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Energy and Work: All External Work Supplied To A Real Structural System Is Stored or Dissipated As Energy

This document discusses energy and work as they relate to structural analysis. It makes three key points: 1) The principles of virtual work state that for static equilibrium, the external virtual work must equal the internal virtual work. This applies to both the virtual forces method and virtual displacements method. 2) Structural systems have both potential energy, due to position in a force field, and kinetic energy, due to motion. An oscillating pendulum demonstrates the interchange between these two types of energy. 3) Strain energy is the energy stored in a structural element due to stresses and strains. It is calculated by integrating the stress-strain diagram over the element's volume.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
28 views16 pages

Energy and Work: All External Work Supplied To A Real Structural System Is Stored or Dissipated As Energy

This document discusses energy and work as they relate to structural analysis. It makes three key points: 1) The principles of virtual work state that for static equilibrium, the external virtual work must equal the internal virtual work. This applies to both the virtual forces method and virtual displacements method. 2) Structural systems have both potential energy, due to position in a force field, and kinetic energy, due to motion. An oscillating pendulum demonstrates the interchange between these two types of energy. 3) Strain energy is the energy stored in a structural element due to stresses and strains. It is calculated by integrating the stress-strain diagram over the element's volume.

Uploaded by

nagaraju
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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3.

ENERGY AND WORK


All External Work Supplied to a Real Structural
System is Stored or Dissipated as Energy

3.1 INTRODUCTION

{ XE "Energy" }{ XE "Statically Indeterminate Structures" }{ XE "External


Work" }A large number of energy methods have been presented during the last
150 years for the analysis of both determinate and statically indeterminate
structures. However, if all methods are formulated in matrix notation, it can be
shown that only two fundamental methods exist. They are generally defined as
the force and displacement methods. One can use minimum energy principles or
methods of virtual-work to derive the general equations for linear structural
analysis. Energy is defined as the ability to do work. Both have the units of
force-distance.

For many types of structural elements, however, there can be many advantages in
using both force and displacement methods in approximating the stiffness
properties of the element. For example, the classical non-prismatic beam element
uses a force approach to define the forces at a typical cross-section within the
beam; however, a displacement approximation, such as plane sections remain
plane, is used to define the strain distribution over the cross-section.

{ XE "Virtual Work" }In recent years, assumed-stress hybrid formulations have


been used to produce element stiffness properties. In addition, assumed-stress
distributions, virtual work methods and the least-square error approach have been
used to calculate accurate stresses in displacement-based finite elements.
3-2 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS

Therefore, no one method can be used to solve all problems in structural analysis.
The only restriction on the computational techniques used is that the results must
converge to the exact values as the elements become smaller.

3.2 VIRTUAL AND REAL WORK

The principles of virtual work are very simple and are clear statements of
conservation of energy. The principles apply to structures that are in equilibrium
in a real displaced position u when subjected to loading R . The corresponding
real internal deformations and internal forces are d and f respectively. All terms
are illustrated in Figures 3.1 and 3.2.

R f

R f

R f
u d

A. External Virtual Work R u B. Internal Virtual Work f d

Figure 3.1 Method of Virtual Forces

{ XE "Infinitesimal Displacements" }The principle of virtual forces states (in my


words) if a set of infinitesimal external forces, R , in equilibrium with a set of
infinitesimal internal forces f that exist before the application of the real loads
and displacements, the external virtual work is equal to the internal virtual work.
Or, in terms of the notation defined previously:

R Tu = f Td (3.1)

If only one joint displacement u i is to be calculated, only one external virtual


load exists, R i = 1 . For this case, the equation is the same as the unit load
method. It is apparent for nonlinear analysis that the principle of virtual forces
ENERGY AND WORK 3-3

f
R

R f

u d
u d
A. External Virtual Work u R B. Internal Virtual Work d f

Figure 3.2 Method of Virtual Displacements

cannot be used, because the linear relationship between R and f may not hold
after the application of the real loads and displacements.

{ XE "Virtual Displacements" }The principle of virtual displacements states (in


my words) if a set of infinitesimal external displacements, u , consistent with a
set of internal virtual displacements, d , and boundary conditions are applied
after the application of the real loads and displacements, the external virtual
work is equal to the internal virtual work. Or, in terms of matrix notation:

u TR = d Tf (3.2)

It is important to note that the principle of virtual displacements does apply to the
solution of nonlinear systems because the virtual displacements are applied to
real forces in the deformed structure.

In the case of finite element analysis of continuous solids, the virtual work
principles are applied at the level of stresses and strains; therefore, integration
over the volume of the element is required to calculate the virtual work terms.

For linear analysis, it is apparent that the real external work, or energy, is given
by:

1 T 1
WE = u R = RTu (3.3)
2 2
3-4 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS

The real internal work, or strain energy, is given by:

1 T 1
WI = d f = f Td (3.4)
2 2

3.3 POTENTIAL ENERGY AND KINETIC ENERGY

{ XE "Energy:Kinetic Energy" }{ XE "Energy:Potential Energy" }One of the


most fundamental forms of energy is the position of a mass within a gravitational
field near the earth's surface. The gravitational potential energy V g is defined as
the constant weight w moved against a constant gravitational field of distance h .
Or:

V g = mgh or V g = Wh (3.5)

A mass that is moving with velocity v has kinetic energy given by the following
equation:

1
Vk = mv 2 (3.6)
2

One of the most common examples that illustrates the physical significance of
both the potential and kinetic energy is the behavior of a pendulum shown in
Figure 3.3.

If the mass of the pendulum has an initial position of h max , the kinetic energy is
zero and the potential energy is h max W . When h equals zero, the potential
energy is zero; therefore, from conservation of energy, the kinetic energy is:

W v2
V k = h max W = (3.7)
2g

Hence, the maximum horizontal velocity is:

v max = 2 g h max (3.8)


ENERGY AND WORK 3-5

Massless
Rigid Bar
θ
v=0
L
Vk = 0
Vg = W hmax
Vg = 0
Vk = W hmax
h
v vmax = 2 g hmax
W
Figure 3.3 Oscillation of Pendulum

It is important to note that the total energy in the oscillating system is always
constant; therefore, the following energy equation, at any time t , must be
satisfied:

V g (t ) + V k (t ) = W h max = constant (3.9)

{ XE "Energy:Energy Pump" }The physical behavior of the oscillating pendulum


can be considered to be an energy pump, where there is an interchange between
potential and kinetic energy.

{ XE "Newton's Second Law" }The tangential force accelerating the mass is


W sin θ . From Newton's Second Law, the following nonlinear, differential
equation of equilibrium can be written:

g
mL&θ& + W sin θ = 0 or, &θ& + sin θ = 0 (3.10)
L

For very small angles, sin θ ≈ θ , the approximate linear differential equation is:

&θ& + g θ = 0 (3.11)
L
3-6 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS

Hence, the small displacement period of oscillation of a pendulum is:

L
T = 2π (3.12)
g

3.4 STRAIN ENERGY

{ XE "Energy:Strain Energy" }The strain energy stored in an element "i" within a


general structural system is the area under the stress-strain diagram integrated
over the volume of the element. For linear systems, the stress-strain matrix E(i ) ,
including initial thermal stresses ft (i ) , can be written in matrix form as:

f ( i ) = E( i ) d ( i ) + f t ( i ) (3.13)

The column matrices f (i ) and d (i ) are the stresses and strain respectively.
Therefore, the strain energy within one element is given by:

1 (i )
∫ ∫d
T (i) T
W I( i ) = d (i ) E(i ) d dV + f t ( i ) dV (3.14)
2

Within each element, an approximation can be made on the displacements. Or:

u x (i ) = N (i ) u x , u y (i ) = N (i ) u y and u (zi ) = N (i ) u z (3.15)

Hence, after the application of the strain-displacement equations, the element


strains can be expressed in terms of nodal displacements. Or:

d (i ) = B(i) u or d ( i )T = u T B (i)T (3.16)

The column matrix u contains all of the node, or joint, displacements of the
complete structural system. In addition, it may contain displacement patterns
within the element. When equation (3.16) is written in this form, it is apparent
that the B(i ) matrix can be very large; however, it only has non-zero terms
associated with the displacements at the nodes connected to nodes adjacent to the
element. Therefore, the B(i ) matrix is always formed and used in compacted form
within a computer program, and an integer location array, L(i)a , is formed for
ENERGY AND WORK 3-7

each element that is used to relate the local node displacements u (i ) to the global
node displacements u .

{ XE "Energy:Strain Energy" }After integration over the volume of the element,


the strain energy, in terms of the global node displacements, can be written as:

1 T (i)
W I( i ) = u k u + u T Ft(i ) (3.17)
2

Therefore, the element stiffness matrix is by definition:


k ( i ) = B( i )T E( i ) B (i ) dV (3.18)

And the element thermal force matrix is:


F(i ) = B( i )T f t ( i ) dV (3.19)

The total internal strain energy is the sum of the element strain energies. Or:

1 T
WI = u K u + u T Ft (3.20)
2

The global stiffness matrix K is the sum of the element stiffness matrices k (i ) .
Or:

K= ∑k (i )
(3.21)

{ XE "Direct Stiffness Method" }The summation of element stiffness matrices to


form the global stiffness matrix is termed the direct stiffness method. The global
thermal load vector Ft is the sum of the element thermal load matrices:

Ft = ∑F t
(t )
(3.22)

3.5 EXTERNAL WORK


{ XE "Energy:External Work" }{ XE "External Work" }The external work W c
performed by a system of concentrated node, or joint, loads Fc is:
3-8 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS

1 T
Wc = u Fc (3.23)
2

{ XE "Body Forces" }Within each element "i", the external work W g(i ) performed
by the body forces because of gravitational loads is:

1
W g( i ) =
2 ∫
(m (xi ) g x u (xi ) + ρ y g y u y + ρ z g z u z ) dV (3.24)

Application of the displacement assumptions given by Equation (3.15),


integration over the volume of the element, and summation over all elements
produces the following equation for the energy because of body forces:

1 T
Wg = u Fg (3.25)
2

The external work W sj performed because of element surface stresses (tractions)


t (sj ) , for a typical surface "j" is of the form:

1 T

T ( j)
W s( j ) = u B (j)
s t s dS (3.26)
2

Application of the displacement assumptions given by Equation (3.15),


integration over the surface of the element, and summation over all surface
elements produces the following equation for the energy because of surface
tractions:

1 T
Ws = u Fs (3.27)
2

Therefore, the total external work performed on any system of structural


elements is:

WE =
1 T
2
[
u F c + Fg + Fs ] (3.28)
ENERGY AND WORK 3-9

3.6 STATIONARY ENERGY PRINCIPLE

{ XE "Energy:Stationary Energy" }It is a fact for linear systems that the internal
strain energy must equal the external work performed on the structure. For a
single degree-of-freedom system, we can use this principle to solve for the
displacement. However, for a multi degree-of-freedom system, a different
approach is required. The energy plots, shown in Figure 3.4, illustrate that a new

Energy 1
WI = u T Ku + u T Ft
2

1
[
WE = u T Fc + Fg + Fs
2
]

un

Ω = WI − 2WE
∂Ω
= 0 at Ω MIN
∂ un
energy function Ω can be defined.

Figure 3.4 Energy as a Function of a Typical Displacement

{ XE "Energy:Minimum Potential Energy" }It is apparent that the solution at the


point of minimum potential energy is where the internal energy equals the
external energy. Therefore, the major advantage of the use of the potential energy
function is that the solution must satisfy the following equation for all
displacement degrees-of-freedom u n :

∂Ω
=0 (3.29)
∂u n

The energy function written in matrix form is:

1 T
Ω= u Ku − u T R (3.30)
2
3-10 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS

The resultant load vector R associated with the four types of loading is:

R = Fc + Fg + Fs − Ft (3.31)

Application of Equation (3.29) to all displacements yields:

 ∂Ω 
 ∂u 
 1  1 0 − 0 − 0
 −  
 ∂Ω  0 1 − 0 − 0
   
 ∂u 2  = − − − − − −
 −  0  [Ku − R] = [0] (3.32)
0 − 1 − 0
 ∂Ω  
 ∂u n  − − − − − −
 −  0 
0 − 0 − 1 
 ∂Ω  
 
 ∂u N 

Therefore, the node equilibrium equation for all types of structural systems can
be written as the following matrix equation:

Ku = R (3.33)

{ XE "Consistent Mass" }The only approximation involved in the development of


this equation is the assumption of the displacement patterns within each element.
If the same displacement approximation is used to calculate the kinetic energy,
the resulting mass matrix is termed a consistent mass matrix.

Another important fact concerning compatible displacement-based finite


elements is that they converge from below, to the exact solution, as the mesh is
refined. Therefore, the displacements and stresses tend to be lower than the exact
values. From a practical structural engineering viewpoint, this can produce very
dangerous results. To minimize this problem, the structural engineer must check
statics and conduct parameter studies using different meshes.
ENERGY AND WORK 3-11

3.7 THE FORCE METHOD

{ XE "Force Method" }{ XE "Statically Indeterminate Structures" }The


traditional method of cutting a statically indeterminate structure, applying
redundant forces, and solving for the redundant forces by setting the relative
displacements at the cuts to zero has been the most popular method of structural
analysis, if hand calculations are used. The author has developed structural
analysis programs based on both the force and displacement methods of analysis.
At this point in time, there appears to be no compelling reason for using the force
method within a computer program for solving large structural systems. In fact,
programs based on the displacement approach are simple to program and, in
general, require less computer time to execute. Another significant advantage of
a displacement approach is that the method is easily extended to the dynamic
response of structures.

To develop the stiffness of one-dimensional elements, however, the force method


should be used because the internal forces can be expressed exactly in terms of
the forces at the two ends of the element. Therefore, the force method will be
presented here for a single-element system.

Neglecting thermal strains, the energy function can be written as:

1
∫f
T
Ω= d dV − R T u (3.34)
2

The internal forces can be expressed in terms of the node forces using the
following equation:

f =PR (3.35)

For linear material d = Cf and the energy function can be written as:

1 T
Ω= R FR − R Tu (3.36)
2

Where the element flexibility matrix is:


F = P T CP dV (3.37)
3-12 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS

{ XE "Energy:Complementary Energy" }We can now minimize the


complementary energy function by requiring that:

∂Ω
=0 (3.38)
∂R n

The node displacements can now be expressed in terms of node forces by:

u = FR (3.39)

The element stiffness can now be numerically evaluated from:

K = F −1 (3.40)

The element stiffness can be used in the direct stiffness approach where the basic
unknowns are the node displacements. One can also derive the element flexibility
by applying the virtual force method.

3.8 LAGRANGE’S EQUATION OF MOTION

{ XE "Lagrange's Equations of Motion" }In the case of dynamic analysis of


structures, the direct application of the well-known Lagrange’s equation of
motion can be used to develop the dynamic equilibrium of a complex structural
system[1]. Lagrange’s minimization equation, written in terms of the previously
defined notation, is given by:

∂  ∂V k  ∂V k ∂Ω
 −
∂t  ∂u& n  ∂u + ∂u = 0 (3.41)
 n n

{ XE "Energy:Kinetic Energy" }The node point velocity is defined as u& n . The


most general form for the kinetic energy V k(i ) stored within a three-dimensional
element i of mass density ρ is:

ρ 0 0 u& x 
∫ [ ]
1   & 
V k( i ) = u& x u& y u& z 0 ρ 0 u y  dV (3.42)
2
0 0 ρ  u& z 
ENERGY AND WORK 3-13

The same shape functions used to calculate the strain energy within the element
allow the velocities within the element to be expressed in terms of the node point
velocities. Or:

u& x (i ) = N (i ) u& x , u& y (i ) = N (i ) u& y and u& (zi ) = N (i ) u& z (3.43)

Therefore, the velocity transformation equations can be written in the following


form:

u& x (i ) 
 (i )  (i)
u& y  = N u& (3.44)
 u& ( i ) 
 z 

Using exact or numerical integration, it is now possible to write the total kinetic
energy within a structure as:

1 T
Vk = ∑Vi
(i)
k =
2
u& M u& (3.45)

{ XE "Consistent Mass" }The total mass matrix M is the sum of the element
mass matrices M (i ) . The element consistent mass matrices are calculated from:


M ( i ) = N (i )T m N ( i ) dV (3.46)

where m is the 3 by 3 diagonal mass density matrix shown in Equation (3.42).


Equation (3.46) is very general and can be used to develop the consistent mass
matrix for any displacement-based finite element. The term “consistent” is used
because the same shape functions are used to develop both the stiffness and mass
matrices.

{ XE "Dynamic Equilibrium Equations" }Direct application of Equation (3.41)


will yield the dynamic equilibrium equations:

&& + Ku = R
Mu (3.47)

Later in the book the more general dynamic equilibrium equations with damping
will be developed using a physical equilibrium approach.
3-14 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS

3.9 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

{ XE "Momentum, Conservation" }The conservation of momentum is often


presented as a fundamental principle of physics. However, it can be easily
derived from the basic equilibrium equations. Consider the two rigid bodies
shown in Figure 3.5.

M1 , u&1

M1 , u&1 M2 , u&2
y

M2 , u&2
M1 u&1 + M2 u&2 = M1 u&1 + M2 u&2
α2
x

Figure 3.5 Conservation of Linear Momentum

{ XE "Impact" }From Newton’s Second Law, the equal and opposite forces
acting on the rigid bodies during impact will be:

u& − u&
F = M u&& ≈ M (3.48)
δt

If the duration of contact between the two bodies is δ t , the contact force can be
approximated by a change in the velocity before and after impact. During
contact, equilibrium must be satisfied in both the x and y directions. Therefore:

Fx δ t = M 1 (u& 1x − u& 1x ) + M 2 (u& 2 x − u& 2 x ) = 0


(3.49)
Fy δ t = M 1 (u& 1y − u& 1y ) + M 2 (u& 2 y − u& 2 y ) = 0
ENERGY AND WORK 3-15

Momentum is defined as mass times the velocity of the mass and has the
properties of a vector. From Equation (3.49), momentum has the direction of the
velocity and its components can be plus or minus in reference to the x-y system.
Or:

M 1 u& 1x + M 2 u& 2 x = M 1 u& 1x + M 2 u& 2 x


(3.50)
M 1 u& 1y + M 2 u& 2 y = M 1 u& 1y + M 2 u& 2 y

In addition, the resultant momentum vector must be the same before and after
impact. Or:

M 1 u& 1 + M 2 u& 2 = M 1 u& 1 + M 2 u& 2 (3.51)

{ XE "Energy:Kinetic Energy" }It is apparent that three equations, given by


Equations (3.50) and (3.51), do not have a unique solution because there are four
unknowns. The following principle of conservation of kinetic energy must be
enforced as an additional condition:

M 1 u& 12 + M 2 u& 22 = M 1 u& 12 + M 2 u& 22 (3.52)

Consider a direct collision, with no energy dissipation, of a mass M 1 at a known


velocity u& 1 with a mass of M 2 that is at rest. Conservation of momentum
(equilibrium) and conservation of kinetic energy requires that:

M 1 u& 1 = M 1 u& 1 + M 2 u& 2


(3.53)
M 1 u& 12 = M 1 u& 12 + M 2 u& 22

After impact, the new velocities are:

M1 − M2 2M 1
u& 1 = u& 1 and u& 2 = u& 1 (3.54)
M1 + M2 M1 + M2

If the two masses are equal, the velocity of the first is reduced to zero. If the first
mass is less than the second mass, the first will bounce back and the large mass
will move forward with a small velocity.
3-16 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS

These simple equations can be extended to model the impact between different
parts of a structural system. These equations also may apply to the closing of
gaps between different elastic structures.

3.10 SUMMARY

Several energy methods have been presented that can be used to derive the basic
equations used for the static and dynamic analysis of structures. The fundamental
equations of structural analysis are equilibrium, force-deformation and
compatibility. If the same sign convention is used for element and joint
displacements and forces, the compatibility and equilibrium equations are
directly related. If the joint equilibrium equations are written in the same order as
the joint forces, the resulting stiffness and flexibility matrices will always be
symmetrical.

By assuming displacement shape functions within structural elements, consistent


mass and stiffness matrices can be developed. In most cases, however, a physical
mass lumping will not produce significant errors.

In dynamic analysis, the independent time integration of the various components


of energy, including energy dissipation, can be used to evaluate the accuracy of
the solution. By comparing the strain energy stored in the structure resulting from
a given load condition, one can modify and improve a structural design to
minimize the energy absorbed by the structure

After the structural model has been selected and the loading has been assumed,
the structural analysis procedure can be automated. However, the selection of the
structural model and the interpretation and verification of the results is the major
responsibility of the professional structural engineer.

3.11 REFERENCES

1. { XE "Clough, Ray W." }Clough, R., and J. Penzien. 1993. Dynamics of


Structures, Second Edition. McGraw-Hill, Inc. ISBN 0-07-011394-7.

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