UNIT 2 TEACHING-LEARNING IN

NURSING EDUCATION

2.0 Objectives

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Teaching
2.2.1 Definitions and Concepts
2.2.2 The Nature or Characteristics of Teaching
2.2.3 Principles and Maxims of Good Teaching
2.2.4 The Functions and Qualities of a Good Teacher

2.3 Learning
2.3.1 Definitions and Concepts
2.3.2 Characteristics of Learning
2.3.3 Learning Process
2.3.4 Types of Learning
2.3.5 The Factors Affecting Learning and Teaching

2.4 Communication in Teaching-Learning

2.4.1 Definition and Concept
2.4.2 Elements of Communication Process
2.4.3 Factors Influencing Communication Process
2.4.4 Barriers of Communication

2.5 Let Us Sum Up

2.6 Key Words

2.7 Answers to Check Your Progress

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit, you should be able to:
define and explain the concept of Teaching, Learning and Communication;
explain the nature/characteristics of teaching and learning;
discuss general principles and maxims of teaching;
identify functions and qualities of a teacher;
describe learning process;
explain the types of learning;
state the factors affecting learning and teaching;
explain the elements of communication;
discuss factors influencing communication process; and
identify the barriers of communication process.
 Teaching-Learning in
2.1 INTRODUCTION Nursing Education

In Unit 1, you have learnt the meaning, process, forms and aims of education in
general and aims of education in particular, concept of philosophy, relationship
between philosophy and education, philosophy and nursing education. In this unit
you would learn about teaching-learning in nursing education.
Teaching-learning are essential components of education process. In fact, teaching
and learning are equally important in Nursing education Teaching is the task of a
teacher to impart knowledge, develop attitude and skills in students (presented in
Section 2.2) whereas learning is the outcome of effective teaching in terms of
developing activities, progressive change in behaviour as a result of mental
activities by students (presented in Section 2.3). It is important for the teacher
needs to know teaching and learning aspects of nursing education.
The communication process plays a very important role in teaching-learning
I
process. It is necessary for a teacher to understand the concept and process of
communication which are discussed in Section 2.4 of this unit.

TEACHING
Teaching is an essential component of education process. It is concerned with
imparting knowledge, developing understanding, attitudes and skills. It is very
important for a teacher to understand the concept, nature or characteristics and
principles of good teaching; the qualities of effective teacher and the roles and
functions of a teacher. These are briefly discussed in the following sub sections.

2.2.1 Definitions and Concepts

Definitions
Different authors have tied to define teaching from their own point of view. Some
of the definitions in chronological order are given as under:
H.C. Momson (1 934): Teaching is an intimate contact between a more mature
personality and less mature one which is designed to fixther the education of
the latter.
John Brubacher (1939): Teaching is an arrangement and manipulation of a
situation in which there are gaps and obstructions which an individual will
seek to overcome and from which he will learn in course of doing so.
a American Educational Research Association Commission in "Handbook of
Research on Teachingw(1 962): Teaching is a f6rm of interpersonal influence
aimed at changing the behaviour potential of another person.
B.O. Smith (1963): Teaching is a system of actions involving an agent, an end
in view and a situation i-ncluding two sets of factors - those over which the
i agent has no control (class size, size of class room, physical characteristics of
pupils etc.) and those that he can modify (ways of asking questions,
instructional methods and ways of structuring information or ideas etc.)
Burton (1963): Teaching is the stimulation, guidance, direction, and
encouragement of learning. Israel Shefflar (1966): Explained teaching may be
characterized as an activity aimed at an achievement of learning, and practiced
in such a manner as to respect the student's intellectual integrity and capacity.
I Clark (1970): Teaching refers to activities that are designed and performed to
produce change in student's (pupil) behaviour (Clark, 1970).
 Ned A. Flanders (1970) described: Teaching as an interaction process.
Interaction means participation of both teacher and students and both are
benefited by this. 'Ihe interntion takes place for achieving desired objectives
Concepts
These definitions reveal the following conceptual aspects of teaching:
i) Teaching is an interactive process, which takes place between teacher and
students to influence each other.
ii) The interactive teaching activities are designed to promote desired change in
students' behaviouf, i.e., to achieve desired objectives. In other words
&achingis goaldirected
iii) Thcbing is based on students' intellectual level and capacity.
iv) Teaching takes place in a situation having controllable and incontrollable
factors.
v) Teaching is the task of a teacher who not only imparts informations but also
motivates, guides, helps and encourages students to learn.
Thus it implies that a teacher must understand:
Whom b teach, i.e., the teacher must know each and every student her1 his
abilities, attmades; tempemments etc. identifjr individual differences and
8ccadiogb help and guide to promote learning.
Why b teach,i.e., the teacher must h o w the desired objectives of the
&achingprograrmne so that accordingly s h e can plan and organize the
cunicuhrm to bring desired learning.
Wbrt to teach, i-e.,the teacher must identify what to teach to achieve the
desired objedives and Sme must be tbmugh with, i.e., must have mastery
over the subject to be taugl~t.
How b teach, i.e., the teacher must be competent with teaching -learning
tecbmlogy. Shehe should make use of modem teaching-learning methods so
that thece is efikctive interaction between students and teacher which results
ingoodleaming.
Wkn to tercb,i-e., the teacher must nsualize and make use of appropriate
seUings which may include class room, laboratory, live settings such as
hospital wards and other units, health centres, dher clinics etc. so as to
achieve desired objectives efkctively-
2.2.2 The Nature or Characteristics of kching
Tbe innate charam y dktbctive fieahrres of teaching ate based on education
pmmss involving educatw i.e. the teacher, the educant i.e. the pupil and the
subjecttnattet It is t h q h teacbg that the teacher brings about a harmonious
relationship between the student and the subject Acamhgly the distinctive
f;eaturesof~masImdep:

1) T#diag 6Givhg Information and I[mparting Knowledge: There ate

13aany~whiEhthe~tswiUwtcometohwbythemselvesunless
they are told by the teacher. Similarly there are many things which students
will not know bow to use unless they given such Mmmtioa Therefore
inf;mmationgiving is an impMtant part of teaching. But,while giving any
k i d of infbnnetion the b a c k must consider the students' level of malurity,
h i m learoingneeds and the presentationof the content.
2) ~irCaushgtoLeurr:Tbougbtea~hingisimparhghwledgebut
knowledge does not g@ hqmted unless studen6 are ready to receive it.
~forethe~while~knowledgemustmotivate,guideand
 help students to receive knowledge and learn to utilize in daily activities. Thus Teaching-Learning in
teaching is causing to learn. Nursing Education

3) Teaching is Helping Students to AdjustIRespond to their Environment in

an Effective Manner: Through teaching students are helped to develop
knowledge and understanding, attitude and skills which would help them to
reactladjust to their personal and professional environment and thus lead a
useful and happy life.
4) Teaching is Guiding Students: It is through proper guidance that students are
helped to acquire right knowledge, right attitude and right skills which are
required to develop personal and professional competencies. This would help
students to make effective adjustments to their environment.
5) Teaching is Stimulation and Encouragement: The teacher designs her
teaching that is stimulating and creates desire in students to learn. It
encourages students to be active and put in efforts to learn.
6) Teaching is Both Science and as an Art: Teaching like nursing is a science
of education which draws its body of knowledge from sociology, psychology,
biology, philosophy etc. It involves specific teaching techniques, procedures
and skills which need to be systematically studied and improved. It is also an
. art and calls for exercise of one's talent and creativity.
7) Teaching is Social Service: The teaching as a profession provides services to
the society in terms of educating children and preparing them for variety of
pursuits. It thus, helps to improve the social pattern of the societv.
Introductinn to Nursing 2.2.3 Principles and Maxims of Good Teaching
Education
Good teaching means effective and efficient teaching i.e. teaching is ac'cording to
level of students and it helps students in achieving expected gain in knowledge,
comprehension, competencies and attitudes. There are some general principles and
maxims of teaching methods which must be followed by every teacher to conduct
good teaching. These are as under:

a) General Principles

1) Principle of Setting Definite Goals and Objectives

The goals and objectives must be set according to the expected standards and
outcomes in students, These should be clear to both, teachers and students. The
goals and objectives should be definite and clearly stated to be able to plan,
implement and evaluate teaching learning activities effectively.

2) Principle of Student Centeredness

The teaching is for the student's to achieve educational objectives, therefore it is

very important that the teaching strategies planned by the teacher should be
according to the level of students, their abilities, interests etc.

3) Principle of lndividhl Diflerence

All children are different with respect to their abilities, interests etc. The teacher
needs to consider individual differences for her teaching to be effective.

4) Principle of Motivation

Motivation is stimulating interests. The teacher needs to do her best to create

interest (motivate) among students in the teaching lessons.

Once the interest is created in students, they will become attentive, comprehend
and work better and thus learning is done. The motivation can be done by the
following techniques.

i) Linking teaching- learning with life experiences, important happenings, with

some examples.

ii) Satisfying curiosity of students. Answering queries, linking them with

students' queries.

iii) Making use of natural urges and acquired interests e.g., the system of having
class representative, class-room committees etc. This gives students
opportunity to satisfy their ego, self assertion and learn to take
responsibilities. This in turn motivats students in their studies.

iv), Utilizing all the senses of children. The teacher needs to make use of variety
of teaching aids as these stimulate and sustain interest of students in teaching
lessons.

5 ) " Principle of Activity or Learning by Doing

Teaching is effective only when learners are active in the class-room and outside
the class-room, both physically and mentally. When learners are active, learning
becomes easier, quicker and more effective, therefore the teacher needs to plan
teaching-learning activities where students can make direct observation to the
situation, phenomena etc., participate in doing certain activities during the class
and after the class, do certain mental exercises, solve problems, plan and organize Teaching-Learning in
Nursing Education
certain social services etc. Thus, it stimulates interest and effective learning takes
place.

6) Principle of Connecting with Life

The effective learning takes place when teaching is done in the social context and
linked with the life experiences.

7) Principle of Active Involvement and Participm'ort of Students

The students are no more passive listener to what is being taught by the teacher.
They need to be actively involved in all the stages of teaching-learning process
according to their level of readiness i.e. state of mind. This would not only provide
input from the students but will make them aware of what is being planned and
what is expected from them in the teaching-learning programme.

Knowledge is not fragmented. There exist links among various subjects, in the
same subject, between the present and the past etc. Future can be predicted on the
basis of present situations. The teacher therefore, needs to identify the linking ideas
and events and correlate while teaching various lessons to make effective teaching.

9) The Principle of Feedback, Reinforcement and Remedial Teaching

The teacher needs to device feedback mechanisms to laow the results of teaching
and accordingly give positive reinforcements in the form of praise, grades,
certificates and other incentives. Some students may lag behind and need to have
remedial teaching. The teacher may have to arrange extra coaching classes,
additional assignments etc.

10) Principle of Creating Conducive Environment

It is very important to have suitable physical and social environment to motivate

students to learn. The teacher should see that there is proper arrangement of class-
room, its furniture, lighting etc., there is proper discipline and order in the students,
the students are co-operative, help each other etc.

1I ) Principle of Planning Teaching and its Effective Strategies

It is very important for the teacher to plan lesson content, teaching aids, teaching
methods, teaching-learning activities and an outline of the plan to be implemented.
This way the teaching becomes objective based. It helps in following all the
principles of teaching. The learning is also more effective.

12) The Principle of Change and Rest

'

There should be appropriate provision of change, rest and recreation otherwise it

leads to fatigue, boredom and lack of concentration. The time table should be well
balanced. Two consecutive period of the same subjects should be avoided.

b) Maxims of Teaching

Maxims of teaching are the basic rules of teaching which when implemented
motivate learners, promote their attention on what is being taught, encourage their
active involvement and thus result in effective learning. The teacher needs to know
them and practice. Brief description of the maxims is presented in this section.
Refer Fig. 2.1.
IntroductioIn to Nursing
Education
& KNOWN TO UNKNOWN

) SIMPLE TO COMPLEX

b INDEFINlTE TO DEFINtTE

, ) INDUCTIVE TO DEDUCTIVE

Fig. 2.1: Maxims of teaching

1) Proceed From Known to Unknown

The teaching is always done step by step. The new lesson should be related to
what is already learnt i.e. what is known to them. The teacher can show the
similarities and dissimilarities of the new lesson with the old lesson. This would
not only create interest in students but also make the learning meaningful and
lively. For example while teaching about the pathological changes in a
particular organ of the body it can be started by review of its normal structure
and functions.

2 ) Proceed from simple to complex

This maxim implies that the content of the lesson is organized in a manner that
those ideas which art. elementary and easier to understand by the students are put
up in the beginning and ti~l-therdetails follow the proper order. For example
teaching of anatomy and physiology of a pam~ularorgan. It initiates with gross
structure to minute structcre fi~llovvcdby its hnctiolis and role in the body.

3 ) Proceed from Indefinite to Dejinitr

Nursing students who enter school/college of nursing, usually have vague ideas
about human body, health and disease, about care of patients, their rehabilitation
etc.

The purpose of teaching in n~~rsing is to make these ideas clear and precise so
that students have definite picture in their mind and develop desired attitude and
skills. It is therefore very importa~~t
for the teacher to plan the lesson carefully,
make use of variety of methods and Audio-visual aids, give live experiences etc.
to clarify the ideas.

4) Proceed from Concrete to Abstract

This maxim implies that students would understand new ideas better when
teacher makes use of clear and vivid illustrations,.examples, concrete objects,
models, actual field visits etc. For example, anatomy of an organ can be learnt by
handling the actual organ and by doing its dissection. Disposal of sewage can be
best understood by visiting sewage disposal plant.
5) Procecdfrom Purticulai*to the Gerreml

This maxim implies that before telling general rules or principles to the class, the
teacher presents particular facts ancl exanlplcs. After study of these facts, the
students themselves come out with genqal rules and principles. For exaniple the
definition and underlying causes of hed sores caE be generali~edby the students
aftcr consideration of particular facts and instances of bed sores. This principle is
applied in the inductive method of teaching.

6) Proceed from Inductive to Deductive z4ppvoach

It implies using of inductive method of teaching. In this method of tcaching the

teacher begins with the presentation of facts, examples to the students. The students
after consideration of facts and exa:cples and after close and correct obsei-mtions,
establish general ruies/principles/definitions and uses etc. Closely associated to this
approach, is the deductive approach. In this approach the teacher presents general
rules/principles/definitionsto the students. The students arc asked to apply it to
particular examples. For esarnplc definition and general causes of l~etisores are
presented to ihe students, thcy are then asked to ic!ent~fycases of bed sores and
specify the underlying causes.

Both these methods go together and are irilportant for effective teaching as students
becotne mentally active and get {notivated.These rnethods involve the process of
analysis and synthesis.

Check \'our Progress 2

1) Explain !he meaning oC gooti teaching.

2) List any six general principles of good teaching,

3) Esplaili any other two principles.

 Introduction to Nursing
Education

2.2.4 The Functions and Qualities of a Good Teacher

As described in the words of Joseph Payne (1 808-1876) "The teacher's part in the
process of instruction is that of a guide, director or superintendent of the operation
by which the pupil teachers himself."
Swami Vivekananda (1 863-1902) described the role of the teacher in teaching as,
"The true teacher is he who can immediately come down to the level oi'kit~llents."
Both of the educationists have given importance to the pupils in fulfilling the r3le
of a teacher which can servc the basis for determining her functions and qualiu,ts.
These are described as under:
a) Functions of a Teacher

1) Creating and maintaining desirable learning environment.

2) Motivating students to learn.

3) Arranging for conditions which would provide opportunities to develop

desired comprehension, competencies and attitudes.

4) Utilizing the initiatives and natural urges of students to facilitate learning.

5) Guiding and helping students to develop creative abilities.

6) Guiding and helping students to develop inductive and deductive abilities.

7) Diagnosing learning problems of students.

8) Planning and implementing remedial measures.

9) Evaluating records and reports

10) Participating in planning and organizing of curriculum.

b) Qualities of a Good Teacher
A good teacher possesses the following qualities. A good teacher:

1) Has mastery of the subject matter,

2) Is skillful and artistic in teaching methods and in guiding learning,

3) Treats each individual as unique and recognizes individual differences,

4) Encourages self learning,

5) Keeps the students active and disciplined,

6) Is kind and sympathetic,

7) Plans herhis teaching carefully in advance but is not very rigid with the plan,

I 8) Is approachable and seeks the co-operation of the leal-t-ners.

Teaching-Learning in
Nursing Education
Introduction to Nursing Gates, Jersild and IvlcConnell highlighted: "Learning may be thought of as
Education the progressive change in bchaviour which is associated, on the one hand,
with successive presentations of a situation and on the other, with repeated
efforts of the individual to react it effectively'".
According to Heidgerken: "Learning may be defined as the mental activity by
ineans of which knowledge, skills, attitxdes, appreciations and ideals are
acquired resulting in the modification of behaviour. The modification comes
through knowledge and experience: it involves no additions or substractions
of knowledge and experiences as such, but rather implies something new
which has not existed for that individual before. Learning is the addition of
new knowledge in the light of past knowledge and experience".
These definitions reveal the following concepts of learning :

Learning is a process of modification and implies a progressive change in

behaviour as a result of synthesis of old and new kuo~vledgeand experience.
Learning is developing abilities to respond to various sittiations intelligently
and meaningfully.
Learning can be accomplished by leanlcr's own active efforts,
Learning is mental activity which involves the process of conceptua!izatiori,
description, inditctive and deductive reasoning for acquiring knowledge,
attih~desand skills.

2.3.2 Characteristics of Learning

The primary characteristics of learning which have been presented by Heidgerken
as applied in the teaching and the learning of nursing are briefly discussed in this
section.

1) Learning is Unitary: It implies that the learner reacts as a whole person to

the wholesituation in a unified way. It means that the learner responds '
intellectually. emotionally, physically and spiritually at the same time. The
response by the learner is to the entire learning situation rather than to ariy
one stimulus and in a unified way. This coordinated and integrated total
reaction of the leainer to the learning situation helps achieve educational
goals.
Each learner responds differently to teaching-learning situation because each
l e m e r is different in all aspects. There are inany factors from within the
individual and in the learning situation which interfere with or promote
unified responses. It is very important for the teachers in nursing schools and
colleges to understand the unitary characteristic of learning and put into
practice.

2) Learning is Individual and Social: The very fact that learning is a self
active process, it emphasi~esthat learning is an individual matter. Each
individual has to do herlhis own learning. Each individual differ in this
depending upon inherited traits, health, home training, social environment,
educational opportunities, self determination etc.
Learning is also social in 3 larger sense because it takes place in response to
the environment in which there are other individuals, social groups and
physical things. Individual's learning is influenced by herlhis parents and
family members, friends, relatives, neighbo-as. class mates etc. and learn
their ideas, notions. feelings, attihide etc. Social agencies like family, play
grounds, youth clubs, templelchurch, school etc. play very important role in
the learning process.
 The nursing teachers must consider variations among learners and should not Teaching-Learning in
expect same quantity and degree of perfection in learning at the same time. Nursing Education
Rather, these variations should be studied in each teaching-learning situation
and accordingly handle the situation for effective learning.

3) Learning is Self-active: This characteristic of learning implies that the

learner can learn only through herhis own active response to teaching-
learning situation, i.e., the individual has to undertake self leaming activities.
Without self-activities there is no learning. The various self activities include
listening attentively, visualizing attentively, making observation carefully,,
reacting and acting tn situation, asking questions for clarification, taking down
notes, search literature, do self study, recall, memorize, do analysis and return
demonstration, practice etc. Students need to develop their own habits of
learning. The teacher can simply help and guide them to develop proper habits
and direct them to undertake suitable self-learning activities to achieve
educational goals.

4) Learning is Purposive: Learning is always based on purpose. No learning

takes place without any purpose. Purpose gives directions and thus determines
goals for leaming. The goals determined are based on students leaming needs
as related to their desires, interests, attitudes etc. The teacher needs to set
desirable goals by involving students and considering their needs, desires,
interests etc.

5) Learning is Creative: Learning is a process in which the potentialities within

the individual are created in to actualities both by herhis own initiative and
also by the assistance of others. In simple words it can be said that there are
two dynamic factors in creative learning and these are: i) the natural responses
of learner's mind i.e. internal force and ii) intellectual guidance from the.
teacher. Both these factors are vital. But, it is the learner who decides and
makes choices out of internal motivation as to what, how and when to do in
response to the demands of existing situation. Thus learning results in new
organization of knowledge and pattern of experiences which has not
happened before. The leamer develops unique and distinctive pattern of
behaviour and that is what the creative learning is.

6) Learning is Transferable: This characteristic of learning implies that what is

learnt in one context or situation will apply or affect another situation. True
learning transfers but it depends upon understanding of principles, concepts,
their relationships which have been generalised by the learner and applied
deliberately to the solution of practical problems. The teacher should provide
opportunities and should see that nursing students apply the principles which
they have learnt in the class room while giving nursing care to the patient.

7) Learning Affects the Conduct of Learner: Learning results in acquisition of

knowledge, skills and brings in change in attitude. This modifies the conduct
of learner.

I
Unitary Individual
and Social
Self-
Active
(purpoclv<] Itreative
+
1 Affects the
Conduct of
Learner
Fig. 2.2: Characterstics of learning
41
Introduction to Nursing

mental events and conditions.

The following series of steps or sequence of mental events of learning process have
been identified:

1) Getting Ready to Learn: The individual has felt needs to learn new response
pattern and abilities i.e. the learner is motivated and ready to learn. For
example, to start with, a nursing student who joins nursing willingly is
motivated to learn nursing knowledge and skills. Teachers and others can help
the learner in creating motivation in herhim. .

2) Setting Goals: Once the individual is motivated, s h e sets goal(s) i.e.

something which s h e wants to attain. The teacher helps to set realistic goals.

3) Meeting Learning Situation: The learner places herhimself in an

environmental situation in which learning stimuli are received to make
choices. The teacher usually selects and arranges the learning situation so that
the learner has maximum opportunity to appraise,the crucial element in the
situation. For example, when the goal is to learn to give nursing care to
patients with medical condition. The student meets situation where experience
of nursing patients with medical condition can be received. The teacher
selects and arranges this learning situation as per needs and level of the
student to learn.

4) Perceiving the Learning Situation: The student *makesappraisal of the

entire learning situation, i.e., collects information about the patients with
specific medical conditions by making observations, asking questions, going
through their recards, discussing with doctor, clinical supervisor etc. Relate
the information with past experience, knowledge gained in the class room.
The teacher guides for malung observation of critical elements and
interpretation of the facts.
5) Making Responses: Once the situation is pQceived and interpretation is Teaching-Learning in
done, the learner reacts to the stimuli and plans learning actions to achieve the Nursing Education
goals. She tries out the actions using already acquired knowledge and psycho-
motor activities. The teacher assists the students in planning alternative
responses and eliminating incorrect responses.

6) Attaining Consequences: If the learning actions (responses) are satisfying,

i.e., helping in attaining goals, the activities are reinforced by the learners to
strengthen her new knowledge/skills/behaviourtill it becomes perfect. If the
learning activities are dissatisfying, the learner needs to re-perceive,
reinterpret, and adapt her responses until consequences are attained. The
teacher helps the learner to reinforce correct responses and strengthen new
skills/behaviour.

7) Integration of New Learning: The learner assimilates new learning and

relates it with what is learnt previously and to apply new learning in variety of
different situations. The teacher provides varied learning opportunities to
integrate knowledge, skills learnt.

2.3.4 Types of Learning

There are three dimensions or types of learning which are separated more fiom the
point of view of discussion. Otherwise all learning is unified and results in acquiring
new behaviour. All the three dimensions are closely interrelated and overlap. These
three dimensions or types of learning are briefly described in this section.

1) ldeational Learning: The ideational learning is carried out in cognitive

domain of the intellect. It is also called as cognitive learning. Cognition refers
to the processes whereby an individual obtains knowledge about anything.
The various cognitive processes are: perceiving, remembering, discriminating,
integrating, abstracting, thinking, problem solving and creating.
In ideational type of learning the learner acquires range of informations
(knowledge) through which concepts (ideas) are clarified, relationships among
concepts are derived and principles are formed. The outcomes of cognitive
learning include knowledge and understanding of facts, concepts; their
relationship and generalization i.e. principles, laws, theories which are
interpreted, communicated and applied in various situations.

2) Skill Learning: The skill learning is carried out in the conative or

psychomotor domain of the intellect more than mere actions or doing of a
thing. According to Curnmins "A skill is a refined pattern of movement or
performance based upon and integrated with perceives demands of the
situation."
The skill therefore, implies the discrimination of the situation and gradual
refinement of performance. Skill learning involves some kind of knowledge,
emotional component according to the situation and sequence of actions.
Some skills, like nurse-patient interaction skills have strong emotional
component, where as some other skills like washing of hands requires more of
'doing' skills.
Skills are learnt by (i) watching attentively the demonstrations given by the
teacher, (ii) listening to the directions and explanation given by the teacher
while demonstration, (iii) giving return demonstration, (iv) doing practice, (v)
actual performance in the live settings:

3) Emotional Learning: Emotional learning is termed as affective state and is

characterized by emotions and feelings. The emotional learning is carried out
in the affective domain of the intellect. The emotional learning results in
. . --
.
Introduction to Nursing formation of attitudes, ideals and values which determine the motive power.
Education The affective state (attitude, values, and ideals) enter into and influence all
other behaviour to greater or lesser extent.

2.3.5 The Factors Affecting Learning and Teaching

Learning does not take place in vacuum. By and large it goes along with teaching
process. Both learning and teaching are always under the influence of certain factors
within the learner, teacher and in the environment-both physical and social.
These factors include:
Intelligence of the learner
Hereditary endowment
Motivation
Good physical health
Maturation
The study habits
Emotional stability
Prejudices, biases etc
The learning experience
The learning situation
The teacher - hisher personality, activities, guidance and instructions
Teaching techniques
The school environment
The presence or absence of some of these factors determines the effectiveness of
learning and teaching. Many of these factors also affect communication process in
teaching learning and are discussed briefly in sub-section 2.4.3.
 Teaching-Learning in
Nursing Education

LEARNING
Communication is the basis of teaching-learning process. Both teacher and
students communicate with each other in teaching-learning situations. Earlier
teaching was done mainly by face-to-face interaction. But now, because of
developments in communication technology, different varieties of media are
available to communicate subject matter to help students comprehend, develop
skills and attitude. It requires knowledge of various new media of communication
and their proper selection to make teaching-learning process much more effective
and efficient. The new media, such as television, programmed computerized
teaching along with the audio-visual material are used not only to supplement
instructions but also for basic instructional communication. The new media can
store and disseminate information, demonstrate skills, make presentation of
analysis and synthesis of problem situation etc.
Media therefore, no more can simply be considered as a teaching aid. They can
relieve the teachers of their function to disseminate the information, demonstrate
etc. Thus, teachers can be left with plenty of time to give individual attention to
students and help them to learn effectively making use of their abilities.
It is therefore, important for nursing teachers to understand the functioning of
communication process in teaching-learning situations may it be class room,
clinical setting and community health nursing settings.
This section deals with definition, concepts and elements of communication;
factors influencing communication, barriers of communication. Communication
media are presented in unit.

2.4.1 Definition and Concept

According to Heidgerken, "Communication refers to the imparting, the conveying
or the exchanging of ideas, knowledge, meanings etc., among individuals through
the medium of a sign of some kind. It may be a symbol such as a word, a cartoon,
a mathematical formula, or it may be energy expressed through body movements,
facial expression etc. However, the primary means of communication in human
beings is through words.
Introduction to Nursing Thus, communication in education is conveying messages from teacher to students,
Education fiom students to teacher, from student to student, from schooVcollege administrator
to teacher etc., the messages conveys the intended meaning to the other person(s).
Effective communication takes into account the person(s) whom messages are
conveyed and the medium of sign i.e. appropriate words (languages), body
language, facial expression, variety of audio-visual aids etc.
2.4.2 Elements of Communication Process
There are 4 major elements or components of communication process. These
include: 1) the source, 2) the message, 3) the channel, 4) the receiver. Each of these
elements is briefly explained in this section.
1) The Source
There is always a source of communication from where ideas or purposes are
perceived to be communicated to receiver(s) to produce desired responses. In
education by and large it is the teacher who is responsible to effect desired changes
in students' behaviour, is the source for communication. She perceives and defines
purposes which would produce desired responses in students (receivers). The
teacher then encodes (transforms) identified ideas/purposes into message by
making use of their intellectual capacities, speaking, writing, drawing,
demonstrating abilities to achieve desiredlintended responses.
At times teacher makes use of mediated source to copmunicate or to assist her to
communicate the desired message to students. For example, television, radio,
motion picture etc. Here, the source is not the teacher. The source is the producer
who, produces the instructional material. But, the teacher needs to select such
media carefully to be useful to produce desired responses.
The effectiveness of communication is influenced by certain factors within the
source which are discussed under sub-section 2.4.3.
2) The Message
The ideas/purposes or the intended goals and objectives which are perceived and
identified by the teacher (source) are coded (translated) into message, which is
communicated to students (receiver) to bring undesired changes in them. The
message is thus the objective based instructional material which is communicated
by the teacher to students to promote learning. It implies that communication of
message is not simple giving of information by the teacher and memorizing of facts
by the students but it is helping students to be active, creative do self study and
make use of programmed teaching learning material, films, television etc.
The effectiveness of communication of message depends upon (i) the objectives
and the purposes of message, ~(ii)the coding of purposes into message, (iii) the
knowledge, the attitude, the skills and the personalities of both, the teacher and
students, (iv) the channel to transmit the message.
3) The Channel
The channel is the medium of communication which helps to transmit messages
from the source (teacher) to receivers (students). In face to face communication,
oral messages are transmitted by spoken words through vocal mechanism and
sound waves and non verbal messages are transmitted by written words or drawing
of pictures and by body language (posture, gesture, facial expression etc) through
muscle system. The channel of communication in this situation includes vocal
mechanism, sound waves and muscle system.
The teacher makes use of variety of Audio-Visual Aids (A-V Aids) as the medium
of communication such as posters, graphic aids, models and specimen, variety of
projected aids, television and radio, recordings, print programmed material,
computerized learning packages etc. The A-V Aids carry messages originated and
prepared either by the teacher or originated and prepared by the producer other than
 the teacher. The teacher makes use of these devices carefully so as to transmit the Teaching-Learning in
selected messages and attain desired responses from her students. Nursing Education

4) The Receiver
The receiver is any person for whom the message is intended. They receive and
decode the message i.e. they listen, read, write, interpret, reason out, judge what
they perceive fiom the message and accordingly respond which can be seen from
their behaviour.
In teaching-learning situation, students are the receivers. They receive and decode
the intended message (i.e., lecture, demonstration etc.) and they respond
accordingly. The responses can be seen by the teacher from their learning behaviour
in the teaching-learning situation, depth in understanding, application of knowledge
in clinical settings etc.
The students' response to stimuli is influenced by factors: (i) related to teacher
(source) which include her communication abilities, knowledge and understanding,
intellectual skills, attitude towards students and her position; (ii) related to students
namely their intellectual abilities, level of maturity, interests, purposes etc; (iii)
I
related to teaching-learning situation which include physical environment, psycho-
social environment, the settings where teaching sessions is conducted, method of .

teaching, A.V. Aids used etc.

The response from the students (now the source) become (get encoded into) stimuli
I (messages) for the teacher. The teacher (receiver now) receives these messages and
I
I
decodes i.e. listens, interprets, reasons out, judges and accordingly responds which
then becomes a message for students. This process of communication from either
side goes on in teaching-learning situation which is presented graphically in Fig.

The source
(teacher)

- Perceives
and
identifies

0 Ideas
0 Purposes
Goats
Objectives

1
A

- Feed Bad(
me=w4
1
Y

Fig. 2.3: Graphic presentation of communication process

Introduction to Nursing
Education

2.4.3 Factors Influencing Communication Process

The effectiveness of communication process gets influenced by various factors.
These factors are related to source (the teacher); the encoding of message (the
teaching lessons, demonstration, the experiences etc.); the channel of
communication; the receiver; and the entire teaching-learning situation. These are
briefly presented in this section.

1) Factors Related to Source (The Teacher)

The factors related to teacher include (i) communication skills, (ii) knowledge, (iii)
intellectual skills, (iv) attitude, and (v) position in socio-cultural system. These are
briefly discussed here for you to understand and be concem about the same.
i) Communication Skills
It refers to verbal writing skills. These skills are affected by the language ability
possessed by the teacher. The teacher who has command over language would be
able to speak and write clearly and precisely and hence will be able to encode
(transform) her message effectively.
ii) Knowledge
The teacher who is knowledgeable i.e. has mastery/thorough comprehension of the
subject matter which she wants to communicate will do so effectively. Teachers
who lack understanding will not be able to communicate effectively. T h y will not
be able to explain the queries posed by the students.
 iii) Intellectual Skills Teaching-Learning in
Nursing Education
These skills include perceiving, memorizing, reasoning, judging, abstracting.
These skills help in understanding of subject matter and its effective
communication to students (receivers).
iv) A~tude
The teacher who has positive attitude towards the subject she teaches, towards her
students and towards herself i.e. who is enthusiastic, shows interest in the subject
she teaches, gives regard to her students and has self confidence, will be able to
communicate effectively.
. v) Position in Socio-Cultural System
The position of the communicator (teacher) in the socio-cultural system, the
expected roles and functions by virtue of that position influence the effectiveness
of communication behaviour. If these roles and functions of nurse instructors1
teachers are not clearly defined, many communication problems may occur which
may interfere with effective communications. For example the position of nurse
instructors in the clinical settings may not be clearly defined and many
communication problems may arise between clinical instructors and service
personnel in relation to students in the clinical setting.
2) The Factors Related to Message
The factors related to message which influence the effectiveness of communication
process include:

i) The Validity of the Message

The validity of the message means that the message is based on the intended
purposes, goals, and objectives and it is able to result in desired learning outcomes
in the receiver (student) i.e. desired change in their knowledge and understanding,
skills and attitude.

ii) The Reliability of the Message

The reliability of the message means that the message is accurate and consistent
and is able to produce desirable behavioural changes.
iii) The Language Used
The language used needs to be simple, understandable, and unambiguous; it
conveys accurate and precise meaning. Technical words and abstract ideas need to
be explained with illustration. Otherwise the message which the teacher
communicates would not be decoded (perceived and understood) by the receiver
(the student). Students may also misinterpret and misunderstand.

iv) The Organisation of the Message

The content of the message should be done in a systematic way based on the
principles af Psychology of learning i.e. fi-om known to unknown, from simple to
complex, from definite to indefinite etc. (refer maxims of teaching sub-section
2.2.3 in this unit). If the content (message) is not organized considering these
principles, it will interfere with communication process in teaching-learning
situation.

3) Factors Related to Channel of Communication

In direct face to face communication, the message is channeled orally (by speech)
through vocal mechanism and sound waves, in writing and by drawingslpictures
through muscle system, non-verbally (body language) through muscle system, and
use of A.V. Aids for assisting in channeling the message. Thus the factors that can
influence communication process in this regard include:
Introduction to Nursing i) The Characterization ofspeech
Education
The various characteristics include the audibility (the volume), the pitch and tone,
and the speed of speech. The speech should neither be loud nor be low otherwise; it
would affect audibility and hence would interfere with communication process.
High pitch and rapid speed would also affect the students' perception of message. It
is therefore, very important for the teacher to develop control over speech.
ii) Condition of Vocal Mechanism
The vocal mechanism is responsible for producing speech. The various parts which
are involved in this mechanism include the larynx, the vocal cords, the tongue, and
teeth to produce normal speech. Anything wrong with any of these parts would
affect-the speech and thereby the communication process.
iii) The Characteristics of Written Words, Drawing, Illustration etc.
These include the legibility, clarity, accuracy, preciseness, appropriateness etc. of
the words, drawings, illustrations used to convey the right meaningful 'message. It is
very important for the teacher to be careful about these aspects of written message,
drawing and illustration etc.
iv) The Use of Body Language (Non-Verbal)
The teacher needs to be careful about non-verbal communication (body language)
as it can communicate definite information which can have positive or negative
meaning e.g. eye contact of teacher with all students conveys regard and interest in
all the students which is very important for reinforcing positive attitude towards
learning. Too much of eye contact to some may be embarrassing while little
contact to others may convey disregardldisinterest. No eye contact to any one
conveys shyness, disinterest or boredom and distorts learning behaviour. Body
gestures e.g. nodding of head indifferent directions conveys agreement or
disagreement, shrugging of shoulders conveys no idea, shaking of fist- anger, fast
hand clapping- encouragement or approval whereas slow hand clapping conveys
disapproval and sa on. Similarly, the posture and facial expression may reveal
emotional level, discomfort attitude etc.
v) The Type and Nature of A. K Aids
The type and nature of A.V. Aids used would influence the effectiveness of
communication of message. The teacher need to consider the message to be
communicated, the students whom message is to be communicated, socio-cultural
aspects, feasibility, teacher's own competencies etc. while making selection of A.V.
Aids. The A.V. Aids should be valid, appropriate, accurate, attractive, be able to
involve students, and need to be used appropriatively otherwise; it may interfere
with channeling of message.
4) Factors Related to Receivers (Students)
The factors related to receiver which affect communication process include:
i) Students 'Abilities and their Level of Knowledge
If the message received is beyond their level of comprehension, then they will not
be able to understand, interpret, reason, and judge and will not be able to respond.
The purpose of iqhmunication process thus will not be served. If the message
received is elementary, below their level, then they may get bored. It is therefore,
very important /or the teacher to prepare the meisage considering the students'
abilities and letel of knowledge.
ii) Students:' Readiness
Students readiness refers to their state of mind to participate in communication
process effectively. If students are disturbed, emotionally unstable or have no
interest; their state of mind is such that they would not be able to receive and
perceive the message properly and would not respond meaningfully and
purposefully. Thus, the purpose of communication process would not be served. Teaching-Learning in
Nursing Education
It is therefore, very important for the teacher to make sure that students are ready
of the message.
iii) Students 'Motivation
Students need to be motivated to participate actively in communication process.
Motivation arouses interest of students. Once they are motivated, they become
interested and they are able to concentrate. They listen and write the message, try
to understand, interpret, judge, and accordingly respond which give feed- back to
the teacher (the source) who takes further action to serve the purposes of
communication.

5) Factors Related to Communication Environment

Environment include physical as well as social environment. Environment
contributes to motivation of students. The teacher needs to see to the
arrangements of lighting, furnishing, teaching equipment etc. There should be
proper discipline among students. All this would help in effective decoding of
message by the concerned students and their effective response and feed back.

2.4.4 Barriers of Communication

There can be number of baniers which can interfere the communication process
and distort the communication. These are categorized and presented graphically.

L
Intellectual
l-l
Environmental

Level of Uncomfortable
understanding seating'

Lack of Uncomfortable
knowledge climatic
conditions
Misinterpretation
of words lack of privacy

Low lQ Noise

Ill-ventilation
and ill-lighting

Fig. 2.4: Barriers of Communication

Introduction to Nursing
Education

2.5 LET US SUM UP

This unit began with section on teaching followed by learning and a sectioil on
communication in teaching-learning.
The section on teaching included definitions explaining its concepts and nature and
characteristics. We then discussed the general principles and maxims of teaching,
role of a teacher as visualized by renowned educationist and identified the functions
and qualities of a teacher.
In-section on learning, we presented definitions of learning given by- different
authors, explained its concepts as revealed by these definitions, briefly discussed
its characteristics, series of steps or sequence of mental events of learning process
which can effect change in behaviour. The dimensions or types of learning and the
factors affecting learning and teaching an also highlighted.
In the last section the importance of communication in teaching-learning, its
concepts, elements the various factors influencing communication process and the
barrier of communication an also be explained. In the next unit you would read on
teaching and instructional methods.

2.6 KEYWORDS
Abstract : Existing in theory rather than practice, not
concrete
Affective Learning : Refers to emotional learning which results in
formulation of attitudes.
Cognitive Learning : Learning related to knowledge. Teaching-Cearning in
Nursing Education
Conative Learning : Refers to skill learning.

Concrete : Existing in material form, real, definitend,

abstract.
Decoding : Perceiving and interpretation of message
received and accordingly giving the response.
Encoding : Transforming of identified ideas/purposes into
information (message) by making use of
intellectual capacities, oral speech, in writing,
drawings, demonstration etc.
Harmonious Relationship : In harmony with each other, i.e., to be sweet
and sound, in agreement with each others.
Interactive Teaching : It refers to teaching activities in which teacher
Activities and student participates, influence each other to
attain desired objective.
Motivation : Stimulating interest.

Natural Urge : Inborn drives/desires.

Passive Listener : Inert (inactive) listener.

The Channel : The medium of communication of message.

2.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1

1) Teaching refers to activities that are designed and performed to produce

change in student (pupil) behaviour. (Clark 1970)

2) Underlying concepts of teaching are:

Teaching is an interactive process between teacher and student.
Teaching is goal directed.
'e Teaching is based on students' intellectual capacity.
Teaching takes place in a situation having controllable and
uncontrollable factors.
Teaching is the task of a teacher who imparts informations and
motivates, guides and encourages students to learn.

3) Teacher must consider the following points

Whom to teach?
Why to teach?
What to teach?
How to teach?
Where to teach?

4) The distinctive features of teaching are:

Teaching is giving information and imparting knowledge.
Introduction to Nursing Teaching is causing te learn.
Education
Teaching is helping students to adjusthespond to their environment.
Teaching is guiding students.
Teaching is stirhulation and encouragement.
Teaching is both science and an art.
Teaching is social service.

Check Your Progress 2

1) Good teaching means effective and efficient teaching. It implies teaching is

according to the level of students and it helps students in gaining expected
knowledge, skills, and attitudes.

2) General principles of good teaching are:

a) Principle of setting definite goals and objectives.

b) Principle of student centeredness.
c) Principle of motivation.
d) Principle of individual difference.

e) Principle of activity or learning by doing.

f) Principle of active involvement and participation.

3) The other two general principles of good teaching are:

a) Principle of connecting with life: The effective learning takes place

when teaching is done in the social context and linked with the life
experiences.

b) Principle of planning teaching and its effective strategies: It is very

important for the teacher to plan lesson content, teaching aids, teaching
methods, teaching-learning activities and an outline of the plan to be
implemented. This way the teaching becomes objective based. It helps
in following all the principles of teaching. The learning is also more
effective.

4) The maxims of teaching are:

Proceed fiom known to unknown.
Proceed fiom simple to complex.
Proceed from indefinite to definite.
Proceed from concrete to abstract.
Proceed from particular to the general.

Proceed inductively.

Check Your Progress 3

1) Functions of a teacher are:

a) Creating and maintaining desirable learning environment.

b) Motivating students to learn.
 Arranging for conditions which would provide opportunities to develop Teaching-Learning in
c) Nursing Education
desired comprehension, competencies, and attitudes.

d) Utilizing the initiatives and natural urges of students to facilitate

learning.

e) Guiding and helping students to develop creative,abilities.

f) Guiding and helping students to develop inductive and deductive

abilities.

2) Qualities of a good teacher are:

A good teacher:

a) has mastery of the subject matter,

b) is skillful and artistic in teaching methods and in guiding learning,

c) treats each individual as unique and recognizes individual differences,

d) encourages self learning,

e) keeps the students active and disciplined, and

f) is kind and sympathetic.

Check Your Progress 4

1) Heidgerken's definition of learning: "Learning may be defined the mental

activity by means of which knowledge, skills, attitudes, appreciations, and
ideals are acquired resulting in the modification of behaviour. The
modification comes through knowledge and experience; it involves no
additions or subtractions of knowledge and experiences as such, but rather
implies something new which has not existed for that individual before.
Learning is the addition of new knowledge in the light of past knowledge and
experience."
2) Learning is Unitary
Learning is Individual and Social
Learning is Self-active
a Learning is Purposive
Learning is Creative
Learning is Transferable
Learning affects the conduct of learner

Check Your Progress 5

4) Getting ready to learn
Setting goals
Meeting learning situation
Perceiving the learning situation
Making responses
Attaining consequences
Integration of new learning
Introduction to Nursing 2) a) Ideational learning
Education
b) Skill learning

c) Emotional learning

3) Ideational learning: The ideational learning is carried out in cognitive

domain. It is also called as cognitive learning. In this the learner obtains
knowledge through which concepts are clarified, relationship among
t
concepts are understood, generalizations are deriv d. The knowledge is
obtained by cognitive processes such as perceiving, remembering,
discriminating, integrating, evaluating, imagining, thinking, problem
solving, and creating.
4) a) Intelligence of the learner.
b) Physical health.
c) Emotional stability.
d) The learning situation.
e) The teacher.
Cbeck Your Progress 6

1) Communication refers to the imparting, the conveying or the exchaneng of

ideas, knowledge, meaning etc; among individuals through the medium of a
sign of some kind such as words, visuals, illustrations, body gestures, facial
expression etc.
2) a) The source
b) The channel
c) The message
d) The receiver

3) Source is the primary channel in the communication process. Source is the

origin of ideas or purposes. It is the communicator who is the source, and
perceives ideadpurposes to be communicated. In education by and large it' is
the teacher who is responsible to effect desired behavioural change in
students, is the source for communication. Helshe perceives educational
purposes, encode (translate) them into clear messages to be communicated to
students (receivers). ,
At time the teacher makes use of mediated source (A.V. Aids) such as T.V.,
radio, motion pictures etc., to communicate desired messages which are
produced by producer (the source other than teacher). The teacher needs to
select carellly to effect desired behavioural changes.

Cbeck Your Progress 7

.I) Communication skills.

Intellectual skills. ,

Attitude.
Position in sociocultural system.
Validity of the message. Teaching-Learning in
Nul-sing Education
Reliability of the message.

Language used.
Organisation of message.
Characteristics of speech.
Condition of vocal mechanism.
Characteristic of written words, drawing, illustration etc.
Use of body language.
Type and nature of A.V. Aids.
Students' abilities and their level of knowledge.
Students' readiness.
Students' motivation.