Circuit Theorems

Chap. 4 Circuit Theorems

Introduction
Superposition
Thevenin’s theorem
Norton’s theorem
Source transformations
Maximum power transfer
 Introduction
A large Simplify
complex circuits circuit analysis

Circuit Theorems

‧Thevenin’s theorem ‧ Norton theorem

‧ Superposition ‧ Max. power transfer
‧Source transformation
 Superposition
The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or
current through) an element in a linear circuit is the
algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents through)
that element due to each independent source acting alone.
Turn off, killed, inactive source:
independent voltage source: 0 V (short circuit)
independent current source: 0 A (open circuit)
Dependent sources are left intact.
 Steps to apply superposition principle:
1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find
the output (voltage or current) due to that active source
using nodal or mesh analysis.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the
contributions due to the independent sources.
 How to turn off independent sources

Turn off voltages sources = short voltage sources; make it

equal to zero voltage
Turn off current sources = open current sources; make it
equal to zero current
Superposition involves more work but simpler circuits.
Superposition is not applicable to the effect on power.
 Example 1
Use the superposition theorem to find in the circuit in the
figure.
 Example 1
Since there are two sources,
let
V = V1 + V2
Voltage division to get
4
V1 = ( 6) = 2 V
4+8
Current division, to get
8
i3 = (3) = 2A
Hence 4+8
v2 = 4i3 = 8V
And we find
v = v1 + v2 = 2 + 8 = 10V
 Thevenin’s Theorem
Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit
can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a
voltage source VTh in series with a resistor RTh where VTh is
the open circuit voltage at the terminals and RTh is the input
or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the
independent source are turn off.
 Property of Linear Circuits

i
+
Any two-terminal v Slope=1/Rth
Linear Circuits
- v
Vth
Isc
 How to Find Thevenin’s Voltage

Equivalent circuit: same voltage-current relation at the

terminals.
VTh = voc : open circuit voltage at a − b
 How to Find Thevenin’s Resistance
RTh = Rin :
input − resistance of the dead circuit at a − b.
• a − b open circuited
• Turn off all independen t sources
CASE 1
If the network has no dependent sources:
Turn off all independent source.
RTH: can be obtained via simplification of either parallel or
series connection seen from a-b
CASE 2
If the network has Independent and Dependent Sources.

Find the short circuit current, Isc (current through short circuit
at terminals).

RTH: can be obtained by RTH=Voc/Isc.

CASE 3
If the network has dependent sources
Turn off all independent sources.
Apply a voltage source vo at a-b vo
RTh =
io

Alternatively, apply a current source io at a-

b
vo
RTh =
io
The Thevenin’s resistance may be negative, indicating that the
circuit has ability providing power
Simplified circuit

VTh
IL =
RTh + RL

Voltage divider

RL
VL = RL I L = VTh
RTh + RL
 Example 2
Find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of the circuit shown in
a figure, to the left of the terminals a-b. Then find the current
through RL = 6,16,and 36 Ω.
Find Rth
RTh : 32V voltage source → short
2A current source → open
4 × 12
RTh = 4 || 12 + 1 = + 1 = 4Ω
16
 Find Vth
VTh :
(1) Mesh analysis
− 32 + 4i1 + 12(i1 − i2 ) = 0 , i2 = −2A
∴i1 = 0.5A
VTh = 12(i1 − i2 ) = 12(0.5 + 2.0) = 30V
(2) Alternatively, Nodal Analysis
(32 − VTh ) / 4 + 2 = VTh / 12
∴VTh = 30V
 Example 3
(3) Alternatively, source transform
32 − VTH VTH
+2=
4 12
96 − 3VTH + 24 = VTH ⇒ VTH = 30V
 Example 3
To get iL :
VTh 30
iL = =
RTh + RL 4 + RL
RL = 6 → I L = 30 / 10 = 3A
RL = 16 → I L = 30 / 20 = 1.5A
RL = 36 →I L = 30 / 40 = 0.75A
 Example 4
Find the Thevenin’s equivalent of the circuit in figure at
terminals a-b.
 Example 4
(independent + dependent source case)
To find RTh : Fig(a)
independent source → 0
dependent source → intact
vo 1
vo = 1V, RTh = =
io io
 Example 4
For loop 1,
− 2v x + 2(i1 − i2 ) = 0 or v x = i1 − i2
But − 4i = v x = i1 − i2
∴ i1 = −3i2
 Example 4
Loop 2 and 3 :
4i2 + 2(i2 − i1 ) + 6(i2 − i3 ) = 0
6(i3 − i2 ) + 2i3 + 1 = 0
Solving these equations gives
i3 = −1 / 6A.
1
But io = −i3 = A
6
1V
∴ RTh = = 6Ω
io
 Example 4
To get VTh : Fig(b) Mesh analysis
i1 = 5
− 2v x + 2(i3 − i2 ) = 0 ⇒ v x = i3 − i2
4(i2 − i1 ) + 2(i2 − i1 ) + 6i2 = 0 ⇒ 12i2 − 4i1 − 2i3 = 0
But 4(i1 − i2 ) = v x
∴i2 = 10 / 3.
VTh = voc = 6i2 = 20V
 Example 5
Determine the Thevenin’s
equivalent circuit in
the figure (a).
Solution
(dependent source only case)
vo
VTh = 0 RTh =
io
Nodal anaysis :
io + ix = 2ix + vo / 4
Example 5
But ix = 0 − v v
o
=− o
2 2
vo vo vo vo
io = ix + = − + = − or vo = −4io
4 2 4 4
vo
Thus RTh = = −4Ω : Supplying power
io
Simple Steps to Analyze Electric Circuit through Thevenin’s Theorem

•Open the load resistor.

•Calculate / measure the Open Circuit Voltage. This is the Thevenin Voltage (VTH).
•Open Current Sources and Short Voltage Sources.
•Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Thevenin Resistance
(RTH).
•Now, Redraw the circuit with measured open circuit Voltage (VTH) in Step (2) as
voltage Source and measured open circuit resistance (RTH) in step (4) as a series
resistance and connect the load resistor which we had removed in Step (1). This is the
Equivalent Thevenin Circuit of that Linear Electric Network or Complex circuit which
had to be simplified and analyzed by Thevenin’s Theorem. You have done.
•Now find the Total current flowing through Load resistor by using the Ohm’s
Law IT = VTH/ (RTH + RL).
 Norton’s Theorem
Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit
can be replaced by equivalent circuit consisting of a current
source IN in parallel with a resistor RN where IN is the short-
circuit current through the terminals and RN is the input or
equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent
source are turn off.
i

Slope=1/RN
v
Vth
-IN
 How to Find Norton Current
Thevenin and Norton
resistances are equal: RN = RTh

Short circuit current from a

to b :

VTh
I N = isc =
RTh
 Thevenin or Norton equivalent circuit :

The open circuit voltage voc across terminals a and b

The short circuit current isc at terminals a and b
The equivalent or input resistance Rin at terminals a and b
when all independent source are turn off.

V Th = v oc
I N = i sc
V Th
R Th = = RN
R Th
 Example 7
Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit in the figure.
 Example 7
To find R N
RN = 5 || (8 + 4 + 8)
20 × 5
= 5 || 20 = = 4Ω
25
 Example 7 VTh
IN =
RTh
VTh : open − circuit voltage across terminals a and b

Mesh analysis :
i 3 = 2 A, 25 i 4 − 4 i 3 − 12 = 0
∴ i 4 = 0 .8 A
∴ voc = VTh = 5i 4 = 4V
 Example 7
Hence, VTh
IN = = 4 / 4 = 1A
RTh
 Example 8
Using Norton’s theorem, find RN and IN of the circuit in the
figure at terminals a-b.
 Example 8
To find RN
• 4Ω resistor shorted
• 5Ω || v || 2i : Parallel
o x
Hence, ix = vo / 5 = 1/ 5 = 0.2

vo 1
∴ RN = = = 5Ω
io 0.2
 Example 8
To find I N
• 4Ω ||10v || 5Ω || 2ix : Parallel
10 − 0
ix = = 2.5A,
4 10
isc = ix + 2 ix = + 2(2.5) = 7 A
5
∴ I N = 7A
 Source Transformation
A source transformation is the process of replacing a voltage
source vs in series with a resistor R by a current source is in
parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa
 vs
vs = is R or is =
R
Equivalent Circuits
i i

+ +
v v

- -

v = iR + v s
v
v vs
-is
vs
i = −
R R
Arrow of the current source
positive terminal of voltage source
Impossible source Transformation
ideal voltage source (R = 0)
ideal current source (R=∞)
Example 9
Use source transformation to find vo in the circuit in the
figure.
Example 10
 Example 10
we use current division in Figure(c) to get
2
i= (2) = 0.4A
2+8
and
vo = 8i = 8(0.4) = 3.2V
Maximum Power Transfer

2
 VTH 
p = i RL = 
2
 RL
 RTH + RL 
Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load
resistance equals the Thevenin resistance as seen the load (RL
= RTH).
 2  ( RTH + RL ) − 2 RL ( RTH + RL ) 
2
dp
= VTH  
dRL  ( RTH + RL ) 4

 ( RTH + RL − 2 RL ) 
=V  2
 =0
 ( RTH + RL )
TH 3

0 = ( RTH + RL − 2 RL ) = ( RTH − RL )
RL = RTH
2
V
pmax = TH
4 RTH
 Example 11
Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer in the
circuit of the figure .Find the maximum power.
Example 11
6 × 12
RTH = 2 + 3 + 6 12 = 5 + = 9Ω
18
Example 11
12 − 18i1 + 12i2 , i2 = −2 A
− 15i2 + 12i1 − VTH = 0 ⇒ VTH = 22V
RL = RTH = 9Ω
VTH2 22 2
pmax = = = 13.44W
4 RL 4 × 9