Energy and Work: All External Work Supplied To A Real Structural System Is Stored or Dissipated As Energy
Energy and Work: All External Work Supplied To A Real Structural System Is Stored or Dissipated As Energy
3.1 INTRODUCTION
For many types of structural elements, however, there can be many advantages in
using both force and displacement methods in approximating the stiffness
properties of the element. For example, the classical non-prismatic beam element
uses a force approach to define the forces at a typical cross-section within the
beam; however, a displacement approximation, such as plane sections remain
plane, is used to define the strain distribution over the cross-section.
Therefore, no one method can be used to solve all problems in structural analysis.
The only restriction on the computational techniques used is that the results must
converge to the exact values as the elements become smaller.
The principles of virtual work are very simple and are clear statements of
conservation of energy. The principles apply to structures that are in equilibrium
in a real displaced position u when subjected to loading R . The corresponding
real internal deformations and internal forces are d and f respectively. All terms
are illustrated in Figures 3.1 and 3.2.
R f
R f
R f
u d
R Tu = f Td (3.1)
f
R
R f
u d
u d
A. External Virtual Work u R B. Internal Virtual Work d f
cannot be used, because the linear relationship between R and f may not hold
after the application of the real loads and displacements.
u TR = d Tf (3.2)
It is important to note that the principle of virtual displacements does apply to the
solution of nonlinear systems because the virtual displacements are applied to
real forces in the deformed structure.
In the case of finite element analysis of continuous solids, the virtual work
principles are applied at the level of stresses and strains; therefore, integration
over the volume of the element is required to calculate the virtual work terms.
For linear analysis, it is apparent that the real external work, or energy, is given
by:
1 T 1
WE = u R = RTu (3.3)
2 2
3-4 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
1 T 1
WI = d f = f Td (3.4)
2 2
V g = mgh or V g = Wh (3.5)
A mass that is moving with velocity v has kinetic energy given by the following
equation:
1
Vk = mv 2 (3.6)
2
One of the most common examples that illustrates the physical significance of
both the potential and kinetic energy is the behavior of a pendulum shown in
Figure 3.3.
If the mass of the pendulum has an initial position of h max , the kinetic energy is
zero and the potential energy is h max W . When h equals zero, the potential
energy is zero; therefore, from conservation of energy, the kinetic energy is:
W v2
V k = h max W = (3.7)
2g
Massless
Rigid Bar
θ
v=0
L
Vk = 0
Vg = W hmax
Vg = 0
Vk = W hmax
h
v vmax = 2 g hmax
W
Figure 3.3 Oscillation of Pendulum
It is important to note that the total energy in the oscillating system is always
constant; therefore, the following energy equation, at any time t , must be
satisfied:
g
mL&θ& + W sin θ = 0 or, &θ& + sin θ = 0 (3.10)
L
For very small angles, sin θ ≈ θ , the approximate linear differential equation is:
&θ& + g θ = 0 (3.11)
L
3-6 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
L
T = 2π (3.12)
g
f ( i ) = E( i ) d ( i ) + f t ( i ) (3.13)
The column matrices f (i ) and d (i ) are the stresses and strain respectively.
Therefore, the strain energy within one element is given by:
1 (i )
∫ ∫d
T (i) T
W I( i ) = d (i ) E(i ) d dV + f t ( i ) dV (3.14)
2
The column matrix u contains all of the node, or joint, displacements of the
complete structural system. In addition, it may contain displacement patterns
within the element. When equation (3.16) is written in this form, it is apparent
that the B(i ) matrix can be very large; however, it only has non-zero terms
associated with the displacements at the nodes connected to nodes adjacent to the
element. Therefore, the B(i ) matrix is always formed and used in compacted form
within a computer program, and an integer location array, L(i)a , is formed for
ENERGY AND WORK 3-7
each element that is used to relate the local node displacements u (i ) to the global
node displacements u .
1 T (i)
W I( i ) = u k u + u T Ft(i ) (3.17)
2
∫
k ( i ) = B( i )T E( i ) B (i ) dV (3.18)
∫
F(i ) = B( i )T f t ( i ) dV (3.19)
The total internal strain energy is the sum of the element strain energies. Or:
1 T
WI = u K u + u T Ft (3.20)
2
The global stiffness matrix K is the sum of the element stiffness matrices k (i ) .
Or:
K= ∑k (i )
(3.21)
Ft = ∑F t
(t )
(3.22)
1 T
Wc = u Fc (3.23)
2
{ XE "Body Forces" }Within each element "i", the external work W g(i ) performed
by the body forces because of gravitational loads is:
1
W g( i ) =
2 ∫
(m (xi ) g x u (xi ) + ρ y g y u y + ρ z g z u z ) dV (3.24)
1 T
Wg = u Fg (3.25)
2
1 T
∫
T ( j)
W s( j ) = u B (j)
s t s dS (3.26)
2
1 T
Ws = u Fs (3.27)
2
WE =
1 T
2
[
u F c + Fg + Fs ] (3.28)
ENERGY AND WORK 3-9
{ XE "Energy:Stationary Energy" }It is a fact for linear systems that the internal
strain energy must equal the external work performed on the structure. For a
single degree-of-freedom system, we can use this principle to solve for the
displacement. However, for a multi degree-of-freedom system, a different
approach is required. The energy plots, shown in Figure 3.4, illustrate that a new
Energy 1
WI = u T Ku + u T Ft
2
1
[
WE = u T Fc + Fg + Fs
2
]
un
Ω = WI − 2WE
∂Ω
= 0 at Ω MIN
∂ un
energy function Ω can be defined.
∂Ω
=0 (3.29)
∂u n
1 T
Ω= u Ku − u T R (3.30)
2
3-10 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
The resultant load vector R associated with the four types of loading is:
R = Fc + Fg + Fs − Ft (3.31)
∂Ω
∂u
1 1 0 − 0 − 0
−
∂Ω 0 1 − 0 − 0
∂u 2 = − − − − − −
− 0 [Ku − R] = [0] (3.32)
0 − 1 − 0
∂Ω
∂u n − − − − − −
− 0
0 − 0 − 1
∂Ω
∂u N
Therefore, the node equilibrium equation for all types of structural systems can
be written as the following matrix equation:
Ku = R (3.33)
1
∫f
T
Ω= d dV − R T u (3.34)
2
The internal forces can be expressed in terms of the node forces using the
following equation:
f =PR (3.35)
For linear material d = Cf and the energy function can be written as:
1 T
Ω= R FR − R Tu (3.36)
2
∫
F = P T CP dV (3.37)
3-12 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
∂Ω
=0 (3.38)
∂R n
The node displacements can now be expressed in terms of node forces by:
u = FR (3.39)
K = F −1 (3.40)
The element stiffness can be used in the direct stiffness approach where the basic
unknowns are the node displacements. One can also derive the element flexibility
by applying the virtual force method.
∂ ∂V k ∂V k ∂Ω
−
∂t ∂u& n ∂u + ∂u = 0 (3.41)
n n
ρ 0 0 u& x
∫ [ ]
1 &
V k( i ) = u& x u& y u& z 0 ρ 0 u y dV (3.42)
2
0 0 ρ u& z
ENERGY AND WORK 3-13
The same shape functions used to calculate the strain energy within the element
allow the velocities within the element to be expressed in terms of the node point
velocities. Or:
u& x (i )
(i ) (i)
u& y = N u& (3.44)
u& ( i )
z
Using exact or numerical integration, it is now possible to write the total kinetic
energy within a structure as:
1 T
Vk = ∑Vi
(i)
k =
2
u& M u& (3.45)
{ XE "Consistent Mass" }The total mass matrix M is the sum of the element
mass matrices M (i ) . The element consistent mass matrices are calculated from:
∫
M ( i ) = N (i )T m N ( i ) dV (3.46)
&& + Ku = R
Mu (3.47)
Later in the book the more general dynamic equilibrium equations with damping
will be developed using a physical equilibrium approach.
3-14 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
M1 , u&1
M1 , u&1 M2 , u&2
y
M2 , u&2
M1 u&1 + M2 u&2 = M1 u&1 + M2 u&2
α2
x
{ XE "Impact" }From Newton’s Second Law, the equal and opposite forces
acting on the rigid bodies during impact will be:
u& − u&
F = M u&& ≈ M (3.48)
δt
If the duration of contact between the two bodies is δ t , the contact force can be
approximated by a change in the velocity before and after impact. During
contact, equilibrium must be satisfied in both the x and y directions. Therefore:
Momentum is defined as mass times the velocity of the mass and has the
properties of a vector. From Equation (3.49), momentum has the direction of the
velocity and its components can be plus or minus in reference to the x-y system.
Or:
In addition, the resultant momentum vector must be the same before and after
impact. Or:
M1 − M2 2M 1
u& 1 = u& 1 and u& 2 = u& 1 (3.54)
M1 + M2 M1 + M2
If the two masses are equal, the velocity of the first is reduced to zero. If the first
mass is less than the second mass, the first will bounce back and the large mass
will move forward with a small velocity.
3-16 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
These simple equations can be extended to model the impact between different
parts of a structural system. These equations also may apply to the closing of
gaps between different elastic structures.
3.10 SUMMARY
Several energy methods have been presented that can be used to derive the basic
equations used for the static and dynamic analysis of structures. The fundamental
equations of structural analysis are equilibrium, force-deformation and
compatibility. If the same sign convention is used for element and joint
displacements and forces, the compatibility and equilibrium equations are
directly related. If the joint equilibrium equations are written in the same order as
the joint forces, the resulting stiffness and flexibility matrices will always be
symmetrical.
After the structural model has been selected and the loading has been assumed,
the structural analysis procedure can be automated. However, the selection of the
structural model and the interpretation and verification of the results is the major
responsibility of the professional structural engineer.
3.11 REFERENCES