians because  .

IN THE RADIAN SYSTEM of angular measurement, the measure of one revolution is

2π.
(In the next Topic, Arc Length, we will see the actual definition of radian
measure.)

Half a circle, then, is π.  And, most important, each right angle is half
  of π:   π .
2
  Three right angles will be  π   =  3π .
 3·   2  2 
  Five right angles will 5π .  And so on.
be    2 

Radians into degrees
The following radian measures come up frequently, and the student should know their
degree equivalents:

(Topic 4 and Topic 5.)

π   is half of π  , a right angle, and so it is equal to 45°.   (Skill
4 in
2
Arithmetic, Lesson 27, Question 4.)
  is of one quarter of π, or half of half of
Equivalently, π
4 180°.

π  is a third of π, and so is equal to 180° ÷ 3 =

3 60°.
π  is a sixth of π, and so is equal to 180° ÷ 6 =
6 30°.

5π π
 = 5·   = 5· 45° = 225°.
 4  4 
2π   is a third of 2π.   A third of a revolution = 360° ÷ 3 =
 3  120°.

Problem 1 .   Convert each of these radian measures into degrees.

Problem 1.    The student should know these.
To see the answer, pass your mouse over the colored area. 
To cover the answer again, click "Refresh" ("Reload").
   a)
  b)    π   90°  c)    π   60°  d)    π   30°  e)    π   45°
π  180° 2 3 6 4

Problem 2.   Convert each of these radian measures into degrees.

   a)      π     22½°.   π  is half of  π .

8 8 4

   b)    2π     72°.   2π  is a fifth of 2π  , which is a fifth of a 360°.

 5  5

   c)    7π    = 7·  π  = 7· 45° = 315°

 4 4

   d)     9π    = 9·  π  = 9· 90° = 810°

 2 2

   e)     4π    = 4·  π  = 4· 60° = 240°

 3 3

   f)     5π    = 5·  π  = 5· 30° = 150°

 6 6

   g)    7π  
 9

Problem 3.   Evaluate the following.  (See Topic 4 and Topic 5.)

  a)  cos  π  =   2     b)  sin π  =  2     c)  tan π  =  1

1
6 6 4
 

  e)
  d)  cot  π  =   1    π  =  2     f)  sec  π  = 
3 csc  6 4

Problem 4.   In terms of radians, what angle is the complement of an

  angle θ ?  π  −  θ
2

Problem 5.   A function of any angle is equal to the cofunction of its complement.
(Topic 3.)  Therefore, in terms of cofunctions:
  a)  sin θ = cos (π  −  θ )     b)  cot θ = tan ( π  −  θ )
2 2
  c) π  − θ) = csc θ
sec ( 2

Degrees into radians
 360°  =  2π.
When we write 2π, we mean 2π radians, which is approximately 6.28 radians.
However, we normally omit the word radians.  As we will see in the next Topic, Arc
length, the radian measure can be any real number.
Problem 6.   The student should begin by knowing these.

0°  =  0 radians.   360° =  2π.   180° =  π.   90° =  π .

2

45° =  π .   60° =  π .   30° =  π .

4 3 6

Example 1.   Convert 120° into radians.

Solution.   We can go from what we know to what we do not know.  In the most
important cases we can recognize the number of degrees as amultiple of 90°, or 45°, or
60°, or 30°; or as a part of 360°.
Since 60° = 
π , then
3
2
120° = 2· 60° = π  =  .
π
2·  3
 3
Or, since 120° is a third of 360°, which is 2π, then
120°  =   2π .
 3

   Example 2.   225° = 180° + 45°  =  π +  π  =  5π .

4  4
Or,
225° = 5· 45°  =  5·  π  =  5π .
4  4

Problem 7.   Convert each of the following into radians.

  a)  270° =  3· 90° =   3π     b)  210° =  7· 30° = 7·  π  =  7π

 2 6  6

  c)  300° =  5· 60° = 5·  π  =  5π      d)  135° =  3· 45° = 3·  π  =  3π

3  3 4  4

  e)  720° =   2· 360° = 2· 2π = 4π

  f)  450° =   5· 90° = 5·  π  =  5π

2  2
   g)  36°  =  A tenth of 360° =  2π  =  π
10 5

   h)  72°  =  2· 36° =  2π
 5
72° is thus a fifth of a revolution.

   i)  40°  =  A ninth of 360° =  2π

 9

   j)  80°  =  2· 40° =  4π
 9

As a last resort, proportionally,

so that

Example 3.   Change 140° to radians.

140 7 7π
  Solution.     · π  =  · π  =  ,
180 9  9
upon dividing both the numerator and denominator first by 10 and then by 2.  (Lesson
21 and Lesson 1 of Arithmetic.)
Coterminal angles
Angles are coterminal if they have the same terminal side.

θ is coterminal with −φ.  They have the same terminal side.

Notice that
θ + φ  =  2π,
so that
θ  =  2π − φ .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . (1)

Example 4.   Name in radians the non-negative angle that is coterminal

   with − 2π , and is less than
  5 2π. 
Answer.  Let us call that angle θ.  Then according to line (1),

θ  =  2π −  2π  =  10π − 2π  =  8π

 5         5  5
See Lesson 23 of Algebra, Example 7.
Problem 8.   Name in radians the non-negative angle that is coterminal with each of
the following, and is less than 2π.
π π  =  12π − π  =  11π
   a)  −   θ  =  2π − 
6 6      6  6

3π
   b)  −    θ = 2π −  3π  =  8π − 3π  =  5π
 4  4      4  4

4π
   c)  −     θ  =  2π −  4π  =  6π − 4π  =  2π
 3  3      3  3

The multiples of π
Starting at 0, let us go around the circle a half-circle at a time.  We will then have the
following sequence, which are the multiples of π:
0,  π,  2π,  3π,  4π, 5π, etc.

The point to see is that the odd multiples of π --

π,  3π,  5π,  7π, etc.
-- are coterminal with π.  While the even multiples of π --
2π,  4π,  6π, etc.
-- are coterminal with 0.
If we go around in the negative direction,

we can make a similar observation.

 Problem 9.   Name in radians the non-negative angle that is coterminal with each of
the following, and is less than 2π.
a)   -π   π       b)   -2π   0       c)   -3π   π       d)   -4π   0       e)   -5π   π 
f)   3π   π        g)   4π   0        h)   5π   π        i)   6π   0        j)   7π   π 

Next Topic:  Arc Length

Arc Length
The definition of radian measure
s  =  rθ
The unit circle

An angle of 1 radian
Proof of the theorem

IT IS CONVENTIONAL to let the letter s symbolize the length of an arc, which is

called arc length. We say in geometry that an arc "subtends" an angle θ; literally,
"stretches under."
Now the circumference of a circle is an arc length.  And the ratio of the
circumference to the diameter is the basis of radian measure.  That ratio is
the definition of π.
C
π  =   .
D

Since D = 2r, then

C
π= 2
r

or,
C
 =   2π .
r
 That ratio -- 2π -- of the circumference of a circle to the radius,
is called the radian measure of 1 revolution, which are four right angles at the center. 
The circumference subtends those four right angles.

s
Radian measure of θ  =
r
Thus the radian measure is based on ratios -- numbers -- that are actually found in
the circle.  The radian measure is a real number that indicates the ratio of a curved line
to a straight, of an arc to the radius. For, the ratio of s to r does determine a unique
central angle θ.
In any circles the same ratio of arc length to
  Theorem.  
radius

determines a unique central angle that the

   
arcs subtend.

Proportionally,

if and only if
 θ  = θ .
1 2

We will prove this theorem below.

s
  Example 1.   If s is 4 cm, and r is 5 cm, then the 4
, i.e.  , is the
number  5
r

radian measure of the central angle.

At that central angle, the arc is four fifths of the radius.
Example 2.   An angle of .75 radians means that the arc is three fourths of the radius.
s = .75r
Example 3.   In a circle whose radius is 10 cm, a central angle θintercepts an arc of 8
cm.

a)  What is the radian measure of that angle?

Answer.  According to the definition:
s
 8
θ  =     =     =  .8
10
r

b)  At that same central angle θ, what is the arc length if the radius is 
b)  5 cm?

Answer.  For a given central angle, the ratio of arc to radius is the same.  5 is half of
10.  Therefore the arc length will be half of 8:  4cm.
Example 4.
a)  At a central angle of 2.35 radians, what ratio has the arc to the radius?
Answer.  That number is the ratio.  The arc is 2.35 times the radius.
b)  In which quadrant of the circle does 2.35 radians fall?
  Answer.   Since π = 3.14, π 3π
 is half of that:  1.57.   = 3.14 + 1.57
then  2  2

= 4.71.
An angle of 2.35 radians, then, is greater than 1.57 but less that 3.14.  It falls in
the second quadrant.
s = rθ
c)  If the radius is 10 cm, and the central angle is 2.35 radians, then how 
c)  long is the arc?
Answer.  We let the definition of  θ,
s
θ  =  
r
become a formula for finding s :
s  =  r
θ
Therefore,
s  = 10 × 2.35 = 23.5 cm
Because of the simplicity of that formula, radian measure is used exclusively in
theoretical mathematics.
The unit circle
Since in any circle the same ratio of arc to radius determines a unique central angle,
then for theoretical work we often use the unit circle, which is a circle of radius 1:  r =
1.
 In the unit circle, the radian measure is the length of the arc s.  The length of that
arc is a real number x.
s = rθ = 1· x = x.
We can identify radian measure, then, as the length x of an arc of the unit circle.
And it is here that the term trigonometric "function" has its full meaning. For,
corresponding to each real number x -- each radian measure, each arc -- there is a
unique value of sin x, of cos x, and so on. The definition of a function is satisfied.
(Topic 3 of Precalculus.)
Moreover, when we draw the graph of y = sin x (Topic 18), we can imagine the
unit circle rolled out in both directions onto the x-axis, and in that way marking the
coördinates π, 2π;, −π, −2π, and so on, on thex-axis.
Because radian measure can be identified as an arc, the inverse
trigonometric functions have their names. "arcsin" is the arc -- the
radian measure -- whose sine is a certain number.

sin x
The ratio 
  x

In the unit circle, the opposite side AB is sin x.

AB
sin x = =  AB.
 1

One of the main theorems in calculus concerns the sin x

 for
ratio     x

very small values of x.  And we can see that when the point A on the circumference is
very close to C -- that is, when the central angle AOC is very, very small -- then the
opposite side AB will be virtually indistinguishable from the arc length AC.  That is,
sin x x
 
sin x
1.
   x

An angle of 1 radian
An angle of 1 radian refers to a central angle whose subtending arc is equal in length to
the radius.

That is often cited as the definition of radian measure.  Yet it remains to be

proved that if an arc is equal to the radius in one circle, it will subtend the same central
angle as an arc equal to the radius in another circle.  We cannot avoid the
main theorem.
In addition, although it is possible to define an "angle of 1 radian," does such an
angle actually exist? Is it possible to draw one -- a curved line equal to a straight line?
Or is that but another example of fantasy mathematics?
See First Principles of Euclid's Elements, Commentary on the Definitions;
see in particular that a definition asserts only how a word or a name will
be used. It does not assert that what has been defined exists.

Problem 1.
π , approximately what ratio has the arc to
   a)  At a central angle of
5 the

a)  radius?  Take π 3.
The radian measure  π  is that ratio .  Taking π 3, then the
5

arc is approximately three fifths of the radius.

b)  If the radius is 15 cm, approximately how long is the arc?
3
s = rθ 15·   = 9 cm
5

Problem 2.    In a circle whose radius is 4 cm, find the arc length intercepted by each
of these angles.  Again, take π 3.
    a)   π     s = rθ 4·  3  = 3 cm
4
 4
π
   3
    s = rθ 4·   = 4· ½ = 2 cm
b)   6
6
3π 3· 3 9
    c)       s = rθ 4·   = 4·   = 2· 9 = 18 cm
 2   2 2

 d)  2π.  (Here, the arc length is the entire circumference!)

s = rθ = 4· 2π 4· 6 = 24 cm

Problem 3.   In which quadrant of the circle does each angle, measured in radians,
fall? (See the figure above.)

   a)  θ = 2 radians are more π

     but less than π.  (See the
2 than 
2

figure above.)  Therefore, θ = 2 falls in the second quadrant.

3
    b)  θ = 5 radians are more  but less than 2π.  (See
    π the
5 than 
 2

figure above.)  Therefore, θ = 5 falls in the fourth quadrant.

    c)  θ =
    14 radians are more than 2 revolutions, but slightly
14

less than 2¼:  6.28 + 6.28 = 12.56.  (See the figure above.) Therefore, θ = 14

falls in the first quadrant.
Proof of the theorem
In any circles the same ratio of arc length to radius 
determines a unique central angle that the arcs subtend; 
and conversely, equal central angles determine the same ratio 
of arc length to radius.
 Proportionally,

if and only if
θ  = θ .
1 2

For,

if and only if

Now 2πr is the circumference of each circle.  And each circumference is an "arc"
that subtends four right angles at the center.

But in the same circle, arcs have the same ratio to one another as the central angles
they subtend.  (Theorem 16.)  Therefore,

and

Therefore, according to line (1),

 if and only if
θ  = θ . 1 2

Therefore, the same ratio of arc length to radius determines a unique central angle
that the arcs subtend.  Which is what we wanted to prove.
An arc of a circle is a "portion" of the circumference of the circle.

The length of an arc is simply the length of its "portion" of the

circumference.  Actually, the circumference itself can be considered an arc
length.

The length of an arc (or arc length) is traditionally symbolized by s.

In the diagram at the right, it can be said that "  subtends angle  ".
Definition:  subtend - to be opposite to

The radian measure   of a central angle of a circle is defined as the ratio of the length
of the arc the angle subtends, s, divided by the radius of the circle, r.

                                       

From this definition we can obtain:

RADIANS DEGREES
Arc length of a circle: Arc length of a circle:

When working in the unit circle, with radius 1, the length of

the arc equals the radian measure of the angle.

A radian is the measure of an angle    that , when drawn as a

Relationship between Degrees and Radians:
When the arc length equals an entire circumference, we can use   to get
  This implies that  .

So,    and 

To change To change
 from degrees to radians,  from radians to degrees,
multiply by  multiply by 

Examples:
1.  Convert 50º to radians.
           Answer:   

2.  Convert   to degrees.

         Answer:    
 

3.   How long is the arc subtended by an angle of   radians on a circle of

radius 20 cm?
        Answer: