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Transitivity Analyses in Literary and non-Literary Texts: for Truth and

Meaning

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 Transitivity Analyses in Literary and non-Literary Texts:
for Truth and Meaning

Arina Isti’anah
[email protected]
Sanata Dharma University

Abstract
This article is an attempt to display how transitivity analyses work to dig out truth and
meaning in both literary and non-literary texts. Though transitivity analyses are often
conducted by people interested in linguistics to observe non-literary texts, they are also
applicable in literary texts. Critical analysis on texts can avoid misleading interpretations to
the readers, thus truth and meaning can be attained. When talking about literary texts,
transitivity analyses are utilized to find out how the writers portray certain characters and
bring certain issues in their works. In non-literary texts, transitivity analyses are used to find
out how language is used to influence people and bring groups’ ideologies. As a result,
objective interpretations about texts can be reached by conducting transitivity analyses.

Key words: transitivity, literary, non-literary, texts

Introduction
There are various types of meanings in language use: lexical, grammatical, discourse,
and pragmatic meanings (Poedjosoedarmo, 2000: 15). Furthermore, Poedjosoedarmo
proposes that, “As long as an item is capable of a contrast, it has meaning. A certain word
order that has a contrast has a meaning (15).” Language users are free to choose words in order
to convey meanings. Meanings are not only related to what are heard, but also what are
interpreted by the receivers. In order to have appropriate interpretation and truth,
comprehending word choice is necessary to do.
In language use, meanings are closely related to grammatical and discourse meanings.
Grammatical meaning deals with the meaning of word order (or phrase order, or clause order)
in a sentence, the use or absence of an item in a sentence, the use of an elaboration or
abbreviation of a certain component in a sentence, and the use of different types of prosody
(Poedjosoedarmo, 16). Discourse meanings can be expressed in various ways: single
utterance, repetition, statement, request, command, question, exclamation, positive or
negative forms, active or passive forms, normal plot, flashback, straightforward, round, or
code switching (Poedjosoedarmo, 16-17).
To gain truth and meaning, the in-depth observation of language use in various texts
which uses contrast word order is needed. Fairclough (1995) points out that the words used in
a spoken or written form can be said as texts. Therefore, we can say a monolog, conversation,
speech, or notice regardless it is written or spoken as a text (Isti’anah, 2012:11). Analyzing
texts not only focuses on the text itself, but also to its context. Butt et al. define that a text is
a harmonious collection of meaning appropriate to its context (2000). Consequently, the
analysis of context cannot be separated from text analysis.
Butt et al. propose two perspectives in context, named context of culture and context of
situation (2000). Droga and Humprey assert that the context of culture refers to the broad
socio-cultural environment that includes ideology, social conventions and institutions (2002).
What happens in the place where the text is produced influences the text. The writer’s styles
and stories, in literary texts for example, cannot be separated from the context of culture.
Research on postcolonial texts cannot be separated from the analysis of the country where the
text is produced or the writers who come from the country.
The context of situation refers to the metafunctions of language: field, tenor, and mode
(Butt et al., 2000). Halliday proposes the metafunctions of language in his theory of Systemic
Functional Linguistics (SFL). In SFL, the language elements are the resource to create the
meanings (Isti’anah, 2012:15). Thus, words become the main data to observe the context of
situation in text analysis. The metafunctions of language are also described in other words:
ideational (field), interpersonal (tenor), and textual (mode) functions.
Halliday describes that the ideational function is the function that the speaker or writer
embodies language in his experience of the phenomena of the real world, which also includes
the language user’s experience of the internal world of his consciousness through his reactions,
cognitions, and perceptions, and also his linguistic acts of speaking and understanding (2004:
170). Zhuanglin (1988) adds that the ideational function not only specifies the available
options in meanings but also determines the nature of their structural realizations (cited in
Wang, 2010).
The interpersonal function deals with how the language user builds his/her relationship
to others. Halliday asserts that an interpersonal function refers to the interaction between the
speaker and addressee(s) that becomes the grammatical resources for enacting social roles in
general and speech roles in particular (2004). The modality analysis is commonly used in the
observation of text focusing on this function. How language users show their optimism, for
instance, can be observed through the choice of certain modals.
The textual function is related to how language users wrap their messages. Downing and
Locke point out that mode is about how the message is arranged or packaged in different ways
and the different forms highlight different aspects of the message (2006). In this function, the
analysis of theme-rheme is employed. How language users choose the first constituents in
clauses reveal how they pick the most important message to convey to the receivers.
In the ideational function, language is observed through transitivity analysis. Morley
defines that transitivity aims at identifying the participants or things which are involved, the
actions and event taking place, and any relevant surrounding circumstances (2000: 9). The
verbs in clauses become the means to categorize the process, thus participants in clauses. The
previous statement is a proof of Halliday’s theory that meanings are created from wordings.
Meanings here do not refer to what people perceive from language, but why the language users
choose the words in language: the users’ ideology.
Transitivity has been employed by language scholars who are interested in text analysis.
The existence of CDA to facilitate them analyze texts is welcomed as papers employing CDA
are easily found. Woods says, “Critical discourse analysis aims to unpack the ‘common-sense’
social and cultural assumptions (or ideologies) which, below the level of conscious awareness,
are embedded in all the forms of language that we use (2006: 50).” The previous tempting
purpose clearly attracts linguists to observe various kinds of texts with CDA as an approach,
as stated in the beginning of this paper that context cannot be separated from text analysis.
The context of situation becomes the attention of linguists, as wording is the main source of
the observation. The investigation of each employment of either ideational, interpersonal, or
textual function has been exercised in both literary and non-literary texts. however, this paper
only focuses on how transitivity is used to observe literary and non-literary texts.

The Overview of Transitivity

In transitivity, clause is the grammatical unit that can show what happens in a text. Dijk
(2008) adds that analyzing the action-process of a discourse is one of the ways in doing CDA.
In the transitivity system, the meaningful grammatical unit is the clause since it expresses
what is happening, what is being done, what is felt and what the state is and so on (Wang,
2010). There are six processes in the ideational function, namely material, mental, verbal,
relational, behavioral and existential processes.
Material Processes
A material process is understood as the process of doing or happening in the transitive
or intransitive clause. Matthiessen and Halliday (1997) propose that looked from above, a
material clause construes of doings and happenings which include actions, activities, and
events. In other words, the material process is an arrangement of a process and participants
involved that require some input of energy to occur and when the participant is likely to
undertake a change. Thus, the energy flow marks the material process. Halliday (2004) points
out that the material clauses construe the procedure as a sequence of concrete changes in the
trees brought about by the person being instructed-the implicit you. The participant that
becomes the source of energy bringing about the change is called an Actor. Other participants
may be found in material processes: Goal, Affected, and Agent.
Mental Processes
A mental process is the process of sensing or feeling. Downing and Locke (2006) state
that mental processes are those through that we organize our mental contact with the world.
Furthermore, Halliday (2004) explains that mental clauses are concerned with our experience
of the world of our own consciousness. There are clauses of sensing: a ‘mental’ clause
construes a quantum of change in the flow of events taking place in our own consciousness.
The process may be construed either as flowing from a person’s consciousness or as impinging
on it; but it is not construed as a material act (197). There are two participants in mental
processes, namely a Senser and a Phenomenon. Halliday (2004) defines a Senser as the one
that senses, feels, thinks, and wants to perceive, while a Phenomenon is the participant which
is felt, thought, wanted, or perceived, the position is in a sense reversed. It may not only be a
thing but also an act or a fact.
Verbal Processes
A verbal process is understood as the process of saying. Halliday (2004) elaborates
that a verbal process is an important resource in various kinds of discourse. Halliday (2004)
adds, “The verbal clauses contribute to the creation of narrative by making it possible to set
up dialogic passages (252).” The use of a verbal process, thus, is seen as an appropriate way
to covey the speaker’s ideas to the addressee(s). There is always one participant representing
the speaker called a Sayer. A Sayer is the participant that says. The additional participants in
verbal clauses are Receiver, Verbiage and Target.
Relational Processes
A relational process is known as the process of being. Halliday (2004) defines that a
relational process is the process to say that experience is modeled as being. There are three
types of relational processes, namely attributive, identifying and possessive processes. The
meaning of an attributive is that “X is a member of the class A” (Eggins, 2004). There are two
participants named a Carrier and an Attribute. An identifying process has a Token and a Value
as the participants. A Token is the participant being defined, while a Value is the participant
which defines. The last type of relational processes, possessive, is defined as the process of
ownership and possession between clausal participants (Eggins, 2004). Lock (1996) argues
that the possessive process includes relationships of part to whole and of ownership.
Furthermore, Lock (1996) characterizes that the possessive process clauses normally select
simple present for now references, and continuous tenses in general are seldom used.
Behavioral Processes
A behavioral process is the process of behaving. Eggins (2004) says that behavioral
processes are mid-way between materials on the one hand and mental on the other. They are
parts about action, but it is action that has to be experienced by a conscious being.
Furthermore, behavioral are typically processes of physical and psychological behavior. Some
behavioral in fact contrast with mental process synonyms, e.g. look at is behavioral but see is
mental (Eggins, 2004). A behavioral process has one participant only, Behaver. A Behaver is
typically a conscious being (like the Senser in a mental process). A behavioral process
functions more like one of doing than one of thinking/feeling. If there is another participant
which is not restatement of the process, it is called a Phenomenon (Eggins, 2004). Eggins
(2004) adds that Behavioral are half-semantically and grammatically between mental and
material process.
Existential Process
An existential process is understood as the process of existing. Eggins (2004) defines
that an existential process represents experience by positing that there was/is something.
Existential is easy to identify since the structure involves there. It as a dummy can also marks
an existential process such as, “It is a book on the table”. It is present in the clause as the
Subject. Existential processes typically employ the verb be or its synonymous such as exist,
arise, and occur. An Existent is the only obligatory participant. Eggins (2004) explains that
an Existent usually follows the there is/there are sequence, may be a Phenomenon and is often
in a Fact or an Act (nominalized action).
Circumstances
The occurrence of a circumstance in a clause can be realized in various forms. Eggins
states that circumstances can occur with all processes types and usually marked by adverbial
groups or prepositional phrases (2004: 22). Downing and Locke summarize that
circumstances are related to place and time, manner, instrument, contingency,
accompaniment, modality, degree, role, matter, and evidence (2006). A Circumstance of
contingency covers the meanings of cause, purpose, reason, concession, and behalf (Downing
and Locke, 2006: 156). The question what cause? is used to indicate the cause. What…for? is
used to know the purpose. Why? is to analyze the reason. To know the concession, despite
what condition? can be asked. Behalf is asked by who/what for? To know the condition, the
question under what condition? can be tested.

Transitivity in Literary Texts

Literary texts are understood as fictional texts since they contain literature: creative or
imaginative writing of a specifically aesthetic kind (Pope, 2002: 60). Literary texts become
the magnet not only for people who love literature, but also linguistics. Literary work has been
appreciated in numerous ways. The Literary appreciation is likely to focus on authors, works,
genres, social movements and even whole national literatures (Pope, 59). The development of
literary appreciation to literary criticism has invited people to apply post-structuralism,
postmodernism, feminist, lesbian/gay, new historicism, Marxist, and post colonialism
(Isti’anah, 2013). Those approaches observe literary text and its context with different point
of view. They are also able to give deeper understanding of literary texts.
As text analysis also attracts scholars from different field of study, stylistics lightens
them to conduct literary text analysis.Transitivity is included as the ideational function of
language to observe what happens in the text, meaning to see the relation among words in a
clause. The choice of verbs determines the type of process in a clause. As a result, different
process appears. The choice itself is not without purpose. In literary text, the writer has its
purpose why a character is described in material process.
Brooks applies transitivity to observe Van Wyk’s poem entitled ‘In Detention’ (2010).
Here is the poem.
He fell from the ninth floor
He hanged himself
He slipped on a piece of soap while washing
He hanged himself
He slipped on a piece of soap while washing
He fell from the ninth floor
He hanged himself while washing
He slipped from the ninth floor
He hung from the ninth floor
He slipped on the ninth floor while washing
He fell from a piece of soap while slipping
He hung from the ninth floor
He washed from the ninth floor while slipping
He hung from a piece of soap while washing.
(Van Wyk, 1979, cited in Brooks, 2010)
In the above poem, Brooks mentions that the only transitive clause in the poem is “He hanged
himself” (lines 2, 4 and 7), repeated three times. “He” in lines 2,4, and 7 performs as an Agent
who conducts an action hang. However, the Goal in the transitive clauses fund in the poem
are himself, which refers to the Agent itself. In short, the involvement of Agent and Goal in
the poem reveals that the Agent commits suicide. Brooks concludes that, “The agency is
completely deflated because of the self-affecting process within the transitive clause (2009:
28).” The existence of Goal is actually not really significant in the poem as it refers to the
Agent.
In the intransitive clause, Brooks mentions that the occurrence of Goal is omitted as in
“He hung from...’ (lines 8, 12, and 14). Brooks finds that the material process being ‘hung’
and the medium being the ‘He’ implies that the agency is completely omitted. Consequently,
Brooks questions if there is the implicit agency of another participant. The behavioral
processes found in the poem reveal that the Behaver is distanced from the reasons behind the
processes (29). In the lines ‘He fell...’, Brooks assumes that it can be accidental or partially
intentional. Brooks says, “If it is intentional, on one level, the behavioral process could imply
the ‘He’ was pushed, causing him to fall (29).”
Another application of transitivity in literary text is done by Cunanan (2011) to observe
how Woolf, the writer, uses language in Old Mrs. Grey. In literary criticism, biographical
approach is applied to know why the writer of a literary text choose certain theme or language
style in his/her writing. In linguists’ point of view, observing language use by the writer is
equipped by stylistics, in this matter using transitivity analysis. Cunanan mentions, “....those
who can use a working knowledge of the language system enjoy a greater capacity for
insightful awareness of the effects of language produced by literary texts (70).” Consequently,
the way scholars appreciate literary texts is enriched by the offer of stylistics.
In his research, Cunanan finds out that the work of transitivity is able to reveal how
Woolf portrays the main character in her work, Old Mrs. Grey. Woolf uses existential process
the most (35.49%) since the text deals with the very agonizing existence of Mrs. Grey, marked
by the verbs: come, went, sat, was running, go, don’t go, pass, came, was gone, went out, is
lit up, flying, shall cling, lives, were, crumble, dissolve, seems, is, was, continue, is folded,
stopped, jerked, stood, was, trying to escape, wriggling, wriggled, and settled (Cunanan, 76).
Cunanan concludes that Woolf provokes and shocks the readers of this poignant essay by
deviating from the norms and conventions of writing (75). Furthermore, Cunanan finds that
Woolf uses wide range of narrative devices like interior monologue, soliloquy, ambiguity,
loosely arranged plot, moments of illumination, and private images.
Transitivity can also be applied to observe a children’s song. Gusrayani investigates
clauses in a children’s song to reveal why the song is written in certain language structures.
In her research, Gusrayani (2008) finds out that the song is presented in the material process,
found in 80%. The dominating material process in the song is actually in an attempt to
accommodate concrete operation in children’s mind (Piaget in Gusrayani, 68). Children will
catch the message easier since what they hear in the song is something can be practiced and
seen. The teacher usually imitates or uses gestures while singing. As a result, children will
receive the message in the song more clearly.

Transitivity in non-Literary Texts

Non-literary texts can be found easily in printed or online media: news, opinions,
advertisements, editorial, and many others. News becomes fruitful data to observe by linguists
since this text provides the latest issue or information which happens to a certain society. News
is not merely about reporting events, but it can be utilized to show power by particular group
of people. To prove that, transitivity is chosen by scholars to figure out what behind the text
is.
When Jakarta was about to hold its election in 2012, people commented the issue as
the candidates came from different background and cities. Isti’anah conducts transitivity
analysis to observe people’s opinions about the elections. She mentions that various
backgrounds of the candidates give them new hopes since the previous governors failed to
solve Jakarta problems (2014: 173). In the media, the election was exposed widely. As a result,
people give their opinions in various media: Facebook, blogs, twitter, television, radio,
newspapers, and the others. In her research, Isti’anah focuses on observing language use in
people’s opinions published by The Jakarta Post.
Based on the research, Isti’anah finds that material process dominates the opinions,
realized in 57.5% (166). The participant is the material clause is various. The existence of
Jakarta people as the Actor signals the importance of the election for them. Jakarta people are
chosen as the Actors to reveal that they are the Doers who have authority and energy to
conduct certain actions. It is also realized when the candidates appear as the Affected, Goal,
or Recipient (Isti’anah, 2014: 173). In sum, the voters are put as the powerful figure to
determine the future of Jakarta, whether they elect the correct choice or not. It is also supported
by the findings that the candidates are put in the passive clause as the Affected or Goal. In the
other words, people demand the next governor to make a change.
Another research of transitivity in non-literary text is conducted by Manan (2001). He
applies transitivity in news media to reveal how Anwar and reformasi movement is depicted
in the media. The language choice in the media influence the way the readers perceive the
message brought by the media (Isti’anah, 2014: 162). In his research, Cunanan argues,
“...language in news coverage plays a pertinent role in the construction of social reality.
Indeed, news is a practice, a discourse which does not reflect reality in a neutral manner but
helps to “interpret”, “organise” and “classify” this reality (35).” Furthermore, Cunanan
mentions that transitivity is the very “foundation of representation” as it enables the analysis
and interpretation of a particular event or situation in different ways (38).
For instance, the choice of Actor in the material process reveals that Anwar is
portrayed as the powerful participant in different types of clause: Agent in material clause,
Senser in relational clause, and Sayer in verbal clause. Cunanan asserts,
By putting him in such a focal position, we are able to see him clearly as an entity who
is powerful and whose actions can directly affect others. Anwar certainly is powerful
as he is Malaysia’s Deputy Prime Minister. Placing him in such a focal position,
however, brings forth a serious implication: that Anwar had misused his powers as
Deputy Prime Minister (43).

In the media, Anwar is not only portrayed as the more powerful entity but also a “perpetrator”
of crimes (Cunanan, 46). The verbs in the media prove the previous finding, for examples:
sodomised, plotting, committed, used, directed, dictated, took, gave, and pressured. Cunanan
says that such language justifies the swift removal of a person who is seen to be inimical to
national development, the national interest, and political stability. The language choice in the
media reinforces the dominant discourses of the government (46).
Mineshima (2009) utilizes transitivity of news texts. News writers are expected to
choose language use carefully as news becomes a fruitful source to be interpreted variously.
The writers can choose certain vocabulary to be neutral or provoke the readers. In her research,
Mineshima gives examples, “...“Protesters” in one newspaper might find themselves
described as “rioters” in another, the dividing line between “the fact” and “the opinion”
obviously becoming blurred depending on the subjective judgment of the newspaper (101).
Mineshima observes two British newspaper which discuss Japanese government’s whaling
policy.
The first text Mineshima observes uses material process most (40.9%), while text B
uses relational process the most (39.3%). Mineshima describes, “This may indicate that Text
A construes the world more in terms of actions and happenings with Ocalan at its center (see
Table 4) whereas Text B does so more in terms of static beings and relations, where emphasis
is more on abstract attributes and identifications in line with the hypothetical approach of the
writer to Text B (105).”
Experientially, the transitivity analysis established that Text A is predominantly
material-oriented with Ocalan prominently represented as Actor whereas Text B is
 relational-oriented with Castro portrayed only as Sayer. In other words, Text A
foregrounds Ocalan as a dynamic and dangerous figure whereas Text B depicts Castro
as a loud but harmless character. Text B’s frequent use of agentless passives also
contributes to Castro’s inconspicuousness (114).
The quotation above reveals that the choice of words in media is able to construct certain
figures. Consequently, media become important part in constructing people’s opinion to
famous figures in a country.

Conclusion
Transitivity is offered by SFL as an attempt to see how wordings work in context, i.e.
context of situation. Transitivity analysis supports the claim that contextual meaning is the
“real meaning” of a symbol when it is used in its concrete context (Poedjosoedarmo, 18).
Transitivity is applicable to observe both literary and non-literary texts and invites scholars to
draw how characters in a literary text are portrayed, whether they are narrated as powerful or
weak ones, shown by wordings in the text. Similarly, in non-literary texts, transitivity is able
to figure out how language users are able to portray certain figures, put certain groups as the
most important or powerful ones in a society.

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