COURSE MODULE

Nancy Getalado-Lanuza., Ph.D.

Associate Professor I

College of Computing and Information Sciences

Bachelor of Science in Information Systems

2020

 VISION
A provide of relevant and quality education to a
society where citizens are competent, skilled,
dignified and community- oriented.

MISSION
An academic institution providing technological,
professional, research and extension programs to
form principled men and women of competencies
and skills responsive to local and global
development needs.

QUALITY POLICY
Northwest Samar State University commits to
provide quality outcomes-based education,
research, extension and production through
continual improvement of all its programs, thereby
producing world class professionals.

CORE VALUES
Resilience. Integrity. Service. Excellence.

INSTITUTIONAL GRADUATE OUTCOMES

Creative and critical thinkers
Life-long learners
Effective communicators
Morally and socially upright individuals

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 About the Professor
Dr. Nancy Getalado-Lanuza is a graduate of Doctor of Philosophy in Computer Engineering
at Hannam University, Daejeon, South Korea. She was a grantee of the Korean Government
Scholarship Program during his doctorate studies. She also obtained Master of Science in
Information Technology in 2003 at Hannam University, Daejeon, South Korea which was a
special program by the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) and Hannam University..
She teaches Introduction to Computing, Database Management Systems, Systems Analysis
and Design, Management Information Systems, Educational Innovation and Technology and
other related courses.

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 Rationale

The purpose of this course module is to provide students with knowledge and understanding
social and professional issues in the field of information technology. It contains three (5)
modules. Before reading the lessons, the module outcomes are presented so that students will
know of what is expected from them after completing the module. After reading all the
topics, students are required to answer the post-test to assess the knowledge and learning that
they have gained. In addition to post-test, several case study will be required in order to give
students an opportunity to apply the concepts and theories that they have gained in their
readings. Each module should be completed in three (3) weeks’ time; hence, all requirements
should be submitted in a specified period.

As the student explores the module, he or she is guided with a Learning Plan. The learning
plan outlines the learning and development activities to be undertaken by each student in
achieving the desired outcomes.

Course Code: IS 201

Course Title: Systems Analysis and Design 1

Course Description:

This course will provide the student with the opportunity to think systematically and how
information systems help organizations. This course will introduce to the students to the concepts
and skills of system analysis and design. Each student is expected to present a system design using a
CASE tool. It includes use cases, process models, data models and interface designs.

Course Outcomes:

At the end of the course, students must be able to:

1. Use systems thinking to analyze business processes and identify problems and opportunities
that can be solved and supported by technology solutions.
2. Apply appropriate tools, methods, models, techniques in systems analysis and design.
3. Develop and defend a project design proposal to different audiences.

Course Content:

The table below shows the outline of the topics to be discussed in the lecture per week vis-
à-vis the course outcomes. It is designed based on the course syllabus approved by the
college Dean in the College of Information and Computing Sciences.

Week Learning TOPICS Assessment

Outcomes
LO1. Use systems -Systems Thinking Essay Exam
thinking to analyze -Context of Systems Analysis and Design Output Presentation
business processes and Methods Case Presentation
identify problems and -Systems Development in an Organizational
opportunities that can Context
be solved and Information Systems Building Blocks
supported by
technology solutions.

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 LO2. Apply appropriate Requirements Analysis Essay Exam
tools, methods, models, Output Presentation
techniques in systems Case Presentation
analysis and design.
Data Modeling and Analysis Essay Exam
Process Modeling and Analysis Output Presentation
Interface Design Case Presentation

LO3 System Design Essay Exam

Develop and defend a Output Presentation
project design proposal Case Presentation
to different audiences.

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Course Requirements:
In general, the requirements of IS 302 are as follows:
§ Case Studies
§ Quizzes and exams

Grading Criteria:

Requirement/Assessment Task Percentage

Major Course Output 50%
Major Exams 30%
Class Standing 20%
TOTAL 100%

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 Module 1
Module Title: SYSTEMS THINKING AND OVERVIEW OF SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
AND DESIGN

Module Description:
This module gives you an overview of systems thinking and an overview of of systems
analysis and design. It will give you an understanding of what systems thinking is, what is a
system, what characterizes a system and the importance of purpose in a system. Also, it gives
you an introduction of what systems analysis and design is.

Module Outcomes:
At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. Understand and relate systems thinking in different situations.

2. Recognize the overview of systems analysis and design.

Learning Plan
Lesson 1: Systems Thinking

Lesson Outcomes:
1. Define and understand systems thinking.
2. Define systems and differentiate it to a collection.
3. Recognize the elements, characteristics and types of systems.

Let’s read:

What is Systems Thinking?

What exactly is systems thinking? In simplest terms, systems thinking is a way of seeing and
talking about reality that helps us better understand and work with systems to influence the quality
of our lives. In this sense, systems thinking can be seen as a perspective. It also involves a unique
vocabulary for describing systemic behavior, and so can be thought of as a language as well. And,
because it offers a range of techniques and devices for visually capturing and communicating about
systems, it is a set of tools.

It’s important to remember that the term “systems thinking” can mean different things to
different people. The discipline of systems thinking is more than just a collection of tools and
methods – it’s also an underlying philosophy. Many beginners are attracted to the tools, such
as causal loop diagrams and management flight simulators, in hopes that these tools will help
them deal with persistent business problems. But systems thinking is also a sensitivity to the
circular nature of the world we live in; an awareness of the role of structure in creating the

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conditions we face; a recognition that there are powerful laws of systems operating that we
are unaware of; a realization that there are consequences to our actions that we are oblivious
to.

Systems thinking is also a diagnostic tool. As in the medical field, effective treatment follows
thorough diagnosis. In this sense, systems thinking is a disciplined approach for examining
problems more completely and accurately before acting. It allows us to ask better questions
before jumping to conclusions.

Systems thinking often involves moving from observing events or data, to identifying
patterns of behavior overtime, to surfacing the underlying structures that drive those events
and patterns. By understanding and changing structures that are not serving us well (including
our mental models and perceptions), we can expand the choices available to us and create
more satisfying, long-term solutions to chronic problems.

In general, a systems thinking perspective requires curiosity, clarity, compassion, choice, and
courage. This approach includes the willingness to see a situation more fully, to recognize
that we are interrelated, to acknowledge that there are often multiple interventions to a
problem, and to champion interventions that may not be popular.

Why Use Systems Thinking?

Systems thinking expands the range of choices available for solving a problem by broadening
our thinking and helping us articulate problems in new and different ways. At the same time,
the principles of systems thinking make us aware that there are no perfect solutions; the
choices we make will have an impact on other parts of the system. By anticipating the impact
of each trade-off, we can minimize its severity or even use it to our own advantage. Systems
thinking therefore allows us to make informed choices.

Systems thinking is also valuable for telling compelling stories that describe how a system
works. For example, the practice of drawing causal loop diagrams forces a team to develop
shared pictures, or stories, of a situation. The tools are effective vehicles for identifying,
describing, and communicating your understanding of systems, particularly in groups.

When Should We Use Systems Thinking?

Problems that are ideal for a systems thinking intervention have the following characteristics:

• The issue is important.

• The problem is chronic, not a one-time event.
• The problem is familiar and has a known history.
• People have unsuccessfully tried to solve the problem before.

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What Is a System?

In the most basic sense, a system is any group of interacting, interrelated, or interdependent parts
that form a complex and unified whole that has a specific purpose. The key thing to remember is
that all the parts are interrelated and interdependent in some way. Without such interdependencies,
we have just a collection of parts, not a system.

Collections Versus Systems

Let's illustrate this point with the following exercise. Take a look at the list of items below and
determine for yourself which ones are systems and which ones are just collections of parts. Ready, set,
go!
• Bowl of fruit
• Football team
• Toaster
• Kitchen
• Database of customer names
• Tools in a toolbox
• A marriage

So, which ones are systems and which are merely collections? This question isn't as easy to answer
as it might seem at first. Your responses depend on what assumptions you are making about the
item in question. Let's walk through each example (starting with the simpler ones first) and make
our assumptions as explicit as we can.

Kitchen, database of customer names, and tools in a toolbox. These are all collections,
because none of them meets our original criteria of interrelatedness and interdependence. Even
though the kitchen itself is full of systems (refrigerator, microwave, dishwasher), it is still just
a place that has a collection of systems and other elements in it. None of those things
interrelate or interact in an interdependent way. (Note, though, that once humans enter a
kitchen, they, together with the other elements, form a system. It's a curious fact, but whenever
you add people to a collection, you almost always transform a collection into a system!)

Football team and toaster. Both are systems. Notice that in addition to our criteria of
interrelatedness and interdependence, a team and a toaster are each put together for a specific
purpose. Indeed, purpose acts as the predominant organizing force in any system. If you want to
understand why a system is organized in a particular way, find out the system's purpose.

Bowl of fruit. Most people would classify this as an obvious collection, because the pieces of fruit
are not interrelated in any way and do not interact with each other. In truth, however, they are
interacting—at a microscopic level. For instance, if you put certain fruits together, they are apt to
decay faster because they interact at a molecular level. Someone for whom these interactions are
important (a fruitologist?) might even consider this bowl of fruit to be a very interesting system—
one whose purpose is to maximize the biodegrading process.

Marriage. For any of you who saw this one as a collection, please seek marriage counseling
immediately! All kidding aside, the question of whether one has a healthy marriage has a lot to
do with whether the relationship more resembles a collection or a system. Marriage is
essentially a voluntarily chosen state of interdependence with another person (not codependence,
which is something altogether different). This state actually characterizes any long term relationship,
including friendships. Is there anybody among us who has not been reminded by someone that our

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actions have an impact on him or her? Sometimes, that is how we first encounter systems, and how
we learn (often painfully) that we are part of a larger system than we may have realized.

Defining Characteristics of Systems

Systems have purpose. As we saw in the examples above, every system has some purpose
that defines it as a discrete entity and that provides a kind of integrity that holds it together.
The purpose, however, is a property of the system as a whole and not of any of the parts. For
example, the purpose of an automobile is to provide a means to take people and things from
one place to another. This purpose is a property of the automobile as a whole and cannot be
detected in just the wheels, the engine, or any other part.

All parts must be present for a system to carry out its purpose optimally. If you can take
pieces away from something without affecting its functioning, then you have a collection of
parts, not a system. In the toolbox example, if you remove a wrench, you have fewer tools,
but you have not changed the nature of what is in the box. Likewise, if you can add pieces to
a collection without affecting its functioning, it's still just a collection.

The order in which the parts are arranged affects the performance of a system. If the
components of a collection can be combined in any random order, then they do not make
up a system. In our toolbox, it doesn't matter whether the screwdrivers are piled on top or
buried at the bottom of the box (unless, of course, you really need a screwdriver now!). In a
system, however, the arrangement of all the parts matters a great deal. (Imagine trying to
randomly rearrange the parts in your automobile!)

Systems attempt to maintain stability through feedback. In simplest terms, feedback is the
transmission and return of information. The most important feature of feedback is that it
provides information to the system that lets it know how it is doing relative to some desired
state. For example, the normal human body temperature is 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit. If you go
for a run, the exertion warms your body beyond that desired temperature. This change
activates your sweat glands until the cooling effect of the perspiration readjusts your
temperature back to the norm. Or, in our car example, imagine that you are steering your car
into a curve. If you turn too sharply, you receive feedback in the form of visual cues and
internal sensations that you are turning too much for the speed at which you're traveling. You
then make adjustments to correct the degree of your turn or alter your speed, or some
combination of both. If you are a passenger in a car driven by someone who is not paying
attention to such feedback, you might be better off getting a ride with someone else!

The Importance of Purpose

A key to understanding any system is knowing its purpose, either as a separate entity or in
relation to a larger system of which it is a part. In human-made (or mechanical) systems, the
intended purpose is usually explicit and reasonably clear, at least at the outset. The purpose of a
washing machine, for example, is to wash clothes. The washing system is designed so that all
the components work together to accomplish that purpose as effectively as possible.' In
mechanical systems, the purpose is usually "hard-wired" into the design and therefore does not
evolve over time. Your car, for example, was designed to take you places and will continue to
operate with that purpose (provided you do your part in taking regular care of it). You'll never
encounter a situation where you wake up one morning and your car has changed its purpose to
be a lawnmower (though it may turn into a big, heavy, unmoving paperweight!).

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 Living (or natural) systems, on the other hand, are continually evolving and have the
capacity to change their purpose, temporarily or permanently. For example, one of the most
basic assumptions people make about animals is that they are driven only by survival instincts
and the need to pass on their genes. As we deepen our understanding of nature, however,
scientists are discovering that many animals seem to have much more complex set of pur-
poses—some of them quite social—that govern their behavior. (Of course, we humans take it
for granted that we have higher purposes beyond survival.)

Natural and social systems can be far more difficult to understand than nonliving systems,
because we can never know for sure what their purpose or design is. As a result of this inability
to truly know their purpose and design, we tend to take actions in these systems without really
understanding the impact of our actions on the system. Whenever we do this, we risk causing a
breakdown of the system. For example, people smoked tobacco for years before it was discovered
that one of smoking's long-term consequences is lung cancer. Even though we had a fairly good
understanding of the purpose of our lungs, we did not have a sufficient understanding of how the
lungs worked and what impact smoking would have on them—and us—over a long period of
time. Since we aren't the designers of the human body, we have to learn about how it works as a
system largely by trial and error. Similarly, farmers have had to learn about ecological systems in
much the same way, and managers struggle with organizational behavior for the same reasons.
Like the human body, nature and human social systems don't come with an owner's manual.

Despite our ignorance about natural and social systems, we still can't seem to resist attributing
some purpose to them. We even tend to impose a purpose on natural systems and then behave
toward them in a way that is consistent with that purpose. For example, in some countries,
people view dogs as pets for families to enjoy. In such regions, people might treat dogs almost
as members of the family. In other parts of the world, dogs are seen as a source of food, and
people treat them accordingly. In both situations, the practices toward dogs are consistent with
each different, perceived purpose. Neither viewpoint is intrinsically right or wrong, although
each may seem wrong when viewed through the "lens" of the other.

Elements of a System
The following diagram shows the elements of a system −

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Outputs and Inputs
• The main aim of a system is to produce an output which is useful for its user.
• Inputs are the information that enters into the system for processing.
• Output is the outcome of processing.
Processor(s)
• The processor is the element of a system that involves the actual transformation of
input into output.
• It is the operational component of a system. Processors may modify the input either
totally or partially, depending on the output specification.
• As the output specifications change, so does the processing. In some cases, input is
also modified to enable the processor for handling the transformation.
Control
• The control element guides the system.
• It is the decision–making subsystem that controls the pattern of activities governing
input, processing, and output.
• The behavior of a computer System is controlled by the Operating System and
software. In order to keep system in balance, what and how much input is needed is
determined by Output Specifications.
Feedback
• Feedback provides the control in a dynamic system.
• Positive feedback is routine in nature that encourages the performance of the system.
• Negative feedback is informational in nature that provides the controller with
information for action.
Environment
• The environment is the “supersystem” within which an organization operates.
• It is the source of external elements that strike on the system.
• It determines how a system must function. For example, vendors and competitors of
organization’s environment, may provide constraints that affect the actual
performance of the business.
Boundaries and Interface
• A system should be defined by its boundaries. Boundaries are the limits that identify
its components, processes, and interrelationship when it interfaces with another
system.
• Each system has boundaries that determine its sphere of influence and control.
• The knowledge of the boundaries of a given system is crucial in determining the
nature of its interface with other systems for successful design.
Types of Systems
The systems can be divided into the following types −

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Physical or Abstract Systems
• Physical systems are tangible entities. We can touch and feel them.
• Physical System may be static or dynamic in nature. For example, desks and chairs
are the physical parts of computer center which are static. A programmed computer
is a dynamic system in which programs, data, and applications can change according
to the user's needs.
• Abstract systems are non-physical entities or conceptual that may be formulas,
representation or model of a real system.
Open or Closed Systems
• An open system must interact with its environment. It receives inputs from and
delivers outputs to the outside of the system. For example, an information system
which must adapt to the changing environmental conditions.
• A closed system does not interact with its environment. It is isolated from
environmental influences. A completely closed system is rare in reality.
Adaptive and Non Adaptive System
• Adaptive System responds to the change in the environment in a way to improve their
performance and to survive. For example, human beings, animals.
• Non Adaptive System is the system which does not respond to the environment. For
example, machines.
Permanent or Temporary System
• Permanent System persists for long time. For example, business policies.
• Temporary System is made for specified time and after that they are demolished. For
example, A DJ system is set up for a program and it is dissembled after the program.
Natural and Manufactured System
• Natural systems are created by the nature. For example, Solar system, seasonal
system.
• Manufactured System is the man-made system. For example, Rockets, dams, trains.
Deterministic or Probabilistic System
• Deterministic system operates in a predictable manner and the interaction between
system components is known with certainty. For example, two molecules of
hydrogen and one molecule of oxygen makes water.
• Probabilistic System shows uncertain behavior. The exact output is not known. For
example, Weather forecasting, mail delivery.
Social, Human-Machine, Machine System
• Social System is made up of people. For example, social clubs, societies.
• In Human-Machine System, both human and machines are involved to perform a
particular task. For example, Computer programming.
• Machine System is where human interference is neglected. All the tasks are
performed by the machine. For example, an autonomous robot.

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Man–Made Information Systems
• It is an interconnected set of information resources to manage data for particular
organization, under Direct Management Control (DMC).
• This system includes hardware, software, communication, data, and application for
producing information according to the need of an organization.
Man-made information systems are divided into three types −
• Formal Information System − It is based on the flow of information in the form of
memos, instructions, etc., from top level to lower levels of management.
• Informal Information System − This is employee based system which solves the
day to day work related problems.
• Computer Based System − This system is directly dependent on the computer for
managing business applications. For example, automatic library system, railway
reservation system, banking system, etc.

Let’s do this:

When you have read the materials in Lesson 1, test your understanding of the lesson concepts by
answering the following questions:

1. What is systems thinking? Why is it important?

2. Differentiate systems with a collection.
3. Give example of a system and identify its components.

Let’s check:

Upon submission, your quiz will be checked immediately. You must be able to get a 50% passing
percentage using the following criteria:
Excellent Very Good Good Needs
Grading Factors 5 pts 4-3 pts 2 pts Improvement
1 pts
Completeness (5 points) Does your response directly answer each
part of the assignment question(s)?
Knowledge (5 points) Does your response clearly show you have read
and understand the lesson content by correctly defining key terms,
key persons and summarizing concepts? Have you made inferences
based on this knowledge to personal or modern-day applications?
Analysis (5 points) Have you clearly state analysis and give examples
to back them up? Does your response provide analysis to the larger
concepts of the lesson?
Writing Skills (5 points) Do you write clearly, in complete sentences,
with minimal errors in grammar and spelling? Did you use the APA
Method of Citation where needed?

Lesson 2: Context of Systems Analysis and Design Methods

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Lesson Outcomes:

1. Relate systems analysis with systems analysis?

2. Understand the importance of systems analysis and design?
3. Explain what information system is, and identify the types of information system.
4. Identify the information system stakeholders?
5. Understand the role of a systems analyst in acquiring information systems.

Why Systems Analysis and Design?

Systems Analysis
It is a process of collecting and interpreting facts, identifying the problems, and
decomposition of a system into its components.
System analysis is conducted for the purpose of studying a system or its parts in order to
identify its objectives. It is a problem solving technique that improves the system and
ensures that all the components of the system work efficiently to accomplish their purpose.
Analysis specifies what the system should do.
Systems Design
It is a process of planning a new business system or replacing an existing system by defining
its components or modules to satisfy the specific requirements. Before planning, you need to
understand the old system thoroughly and determine how computers can best be used in
order to operate efficiently.
System Design focuses on how to accomplish the objective of the system
System Analysis and Design (SAD) mainly focuses on −

• Systems
• Processes
• Technology

The word “systems” in Systems Analysis and Design focuses on “Information Systems”

Information systems (IS) in organizations capture and manage data to produce useful
information that supports an organization and its employees, customers, suppliers, and
partners. Many organizations consider information systems to be essential to their ability to
compete or gain competitive advantage. Most organizations have come to realize that all
workers need to participate in the development of information systems. Therefore,
information systems development is a relevant subject to you regardless of whether or not
you are studying to become an information systems professional.

Information systems come in all shapes and sizes. They are so interwoven into the fabric of
the business systems they support that it is often difficult to distinguish between business
systems and their support information systems. Suffice it to say that information systems can
be classified according to the functions they serve.

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An information system (IS) is an arrangement of people, data, processes, and information
technology that interact to collect, process, store, and provide as output the information
needed to support an organization.

Information technology is a contemporary term that describes the combination of computer

technology (hardware and software) with telecommunications technology (data, image, and
voice networks).

• Organizations are served by a federation of information systems (not by a single IS).

• Two perspectives of a federation of IS
– Front-office information systems:
• support business functions that extend out to the organization’s
customers (or constituents).

– Back-office information systems:

• support internal business operations of an organization, aw well as
reach out to suppliers (of materials, equipment, supplies, and services).

Types of Information Systems:

A transaction processing system (TPS) is an information system that captures and

processes data about business transactions.

A management information system (MIS) is an information system that provides for

management-oriented reporting based on transaction processing and operations of the
organization.

A decision support system (DSS) is an information system that either helps to identify
decision making opportunities or provides information to help make decisions.

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An Executive Information System (EIS) is an information system designed for top-level
managers that integrates data from all over the organization into “at-a-glance” graphical
indicators and controls.

An expert system is an information system that captures the expertise of workers and then
simulates that expertise to the benefit of non-experts.

A communications and collaboration system is an information system that enables more

effective communications between workers, partners, customers, and suppliers to enhance
their ability to collaborate.

An office automation system is an information system that supports the wide range of
business office activities that provide for improved work flow between workers.

Stakeholders in Information Systems

• A stakeholder is any person who has an interest in an existing or proposed

information system. Stakeholders can be technical or nontechnical workers. They may
also include both internal and external workers.

– System owners
– System users
– System designers
– System builders
– Systems analysts (project managers)

System owners – an information system’s sponsor and executive advocate, usually

responsible for funding the project of developing, operating, and maintaining the information
system.
– They usually come from the ranks of management.
- medium (large) IS: middle (executive) managers
- smaller IS: middle or supervisory

Primary Concerns
- how much will the systems cost?
- how much value or what benefits will the system return to the
business?

System users
– a “customer” who will use or is affected by an IS on a regular basis
• capturing, validating, entering, responding to, storing, and exchanging
data and information
– Make up the vast majority of the information workers in any IS
– Primary concern: get the job done using an IS!
– Internal users
• Clerical and service workers, technical and professional staff,
supervisors, middle managers, and executive managers
– External users

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 • Internet EC consumers, suppliers, partners…

System designer – a technical specialist who translates system users’ business requirements
and constraints into technical solution.
– DBA, Network architects, web designer, security experts…

System builders – a technical specialist who constructs information systems and components
based on the design specifications generated by the system designers.
– Programmers (applications, systems, and DB), network administrators, web
masters..

Systems analyst – a specialist who studies the problems and needs of an organization to
determine how people, data, processes, and information technology can best accomplish
improvements for the business.
Roles:
− Bridge (facilitator) between management and technical specialist: next slide
− Understand both business and computing
− Initiate change within an organization
− Ultimately, a problem solver

Skills Needed by the Systems Analyst

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 • Working knowledge of (existing and emerging) IT
• Computer programming experience and expertise
• General business problem-solving skills
• Good interpersonal communication skills
– Business writing class
– Technical business skill class
• Good interpersonal relation skills
• Flexibility and adaptability
• Character and ethics

Let’s do this:
When you have read the materials in Lesson 2, test your understanding of the lesson concepts by
answering the following questions:
4. How do systems analysis relate to systems design?
5. Why do we need to study systems analysis and design?
6. Give an example of an information system, describe it and identify what type of
information system it is.
7. Given the skills needed for a systems analyst, do you think you can be a systems
analyst? Why or Why not?

Let’s check:

Upon submission, your quiz will be checked immediately. You must be able to get a 50% passing
percentage using the following criteria:
Excellent Very Good Good Needs
Grading Factors 5 pts 4-3 pts 2 pts Improvement
1 pts
Completeness (5 points) Does your response directly answer each
part of the assignment question(s)?
Knowledge (5 points) Does your response clearly show you have read
and understand the lesson content by correctly defining key terms,
key persons and summarizing concepts? Have you made inferences
based on this knowledge to personal or modern-day applications?
Analysis (5 points) Have you clearly state analysis and give examples
to back them up? Does your response provide analysis to the larger
concepts of the lesson?
Writing Skills (5 points) Do you write clearly, in complete sentences,
with minimal errors in grammar and spelling? Did you use the APA
Method of Citation where needed?

Suggested Readings:

Any material on the internet about

-Systems Thinking
-Introduction to Systems Analysis and Design

References/Sources:

Whitten, Bentley, Dittman. “Systems Analysis and Design Methods 7th Edition.” McGraw Hill
Companies. New York, 2007.

Kim, Daniel H. Introduction to Systems Thinking. Pegasus Communications, Inc. 1999.

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