DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 416 673 FL 024 971

AUTHOR Wenden, Anita L.

TITLE Learner Training in Foreign/Second Language Learning: A
Curricular Perspective for the 21st Century.
PUB DATE 1998-01-00
NOTE 38p.
PUB TYPE Information Analyses (070) Reports Descriptive (141)
EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.
DESCRIPTORS Classroom Techniques; Educational Strategies; Language
Research; *Learning Strategies; Second Language Instruction;
Second Language Learning; *Second Languages; Skill
Development; *Study Skills

ABSTRACT
This review of literature and discussion focus on the
explicit training of second language learners in learning strategies and
techniques. The history of learner training--teaching how to learn-in second
language instruction is traced from the early 1900s, and its goals
(educational, personal, and social) are outlined. Metacognitive strategies
(planning, monitoring, and evaluating skills) and affective strategies the
individual can use to manage learning, strategies for processing learning,
and the knowledge (person, task, and strategic) needed to understand the
learning process are explained. Suggestions are made for curriculum
developers and teachers wishing to design learning plans to promote
.

autonomous learning. These include deciding on the priority to be given to

learner training, whether to separate learner training from language
training, and incorporating learner training with the pedagogical task and/or
at the level of syllabus design. A variety of indirect and direct methods for
implementing learner training are then described. Roles of teacher and
learner in these processes are also examined. Contains 134 references. (MSE)

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Learner training in foreign/second language learning:

A curricular perspective for the 21st century

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
Office of Educational Research and Improvement

Anita L. Wenden "PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS

MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION
CENTER (ERIC)
This document has been reproduced as
York College received from the person or organization

City University of New York Ppc;.\-s-- J. originating it.

Minor changes have been made to
January 1998 \\\C-E-r\ea.irN improve reproduction quality.

Points of view or opinions stated in this

document do not necessarily represent
INTRODUCTION TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES official OERI position or policy.
INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."

The introduction of new methods or materials into our classrooms invariably requires
behavioral change, the extent of which varies depending upon the nature of the innovation. Using
group work as an alternative to frontal instruction, for example, requires that students learn how to
work in groups. For CAI to be effective they need to know how to use computers and how to learn
from that medium. When the innovation is a new teaching methodology, the behavioral changes
will be more extensive and profound, causing change in student and teacher roles as well as the
beliefs and related values underlying them.

Learner training is one such innovation which has extensive, profound, and even dramatic
consequences for the language teaching curriculum. While it may be included among the learner-
centered innovations that have re-defined our teaching methods and the content of our teaching
syllabi over the last two decades, learner training is not about teaching. Rather, it intends to bring
to our attention the underside of teaching, i.e. learning, and the second key actor in the
teaching/learning process, the learner. Its aim is to help the learner learn how to learn and, to that
end, to make learning the main construct by which we view what happens in whatever context
instruction is offered, i.e. the classroom, the self-access center, student-teacher conferences, distance
learning, informal settings.

Manuals or language learning guides, which appeared in the early 1900's, may be considered
an early form of learner training. Inspired in part by the development of structural linguistics, they
were written for expatriates who found themselves working in a foreign country without the benefit
of formal language training and even, in some cases, a codified analysis of the language they would
need to use. However, it was not until the 1970's that the notion of learner training as a valid
activity for foreign/second language teaching and learning was conceived. With the development
of autonomous language learning in Europe (cf Abe, Stanchina, Smith 1975; Stanchina 1976) and
the initiation of the successful language learner research in North America (cf Rubin 1975; Naiman,
Frohlich, Stern & Todesco 1978) a direction was set, which charted the course of future research
and practice.

Therefore, the late 70's and the 80's saw a slow but gradual implementation of self-directed
learning and/or cognitive strategy instruction in ESL, EFL, and to a lesser extent, in other FL

3EST COPY AVAILABLE

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programs on a global scale. Since the late 1980's and continuing on until the present, the results of
these efforts have been made visible in publications dealing primarily with learner training and
related curricular issues 1 (e.g. Dickinson 1987; Ellis & Sinclair 1989; O'Malley & Chamot 1990;
Cohen 1990; Oxford 1990; Wenden 1991; Rubin and Thompson 1994; Mendelsohn & Rubin (eds)
1995); the formation of special interest groups dedicated to improving the learner (i.e. the Scientific
Commission on Learner Autonomy (ALLA); the Special Interest Group on Learner Development
(JALT); Special -Interest Group on Independence in Language Learning (IATEFL); the Hong Kong
Association for Self-Access in Learning and Development (HASALD), each of which publishes a
newsletter. Several specialized conferences or symposia on learning to learn and/or learner
autonomy were also held between 1990 and 1995 (i.e. Sweden 1991; 1995; Finland 1993; The
Netherlands 1993; Hong Kong 1994), each one with a publication of its proceedings (Biddle &
Malmberg (eds) 1991; Huttunen (ed) 1993; Dickinson & Wenden (eds) 1995; Eriksson & Miliander
1995; Pemberton, Li, Or, & Pierson (eds) 1996).

This monograph is based on a review of this body of recent literature dating from the late 80's to the
mid 90's, and on selected literature from the mid 70's to the mid 80's. 2 The review sought to
determine what these descriptions of the theory and practice in learner training 3 revealed
regarding the following curricular questions:

What are the overall goals of learner training?

What are the learning objectives of learner training?
How does one incorporate learner training into language training?
What instructional methods should be used to implement learner training?
How does learner training influence the role of the teacher & the learner?

The analysis of the literature as it relates to each of these key questions further seeks to make
explicit the alternatives that individual teachers or curriculum developers will need to recognize and
evaluate as they develop and implement learning plans to help their students learn how to learn.
Finally, the paper intends to provide an overview of the state of the art in learner training as it enters
its third decade of development. Concluding comments will summarize insights gained from the
review to highlight areas where further development is needed.

GOALS OF LEARNER TRAINING

Views regarding the purpose of learner training vary in scope and intent. While most give
priority to educational goals, a few also point to the personal or social goals that are served by these
educational goals.

Educational goals
By far the greater majority of practitioners explicitly stress the importance of learner training
for learner autonomy, generally defined as the ability to take responsibility for or take charge/take
control of one's own learning. (e.g. Holec 1981; Carver 1984; Huttunen 1986; Mueller-Verweyen
1996; Victori & Lockart 1995; Cotterall 1995; Dickinson 1995; Dam 1995b; Oxford 1990;Oxford
 3

& Leaver 1996; Nishitani 1994; Wenden 1991; Balbi 1993; Ellis & Sinclair 1989.)

According to Ho lec (1985b) this training should prepare learners to direct their own learning
so that they may, gradually, move from a state of dependence on a teacher to the greatest degree of
independence or autonomy possible in a particular set of circumstances. Thus self-directed learning
is the realization of a learner's potential for autonomy and often it is referred to as a goal in its own
right, being used interchangeably with learner autonomy (cf for example, Victori & Lockart 1995;
Lee 1996; Thomson 1996; Eriksson 1993; Moulden 1990; Sullivan & Parkinson in Wenden 1991;
Kohonen 1991; Carver 1984).

In some cases, learner empowerment is presented as a stated goal (e.g. Chamot & Rubin
1994; Chamot & O'Malley 1994; Rubin, McKay, Mansoor 1995; Smith 1994; Kenny 1993). This
term adds a political connotation to learner autonomy or self-direction, especially when learner
training goals are articulated in terms of giving learners the opportunity to reclaim responsibility for
and control over their own education (Abe, Stanchina, Smith 1975); of taking greater control or
their learning (Voller & Pickard 1996); of autonomy as a right learners have (Mueller-Verweyen
1996). For some, the need for learner autonomy extends beyond the foreign/second language
classroom and beyond the time learners spend acquiring another language. Therefore, learner
training activities are expected to prepare learners for lifelong learning (e.g. Westhoff 1990,
Eriksson 1993, Dam 1995b, Shiels 1993, and Thomson 1996).

It is also acknowledged that autonomy is a matter of degree (e.g. Kohonen 1991; Dickinson
1987; Nishitani 1994). Learner training is seen as taking learners "further along the road to full
autonomy" (Voller and Pickard 1996); as aiming for a greater degree of responsibility for their
learning (Dickinson 1992) or expanding learning autonomy (Dickinson 1995b). Moreover, the
degree of autonomy exercised may depend upon many factors, such as the topic of study, the type
of learning task, a learner's awareness of task demands, her level of competence, degree of
confidence, mood (Sinclair 1996) or on the range of self directed learning skills a learner has
mastered (Dickinson 1987).

A second educational goal for learner training is a competent learner. According to the
advocates of this view, learner training should aim to make language learners, especially the less
successful, more effective as learners (e.g. Mendelsohn & Tyacke in Wenden 1991; Eriksson 1993;
Ellis and Sinclair 1989; Chamot 1993; Rubin and Thomson 1994; Oxford 1990;Oxford & Leaver
1996; Cohen, Weaver and Li 1995) as readers (Hosenfeld et al 1993) or listeners (Mendelsohn
1995; Rubin, Mckay, Mansoor 1995; Thompson & Rubin forthcoming). However, in striving for
effective learning, learner trainers are advised that they need not and probably cannot transform all
learners into the ideal "successful" language learners. Rather they should be helped to learn a
language efficiently in ways compatible with the cognitive and psycho-social characteristics that
they bring to the task (Gremmo & Riley 1996).

Personal Goals
In promoting learner autonomy, learner training is also viewed as contributing towards
 4

personal development. While developing learners' awareness regarding the learning process, the
learning task, and personal factors that affect learning, educational activities that promote learner
autonomy will also help learners to be more competent persons (Kohonen 1991); 'artists of their
own lives' (Ignatieff 1990 cited in Little 1990); they (these educational activities) can lead to self-
actualization (Huttunen 1986), personal fulfillment (Eriksson 1993), the exploration of learners' self-
concept, the realization of personal and group potential, and personal autonomy (Kenny 1993).
Such views expand the significance of autonomy beyond effective self-direction (Kenny 1993) and,
by implication, enhance the educational value of learner training.

Social goals
The notion that the promotion of autonomy in educational contexts cannot be divorced from
the wider social context has also been put forward. Holec (1981: 1) situates autonomy in foreign
language learning within the broader context of those innovations in adult education prompted by
a definition of social progress based on respect for the individual in society. Responding to these
socio-political tendencies characteristic of the late 1960's, European adult educators attempted to
re-shape adult education so that it would help individuals develop abilities that would enable them
to act more responsibly in running the affairs of their society. Thus, by teaching adults how to take
charge of their language learning, a capacity assumed to be transferable to other social contexts,
foreign language educators would contribute to the overall needs of the wider society for improving
the quality of life through the exercise of responsible autonomy (Eriksson 1993; Shiels 1993;
Wenden 1994).

For Benson (1995; 1996) autonomous learning can be justified if it helps students become
critically and socially aware. To this end, he recommends that learner training help learners to
become aware of the social context of their learning, exercise control of the institutional
management of learning and effect change in educational institutions as needed. In other words,
learner training should enable learners to become effective agents of change within their educational
context.

CONTENT OF LEARNER TRAINING

It is generally agreed that learner training should help learners develop their expertise as learners,
i.e. learn how to learn (e.g. Ellis & Sinclair 1989; Allwright 1981; Dickinson & Carver 1980;
Wenden 1991; Biddle & Malmberg (eds) 1990; Huttunen (ed) 1993; Little (1991). What guidance,
therefore, does the learner training literature provide teachers and curriculum and materials
developers regarding the content of the learner training ? What learning objectives lead to
autonomous and efficacious learning ? Holec (1981) suggests that to be autonomous, learners need
the know-how and knowledge necessary to assume responsibility for their learning, thus providing
a general framework for curriculum planning which the research and practice has considerably
developed and specified during the last two decades.

The know-how for learning

Foreign and second language educators dedicated to determining what autonomous and
 5

expert learners should 'know-how' to do have received considerable guidance from the theory and
research in adult education and cognitive psychology. Learner training in Europe adapted to the
purposes of foreign language learning one of the key theoretical notions guiding program
development in adult education, namely self-direction. Autonomous learners were defined as those
learners who had acquired the 'know how' to self-direct their learning and the learning objectives
of learner training are primarily to help language learners acquire the ability to plan, monitor and
evaluate their learning.

On the other hand, learner training in North America was influenced by theoretical insights
on the nature of learning drawn from cognitive psychology. These insights provided guidance in
the documentation of learning behaviors of the good language learner and the notion of learning
strategies became an alternate construct for shaping objectives in learner training, expanding the
notion of language learner 'know-how' to include two sets of skills or strategies: metacognitive and
cognitive, each with distinct functions.

Metacognitive strategies are utilized in the management of learning and are, in fact, another
designation for the three self-directed language learning (SDLL) skills referred to in adult
education--planning, monitoring and evaluating. In contrast, cognitive strategies are mental steps
or procedures that are utilized in the processing of learning. These strategies enable learners to deal
effectively with language input by enabling them to (1) attend to incoming information (2)
comprehend what they attend to (3) store this new learning in long term memory so that (4) retrieval
is facilitated. While there are only three main metacognitive strategies or skills for SDLL, cognitive
strategies are numerousmany specific to a learning domain and its related learning tasks. (Wenden
1991) 4

Strategies for managing learning

The early literature on self-directed language learning, which shaped subsequent practice, is
unaminous in the belief that to self-direct or manage their learning, autonomous learners must be
able to plan, monitor, and evaluate (cf Dickinson, 1987; Holec 1981; Carver 1984).

Planning The complexity of the planning process is illustrated in Table 1, which provides
a summary of the various planning procedures referred to in the literature on self-directed learning
(e.g. Abe, Stanchina and Smith 1975; Holec 1981; Carver 1984; Holec 1985a ; Huttunen 1986;
Dickinson 1987; Oxford 1990; Cotterall 1995; Mueller-Verweyen 1995;Rubin 1995; Wenden
1991a; 1995a; 1995b; Martin-Peris 1996; Kelly 1996; Thomson 1996; Thompson & Rubin
forthcoming). These procedures are used to plan learning activities with one or more learning
objective in mind. On the other hand, the learner strategy research has identified specific planning
strategies, such as advance organizers, directed attention, functional planning, selective attention,
which can be used at the outset of one particular learning task (cf OMalley & Chamot 1990; Oxford
1990)
 6

PLANNING SUB SKILLS

determining whether or not to take on a learning task

clarifying needs
goal setting
prioritizing goals
setting objectives
defining content and progression
determining place and time
selecting learning strategies
choosing materials and tasks
selecting an assessment measure

Table 1

Monitoring While monitoring is always included in the definition of self directed learning
(cf for example, Dickinson op cit; Holec op cit), few practioners or researchers have attempted to
determine the scope and procedures that constitute this key metacognitive strategy. Chamot,
Kupper et al (1990) refer to eight kinds of monitoring, depending upon what is being monitored (i.e.
comprehension, production, style, strategy, plan) and whether one uses the eye or ear to make
decisions). As regards the procedures that constitute the scope of monitoring, the differences
among the descriptions attempted suggest some of the issues that have yet to be resolved (Table 2).
That is, does one monitor only language use with a special focus on accuracy of product? (Chamot
& O'Malley 1994; Oxford 1990) or the process of learning as well? (Rubin 1987; Wenden 1991;
Little 1991) What procedures should be included in the actual process of monitoring? problem
identification and cause? (Wenden 1991; Little 1991) attempts to remediate? ( Chamot & O'Malley
1994; Oxford 1990; Rubin 1987) Is monitoring the same as evaluation? (Thomson 1996; Eriksson
1993) or is evaluation a procedure within a broader monitoring process? (Rubin 1987)
 7

MONITORING: SOME DEFINITIONS

RUBIN (1987)
1) problem identification
2) determining a solution
3) deciding on the action to be taken
4) making a correction
5) evaluating the action

OXFORD (1990)
1) identifying errors in language use
2) determining which ones are important
3) tracking the source of important errors
4) trying to eliminate such errors

WENDEN (1991); LITTLE (1991)

1) problem identification
2) assessment of the cause

CHAMOT 1994
1) checking, verifying or correcting one's performance in the course of a language task

THOMSON (1996)
1) assessing one's progress
2) adjusting one's plans

Table 2

Evaluation Evaluation has been referred to as the backbone of the learning process (Dam
1995a); part of the learning process at par with setting objectives; helping learners decide about
the continuation or modification of their learning activities (Stanchina & Holec 1977). According
to Stanchina & Holec (op cit), evaluation is a form of self-assessment whereby learners judge their
achievement against their own criteria, in accordance to their own learning objectives and learning
expectations. This suggests that helping learners learn to evaluate should include not only mastery
of the procedures that define the strategy but also the ability to define the criteria that will serve as
a basis for their judgment.

The sub-skills or mental procedures that constitute this strategy have been identified as a
review and a rating (Thomson 1996) and review, elicit criteria, and evaluate (Wenden 1991);
checking against internal measure of completeness and/or accuracy (Chamot & O'Malley 1990).
The literature also notes that the focus of the review and the eventual rating should not be limited
to the product of learning but also include the process (cf Stanchina & Holec 1977; Holec 1985a;
 8

Huttunen 1986; Thomson 1996; Little 1991; O'Malley & Chamot 1990; Westhoff 1993; Dam
1995a); the extent of learning (Chamot, Kupper et al 1990; Little 1994); one's aims and their
relevance (Eriksson 1993); one's ability to perform the task (Chamot, Kupper et al 1990). Criteria
have also been suggested for evaluating both product and process of learning (cf Stanchina & Ho lec
1977; Ho lec 1985a) and instructional procedures for helping learners learn to evaluate have been
devised (cf Oxford 1990; Ellis & Sinclair 1989; Nishitani 1994; Westhoff 1993).

The range of learning activities that is the focus of planning, monitoring and evaluating varies
in scope. On the one hand, they can be used to manage a set of multiple learning tasks serving one
or more learning objectives over an extended period of time (cf Wenden 1991). This broad based
approach to planning, monitoring and evaluating typifies the learner training practice which places
primary emphasis on self-directed learning. On the other hand, these strategies can be applied more
narrowly to the deployment of a single cognitive strategy used to complete a particular learning
task, as when one inferences while reading. This narrower application of these three strategies in
learning typifies their use in learner training that focuses primarily on cognitive strategy instruction.
In such cases, planning, monitoring and evaluating are ancillary to cognitive strategy instruction.

Affective strategies Affective strategies are a second category of strategies deemed important
to the self-management of learning (cf Oxford 1990; Chamot & O'Malley 1994; O'Malley & Chamot
1990). While strategies for self management deal with cognitive processes essential to learning,
affective strategies are intended to manage attitudinal, motivational, and emotional factors. Specific
strategies that can be used to lower anxiety, encourage oneself, and to raise affective concerns to
awareness are described in Oxford (op cit) and Chamot & O'Malley (op cit).

Strategies for processing learning

One outcome of the learner strategy research has been taxonomies of cognitive strategies that
can serve as a guide in the development of learning plans (cf Rubin 1987; Chamot 1987; O'Malley
& Chamot 1990; Oxford 1990). Generally, the strategies listed in these taxonomies can be classified
as facilitating either the selection of new information (e.g. selective attending), its comprehension
(e.g. elaboration, inferencing) storage (e.g. summarizing, outlining, mnemonics) or retrieval (e.g.
formal or functional practice). Strategies have also been organized in terms of the four language
skills whose use they facilitate (e.g. Cohen 1990; Oxford 1990; Rubin & Thompson 1994) thus
pointing to the task specific nature of cognitive strategies.

Insights from the learner strategy research have been translated into strategy instruction, which
has been the primary content for learner training in North America. While some of this earlier
strategy instruction focused on strategies necessary for a variety of academic tasks (cf Chamot &
O'Malley 1986; 1987), instruction has now begun to focus on separate lanaguage skills. Thus,
cognitive strategies are seen as key to the ongoing improvement of fluency in reading (Westhoff
1990; 1993; Mendelsohn & Tyacke in Wenden 1991: Cotterall 1990a; 1990b; Biddle & Malmberg
1990; Pakenham 1994); listening (Ellis & Sinclair 1989; Mendelsohn & Rubin 1995; Rubin,
McKay, Mansoor 1995; Thompson & Rubin (forthcoming) and speaking (Rubin 1988; Ellis &
Sinclair 1989; Rubin & Thompson 1994; Cohen, Weaver & Li 1995).

9
 9

Knowledge for learning

In the literature there has been a continuous reference to the need for learners to develop and
revise their acquired knowledge about the learning process. Learning how to learn, it is advised,
should be a matter of first developing knowledge about learning processes and about oneself as a
learner (Dickinson 1987). Working with and on learners' acquired knowledge is viewed as key to
the development of competent learners and essential to the success of self-directed learning
programs (Gremmo & Riley 1995; for similar views of Holec 1981; 1990; 1994; Wenden 1986;
1987; 1991; 1995; Horowitz 1987; Victori 1992; Little 1994; Victori & Lockart 1995; White 1995;
Eriksson 1993; Chamot & O'Malley 1994; Benson 1996; Carrell 1995 cited in Hosenfeld 1995;
Allwright 1993; Cotterall 1993; Dam 1995a).

To that end, it is recommended that learners be helped to become aware of their beliefs
about learning (Wenden 1986); their own learning processes (Dickinson 1987; Dam 1995b; Eriksson
1993; Cotterall 1995); their learning styles and the expectations they hold about language learning
(Little 1990; Victori & Lockart 1995; Cotterall 1995); the techniques that they use (Dickinson 1987;
Cotterall 1995); the metacognitive and affective factors in learning (Little 1994; Cotterall 1995).
It is expected that such awareness will provide a basis for developing their knowledge about
language learning and recognized that this knowledge base will need to be evaluated, revised, and
expanded. Therefore, it is further recommended that learners' be exposed to expert views about
the role of cognitive and affective variables in language learning, for example, and about how
language works and how to approach language learning, including the role of strategies (Cotterall
1995; Holec 1994; Wenden 1991; 1995b; Gremmo 1984 in Gremmo & Riley 1995).

Concepts for guiding lesson planning and materials and curriculum development around this
second key component of learner training are derived from the literature on metacognition (e.g.
Brown et al 1983; Flavell 1979). Adapting Flavell's categories of metacognitive knowledge for the
purposes of learner training, Wenden (1991) has defined three kinds of knowledge learners may
have acquired and/or will need to further refine and develop, namely person, task and strategic
knowledge.

Person knowledge Person knowledge consists of general knowledge about the learning
process, e.g. the cognitive and affective factors that can either inhibit or facilitate language learning
(Wenden 1991) and self-knowledge (White 1996; Kohonen 1991). Self knowledge refers, first of
all, to beliefs learners hold about how the various cognitive and affective factors that influence
language learning apply in their experience; secondly, to what they know about their acquired
proficiency as language learners and language users. For example, how do they go about learning
and with what success? How fluent are they in the language skills that are the focus of their
learning? Finally, learners will also bring to the task a set of beliefs about their role in language
learning.

The practice in learner training acknowledges the importance of person knowledge.

Learner manuals are examples of materials, specifically devised for learner training, which include
and describe the categories of person knowledge referred to above, e.g. differences between left-
 10

brain and right-brain functioning (Brown 1989); the relationship between IQ and language learning;
the potential for expanding one's memory; age and FL learning; psychological and sociocultural
predispositions for learning (cf Brown 1989; Rubin & Thompson 1994).

Tasks have also been developed for helping learners refine their self-knowledge, e.g.
knowledge about their attitudes towards autonomous learning (Kohonen 1991); the affective factors
that influence their learning (Ellis & Sinclair 1989; Sinclair 1996); their rights in using the
languages they learn (Benson 1996); their preferred way of learning (Tholin 1995); their preferred
learning strategies and their linguistic proficiency (Ellis & Sinclair 1989); their role in learning
(Vaughan in Wenden 1991; Tholin 1995; Holec 1981; 1990).

Task knowledge Task knowledge refers to what learners need to know about a task's purpose
(why do it); its demands (i.e. how to go about doing it) and its general type (how to classify it).
Specific references to the importance of learner training in one or other of the three components of
task knowledge point to a recognition of the role task knowledge plays in helping learners learn to
learn.
For example, it is recommended that learners learn about the purpose of language learning
in general (Benson 1996); the purpose and significance of a particular task (Wenden 1991; 1995b;
Sinclair 1996); the aim of an exercise (Tholin 1995; Holec 1990); the purpose of a method....a test
(Holec 1990). It is also considered important for learners to be able to classify a task, i.e. to
understand the nature of language and communication and learning (Holec 1994; Wenden 1991;
Cotterall 1996); of vocabulary, grammar, communication skills (Ellis & Sinclair 1989); to determine
if the task is a new type of task or one that is being recycled (Sinclair 1996; Wenden 1995a; 1991;
Chamot 1995; Chamot & O'Malley 1994). Finally learners must have knowledge of task demands
(Wenden 1995a; 1991; Chamot 1995; Sinclair 1996). Lack of such knowledge prevents them from
selecting appropriate strategies (Dickinson 1992; Chamot & O'Malley 1994; Victori & Lockart
1995); from appreciating the level of difficulty of a task (Rubin 1995).

Some of this knowledge has been specified. Byram (1993) outlines four dimensions of language
that learners should be made aware of ; Holec (1985a) provides a listing of the procedures learners
must be able to implement to determine the demands of a language learning task and to evaluate its
outcome; Westhoff (1990) illustrates the knowledge of task demands needed to complete a reading
task and Wenden (1991b) illustrates the same for a writing task.

The literature includes examples of how to facilitate the development of knowledge about
language and language learning, e.g. metalinguistic knowledge (cf for example, Kohonen 1991;
Tholin 1995; Huttunen 1990) and, more specifically, knowledge about (1) how we learn a foreign
language (Tholin 1995; Holec 1990; Huttunen 1990; Rubin 1995); (2) the theory of self directed
learning (Moulden 1990), (3) how to be a good language learner (Martin-Peris 1996), and (4) the
general social context within which language learning occurs (Benson 1996). Learner manuals also
provide materials for expanding learners' task knowledge, e.g. guidelines to follow for successful
language learning (Brown 1989); knowledge about the communication process, the nature of
language, different settings for language learning & their implications (Rubin and Thompson 1994;
 11

cf Toney 1983 for a review of other manuals; for other descriptions of training for task knowledge,
cf Brewster & Brewster 1976; Marshall 1989; Guerchon & Muir, Barnett, O'Sullivan & Parkinson,
Tyacke & Mendelsohn, Brown in Wenden 1991:Chapter 9; Martin-Peris et al 1993; Mueller-
Verweyen 1995; Wenden 1995b; Lee 1996).

Strategic knowledge Though listed as a separate category by Flavell 1979, in practice, strategic
knowledge is a component of task demands, consisting, first of all, of an awareness of the notion
"strategy" and its general use and, secondly, knowledge about which strategies can be used
effectively in the accomplishment of specific language learning tasks (Wenden 1991).

The need to include strategic knowledge in learner training plans is clearly recognized. For
example, it is suggested that learners should know that strategies exist and should be utilized
(Westhoff 1990); that they improve learning (Kohonen 1991; Chamot & O'Malley 1994); that
strategies are task specific (Chamot & O'Malley 1994; Rubin 1995). Westhoff (1990) outlines
specific components of strategic knowledge as it applies to a reading task. The manuals cited above
also provide learners with references to and/or descriptions of useful strategies for various tasks.

INCORPORATING LEARNER TRAINING WITH LANGUAGE TRAINING

A second decision facing curriculum developers and individual teachers who wish to design
learning plans to promote autonomous learning has to do with how to incorporate learner training
into language training. First of all, what priority should it be given in a language training syllabus
? And secondly, how should incorporation be implemented ?

Priority
Those practitioners who have been explicit on the question of priority strongly advocate that
learner training be included as a main course objective with language training--not subordinate nor
incidental to language training. For Holec 1985, this will require that the educational institution
plan and put into operation educational systems whose goals are language learning and learning to
learn. Barnett (1988) advises the re-thinking of the traditional progressive syllabi if learner
autonomy is to be integrated into all aspects of a school system. Wenden's (1991) task based
approach to designing learner training assumes that a language training syllabus or an individual
lesson plan gives equal status to learner training and language training and that equal time will be
granted to each in the implementation of classroom tasks. Mendelsohn (1995) advocates a strategy
based approach to the teaching of listening. Rooted in strategy instruction, such an approach makes
the teaching of listening strategies the main goal of a listening syllabus/course. This same
recognition of the priority to be given learner training is implicit in the course syllabi of language
programs described in Wenden 1991: 143 - 148; 153 - 157); Nunan 1996.

Manner of implementation
As for the implementation of learner training, the literature suggests three approaches, which
differ from one another depending upon the priority they give learner training and the extent to
which incorporation takes place.
 12

Separating learner training from language training First, learner training can be quite separate
from language training. When language training is offered through a self-access center, for example,
it is common for learner training to be provided as a separate component--one of the activities
available to students in the center. This may consist of counselling sessions with a facilitator/helper
responsible for a variety of activities, such as awareness raising, general methodological and
psychological preparations (e.g. Little 1990; Kelly 1996; Gremmo & Riley 1995; Victori & Lockart
1995; Simmons 1996) or orientation workshops/courses (e.g. Barnett in Wenden 1991; Benson
1996). Separate learner training components have also been included as a complement to
classroom based language instruction. Table 3 lists four examples contrasted on the basis of the
learner training objective and the related communication skill to which the learner training is linked.

LEARNER TRAINING AS A SEPARATE COMPONENT OF CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION

learner training objective communication skill
Allwright (1981) planning, self assessment, evaluation academic skills
Wenden (1986b) task, strategic, & person knowledge academic skills
Moulden (1985) planning, monitoring, evaluating listening skills
Miller & Ng (1996) self-assessment language skills

Table 3

As indicated in Table 3, students were enrolled in language training programs, which focused on
different communication skills, e.g. skills for academic purposes, listening skills, and general
language skills. However, in each case, time was set aside exclusively for learner training, the
objectives of which also varied. In some programs learners learned to use the strategies for self-
directed learning, i.e. planning, evaluating, self-assessment while in another their knowledge about
learning were the focus. When learner training is separate from langauge instruction in this way, it
remains subordinate to the language curriculum and learners are expected to apply what they learn
about learning to their language instruction themselves. That is, they are responsible for the
incorporation of learner training with language instruction.

Incorporating learner training with the pedagogical task In contrast to the above approach,
Chamot (1994) advises that students be shown how to use one or more cognitive strategies for a
specific classroom task as opposed to separate strategy instruction (also of Chamot 1993; 1995;
Chamot/O'Malley 1993; 1994;). This view reflects a general belief that cognitive strategy
instruction be incorporated on the level of the pedagogical task, i.e. with the language learning
activities that make up the daily lesson plan. Teaching high school students to use strategies that
would facilitate memorizing vocabulary, making an oral presentation, listening to a lecture on an
academic topic are examples of how strategy instruction, can be linked to classroom activities (cf
Malley and Chamot 1990). In self-access centers, instruction is usually provided through 'learning
hints' that are part of the materials. When learner training is linked to pedagogical tasks, it is
ancillary to language instruction. The strategies are included in the syllabus to facilitate the doing
of language learning task that contributes to the achievement of the objectives of the language
instruction.
 13

This view regarding the teaching of cognitive strategies is also either advocated or demonstrated
in the writings of Cotterall (1990/1993); Rubin & Thompson (forthcoming); Rubin (1988); Oxford
(1990); Cohen (1990); Hosenfeld et al (1981; 1993); also cf Huttunen 1986 & Narcy 1994 for a
discussion of how planning and evaluation can be integrated on the level of pedagogical tasks.)

Incorporating learner training on the level of design Finally, incoporation of learner training with
language instruction may take place on the level of design, an approach for which there is scant
evidence in the literature. In this case, the language curriculum or course is developed in terms of
learner training objectives. Figure 1 illustrates this third approach.

INSERT "CONTENT SCHEMA" HERE.

The schema represents a task based and wholistic approach to curriculum design, i.e. one that is
based on the communicative needs of a particular group of learners and that takes into account all
the objectives of learner training described above. 5

The following illustrates how I have used the schema to incorporate learner training into a class
in academic writing. In this case, the language learning task is the expository essay. As regards
person knowledge, at the beginning of the course, learners are asked to reflect upon their beliefs
regarding what makes a good writer and whether they consider themselves good writers or not.
Then, they assess their skills to determine what they can and cannot do. This latter aspect of person
knowledge can, then, be used in the setting of objectives (a self-management strategy).

Examples of task knowledge students are helped to acquire include understanding

(1) the difference between the spoken language and the written language
(2) discourse structure
(3) the stages in the writing process

This knowledge is expected to influence and/or shape a learner's planning decisions (self-
management strategy) and provide a basis for the revision or evaluation of the written product
(another self-management strategy). Learners are also be taught a procedure for analysing teacher
feedback on their essays as a means of monitoring their progress (a third self-management strategy).

At the same time, they are also taught to use processing strategies that facilitate retrieval to get
ideas; clustering/grouping strategies to organize their ideas; self-questioning strategies to develop
ideas.... as well as other strategies specific to completing the various stages of the writing process.

Dam's (1995b) introduction of self-directed learning into English classes of 12-year olds in a
Danish comprehensive school is another example of how learner training can be incorporated on
the level of design. In these classes, students learned English by learning to plan, monitor, and
evaluate their learning; by learning to use cognitive strategies appropriate to learning vocabulary.
TASK BASED CONTENT SCHEMA
LANGUAGE LEARNING TASK
t

TASK KNOWLEDGE PERSON KNOWLEDGE

(metacognitive processes) (motivational processes)

SELF MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

(executive processes)

PROCESSING STRATEGIES
(representational processes)

c Anita L. Wenden 1993

13
 14

When integration takes place at the level of design, the language syllabus is organized in terms
of learner training objectiveslearner training is the organizing principle. It shapes the teaching of
the language skills and has the same priority as language instruction. Such an approach requires that
the design of curriculum be task based. In other words, the curriculum should be organized in terms
of the language learning objective(s) that represent the communicative needs of a particular group
of learners, e.g. reading for academic purposes, work-specific communication tasks...

METHODS FOR IMPLEMENTING LEARNER TRAINING

How learners can be helped to acquire the know how and the knowledge that will enable them
to manage and process their learning critically and with insight must also be taken into account inthe
design of learner training. This is the question of intervention and methodology.

According to some practitioners, there is no need for instructional intervention. It is felt that the
transmission by the teacher of strategies used by successful learners will promote conformity rather
than autonomy in students (cf Hamada & Muroaka and Benson in Usuki 1995). Thus the need for
explicit training is questioned.

Alternately, it is believed that learners will acquire the tools for self-direction intuitively and
implicitly if they are simply provided with the appropriate learning environment. According to the
literature, such an environment would provide learners with choice (Esch 1996) and the opportunity
to negotiate with the teacher and their co-learners about the aims, content, methods and techniques
for learning (Eriksson 1993; Havranek 1993; 0' Sullivan Parkinson in Wenden 1991); to discover
ways of learning that work (Usuki 1995); to take over planning gradually (Barnett 1988) and with
scaffolding (Huttunen 1986; Jensen 1993). It should be supportive, and provide choice, flexibility,
adaptability, reflectivity, shareability (Esch 1996); or learning centered (Nunan 1996). Tasks that
remove teachers from their role as 'director of instruction' and that require that learners take
responsibility, such as a simulation game (Ho & Crookall 1995), independent group projects (e.g.
Armament et al 1981; Grenfell & Harris 1992; Barnett 1988; Kenny 1993; Voller Pickard 1996) can
help to create such an environment by changing the rules (and roles) that typically guide classroom
teaching and learning. Thus, the learning environment is key and learning by doing is the method.
(For similar views, see Balbi 1993 for description of an 'autonomy' oriented classroom.)

However, for the greater part, learner training practice exemplifies the belief that there is
a need for a deliberate approach if students are to develop and/or refine the strategies and knowledge
that enable them to realize their potential to learn and to do so autonomously (e.g. Mueller-
Verweyen 1996; Rubin 1989; Wenden 1991; 1995; Westhoff 1993; Huttunen 1993; Eriksson 1993;
Gremmo & Riley 1995; Cohen, Weaver & Li 1995). Instructional interventions described in the
literature may be characterized as indirect or direct in their overall approach.

Indirect methods
Indirect methods use a form of inductive or discovery learning. Learners reflect upon past
learning experiences or acquired knowledge in order to seek insight into their approach to learning

16
 15

and their beliefs. Reflection can also lead to planning decisions.

Acquiring the strategies for learning The indirect method, used primarily, though not
exclusively, in the teaching of self-directed learning strategies, is described as a process which
requires a constant moving back and forth between actual learning activities and reflection and
action. (Gremmo & Riley 1995). That is, first learners get involved in planning, monitoring, and
evaluating their learning, or they do a task that requires the use of cognitive strategies and, then, they
reflect upon their practice (Holec 1985; Tholin 1995; Kohonen 1991) to discover new approaches
or techniques (Holec 1994) or to make new action decisions. In some cases the action may be
preceded by a learning dialogue, a reflective conversation which leads students to become aware
of what they know, what they need to know, how to go about learning it and how to evaluate their
outcome as a basis for planning and evaluation. ( Dam 1995b; Eriksson 1993; Huttunen 1993; cf
Kohonen 1993 for the description of a portfolio technique that structures the reflective process.)

This indirect approach is characteristic of the mode of instruction that is provided when learner
training is provided through counselling. In this setting the teacher takes on the role of (learning)
counsellor (e.g. Gremmo 1984 in Gremmo & Riley 1995; Kelly 1996; Simmons 1996; Abe,
Stanchina & Smith 1975) and the emphasis is on the learning process, i.e. strategies and
knowledge. When the classroom is the setting for action and reflection, it is recommended that a
similar concern be given to role change and to a shift in perspective that places emphasis on learning
(rather than teaching) and self-evaluation (Dam 1995b).

Acquisition of knowledge for language learning Awareness raising activities are at the heart
of the indirect methods used to help learners revise and expand their metacognitive knowledge.
These activities may be further distinguished according to their focus or learning objectives, their
procedures and intended outcomes (Table 4).

AWARENESS RAISING METHODS FOR KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION

Basic approach Specialized approaches
task analysis counselling action plan

focus not pre-set task knowledge based on entering diagnosis

elicitation elicitation
pro- articulation articulation articulation
cedures confrontation confrontation confrontation
reflection reflection reflection reflection

belief change task knowledge belief change belief change

intended action decision action decision action decision
outcome attitude change
Table 4
 16

The basic approach Dickinson refers to awareness raising as activities which intend to help
learners "develop, articulate, and reflect on their own understanding of language learning by
discussing and sharing language learning experiences and views." Explicit in his definition are two
of the procedures that constitute awareness raising: articulation of what has been raised to
awareness and reflection on this knowledge. Implied in the ability to articulate is the elicitation of
what is below consciousness (Westhoff 1993). As exemplified in the literature this may be done
through a variety of oral or written activities, e.g. surveys, self-assessment questionnaires diaries,
explanations or justifications of an answer, discussion (cf Holec 1994 for other examples). Finally,
discussing and sharing language learning experiences implies the need to confront learners with
information which calls into question what they already know (Wenden 1991; Holec 1994; Victori
& Lockart 1995).

The focus of the basic approach is not pre-determined and therefore, as noted in the
literature, may elicit varied forms of knowledge including metacognitive knowledge (Rubin 1995)
awareness of strategies learners use (Mendelsohn 1995/4; Tyacke and Mendelsohn in Wenden
1991; Tholin 1995); problems they have experienced and their possible solutions (Moulden 1990);
metalinguistic knowledge; knowledge of listening problems (Mendelsohn 1995); task knowledge
(Tholin 1995) person knowledge (Barnet; O'Sullivan & Parkinson in Wenden 1991; strategic
knowledge (Wenden 1986).

The intended outcome is self-analysis (Usuki 1995); enhanced ability to manage and monitor
learning activities (otterall 1996); insight into the language learning process and learner initiated
change for awareness raising does not intend to impose views on learners (Dickinson op cit.)

Task analysis The procedures developed by Dickinson (1995b) and Wenden (1995a) focus
on the task knowledge that will be necessary to complete a particular pedagogical task (e.g. finding
the main idea of a reading passage; writing a summary; completing a gap filling exercise). Referred
to as G.O.A.L., an acronym for the four steps that make up the procedure, i.e. goal specification,
objective setting, action, & looking back, Dickinson's procedures consist of questions that students
can be taught to ask and answer about the goal, objectives, demands and outcome of a particular
task. Similarly Wenden's (op cit) consist of the following questions, i.e. what kind of task is this?
why should I do it & how? which intend to respectively elicit the knowledge learners need to
classify the task, to identify the task's purpose and to determine the task's demands. Thus, the
elicitation procedures in this method are more prescriptive than that of the basic approach; the
articulation and reflection steps are implied and initiated by the questions and confrontation is not
relevant. The intended outcome of the analysis is the knowledge necessary for learners to decide
whether or not they will do the task and if so how.

A counselling model While learning counselling has generally focused on the development of
self-directed learning strategies, Victori and Lockart's (1995) counselling model intends to enhance
a learner's metacognitive knowledge in a systematic ad deliberate way, i.e. starting with strategic
and/or task knowledge and in later sessions dealing with person knowledge. As described (cf
Victori & Lockart op. cit.) at an initial meeting learners complete a questionnaire which surfaces
 17

their entering beliefs about language learning. Responses related to strategic and task knowledge
are selected and used in subsequent sessions when learners are confronted with other views, i.e. they
are:
1) asked to compare their responses with those of other learners
2) questioned about some of their beliefs by the counsellor
3) offered alternative views by the counsellor
4) given information aimed at modifying some of their limited or
unproductive beliefs

Confrontation in this method is more elaborated than in the two methods described above with
learners being asked to compare their beliefs with that of their fellow learners, of their counsellor,
and of the experts. The intended outcome is a plan regarding new strategies learners will use. (cf
Victori and Lockart op cit for a more detailed description of the procedures and Holec 1994 for a
similar approach).

An action plan for the classroom Wenden (1991) describes an action plan which aims to
revise learner's metacognitive knowledge as a means of changing unproductive attitudes they may
hold about language learning. The plan consists of a pre-instructional and an instructional phase.
In preparation for instruction, information is elicited from learners to determine what they already
know about the learning process (diagnosis). Next, the instructor and the learners refer to the
diagnosis to select the knowledge area that will be the focus of instruction (planning). The
following procedures outline the instructional phase. Learner's prior knowledge about the selected
knowledge area is brought to awareness (elicit prior knowledge). Learners are then confronted with
new information to help them think about the topic in new ways (present information). Activities
are provided to help learners comprehend the information (comprehending information) and to
relate it to previously acquired experiences and knowledge and to infer its applicability to language
learning (elaborating information). Finally, learners use the new information to devise a plan which
specifies how the new information is to be applied to their own language learning (applying the
information). It is the reflection tasks, which require learners to comprehend and elaborate the
information with which they have been confronted, which distinguishes this method from those
already described. Moreover, as has already been suggested besides belief change and the planning
decisions, the plan's intended outcome is attitude change.

The direct approach

The direct approach is deductive and didactic, beginning with theory about what is to be learned
and then applying it (e.g. Moulden 1990; Miller & Ng 1995).

Acquiring the strategies for learning The literature suggests that, to a great extent, didactic
methods have been used for cognitive strategy instruction (e.g. Hosenfeld et al 1981; 1993; Huttunen
1986; Cotterall 1990; Oxford 1990; Wenden 1991; Chamot & O'Malley 1993; Mendelsohn 1995).
Derived in part from the intervention research described in the cognitive literature (cf Brown and
Palinscar 1982 & Brown and Baker 1984) these procedures are generally characterized by the
following guidelines:

19
 18

1. Diagnosis Cognitive strategy instruction should be based on a diagnosis of which strategies

learners know and how well they use them. This may be done by eliciting their background
knowledge at the outset and then linking the training to what they know or don't know very well.
(cf Hosenfeld et al 1981;Oxford & Leaver 1996; Wenden 1991; Chamot & O'Malley 1993;
Mendelsohn 1995)

2. Informed Strategy instruction is informed when the purpose of the training and the significance
of the strategy are brought to the attention of the learners. That is, they are told that they are being
trained to use strategies and led in an exploration of their utility to learning. (Wenden 1991;
Cotterall 1990; Rubin 1988; 1989; Chamot & O'Malley 1993; Ellis & Sinclair 1989; Westhoff 1990)
Informed training is contrasted with blind training in which case learners are told to use a strategy
by a teacher or by a materials writer but they are not informed of its significance, nor are they
instructed in how to use it. The intervention research referred to earlier (e.g. Brown and Baker
1984) has shown that this kind of training does not lead to maintenance and transfer; its
effectiveness is limited to the one task.

3. Explicit Informed training and explicit training are closely linked. When training is explicit,
teachers, first of all, teach the concept strategy to the students (Wenden 1991; Hosenfeld et al 1981);
then they model the strategy under instruction and demonstrate how it works (cf Cotterall 1990;
Wenden 1991; Chamot & O'Malley 1993; Tyacke and Mendelson in Wenden 1991; Rubin 1988;
Hosenfeld et al 1993; Sinclair 1996; Ellis & Sinclair 1989; Brown in Wenden 1991). Finally they
label the strategy (Wenden 1991; Chamot 1995; Rubin, McKay, Mansoor 1995).

4. Self-regulation Students should also learn to regulate the use of the strategy. Instructional
activities should give them an opportunity to identify situations when the strategy can be used; to
discuss the difficulties they have using it and to evaluate its usefulness (cf Huttunen 1986; Rubin
1988; 1989; Cotterall 1990; Oxford 1992; Wenden 1991; Chamot & O'Malley 1993; Chamot 1995)

5. Contexualized Strategy instruction should be linked to specific language learning problems

learners must overcome and/or tasks they are expected to complete. In other words, it should be
integrated with specific pedagogical tasks.

6. Interactive Students should not be told what to do and then left on their own to practice.
Teachers should continue to work with them until they are able to regulate the use of the strategy
on their own (Wenden 1991). This principle is reiterated by those who call for scaffolding,
coaching, feedback (e.g. Rubin 1989; Hosenfeld et al 1993; Chamot & O'Malley 1993; Huttunen
1986).

7. Practice It is important that students be given ample opportunity to practice what they have
learned both in the classroom with guided activities or in authentic contexts which lead students to
transfer or extend the use of the strategy (cf Hosenfeld et al 1981; 1993; Cotterall 1990;Oxford &
Leaver 1996; Wenden 1991; Rubin, Mckay, & Mansoor 1995; Chamot & O'Malley 1993;
Mendelsohn 1984; 1995; Rubin 1989; Chamot 1995).
 19

Acquisition of knowledge about language learning Specialized courses are an example of

a direct, didactic approach to providing learners with knowledge about language learning although,
of course, it is likely that within the context of instruction, instructors may choose to set inductively
oriented tasks. Rubin (unpublished manuscript) refers to semester-long courses on strategic
knowledge, which have been offered at three different universities in North America. Her own
multi-media course, The Language Learning Strategies Program, is another example, which
combines instructional input from a computer and video disc. Geared especially to the needs of
beginning learners and/or the unsuccessful language learner, the course illustrates and describes the
use of strategies appropriate for listening, reading, and speaking and for learning grammar and
vocabulary (i.e. strategic knowledge). It also provides (task) knowledge or socio-linguistic aspects
of communication. Manuals or self-study guides, referred to earlier are another example of explicit
didactic input on person, task and strategic knowledge (cf pp ). Ellis & Sinclair's Learning to
Learn English (1989) is an example of a text-based course in learner training for classroom use
which combines both direct and indirect approaches.

ROLES OF STUDENTS AND TEACHERS

The learner training practice also acknowledges that role changes implied by a curriculum that
seeks to provide learner training must be considered and factors underlying the resistance these
changes may engender in both students and teachers understood.

The student
Learner training implies a radical change in the learner's role. As indicated in the literature, they
will now be expected to share the burden of learning (litttle 1991); to take charge of their own
learning (Nunan 1996); play a crucial role in decisionmaking about curricula and goals (Benson
1996); to learn on their own (Holec 1981) from experience (eriksson 1993); to take over
management tasks (Mueller-Verweyen 1996). They can no longer be passive and dependent on the
teacher (Holec 1981); they mut learn to take on an active role (Eriksson 1993; Dickinson 1992;
Mendelsohn 1995) and become independently involved in their language learning (Dickinson
1992). These changes can cause learners to be resistant, unwilling and uncooperative in the face of
learner training that aims to transform them. The research suggests that efforts to deal with these
attitudes be based on an understanding of learners cultural values, their representations of the
learning process, their goal structure and their level of self-confidence.

Cultural values Holec (1985) refers to the values of a consumer society as a force that can
strongly inhibit learners' willingness to change their roles. These values clearly distinguish between
the role of consumer and producer. Applied to the educational context, it is the learner who is the
passive consumer, whose needs must be completely satisfied as immediately as possible by the
producer, who is empowered with the expertise to fulfill these demands. This latter role is assigned
to the teacher. These values further influence learners' attitudes towards learning. They come to
school to be taught not to learn (Havranek 1993); the most important thing is that they get good
qualifications, not that they should learn (Little 1991).
 20
The social distribution of knowledge and power (related to the notions of specialization and
expertise) which compartmentalize different fields of competence also re-enforces the role
distinction between the learner and the teacher. That is, just as the learner would never think of
taking over from his doctor when he is ill, so it never enters his head that he might take over some
of the teacher's functions (Holec op cit).

In cultures characterized by high power distance, it will also be difficult for learners to change
roles. (cf Hofstede 1984). In these societies, relationships are organized hierarchically with clear
distinctions in authority and status existing between persons at the top of the hierarchy and those
at a lower level. In the classroom, the teacher is the person with authority and status while the
learner has none. Moreover, in such societies, any attempt to change these roles is viewed as a form
of trespassing and sanctioned. (For a discussion of these matters from an Asian perspective, see
Aoki 1994).

Representations of the language learning process Previous educational experiences will further
reinforce the beliefs about role distinctions learners will have acquired from other settings in their
culture. Even in low power distance societies, years of schooling have socialized learners to view
the teacher as the one who knows best (Moulden 1990); must be present at all times, assign tasks,
set deadlines, test and evaluate progress....(Abe et al '75), i.e. manage learning (Mueller-Verweyen
1996); dispenses knowledge (Havranek 1993); whose job is to prepare them to do well on the exams
(Little 1990; Hamilton 1990). They accept the expertise of the teacher and on that basis refrain
from making choices (Barnett 1988).

These educational experiences have also shaped their beliefs and expectations about learning.
They do not perceive self-directed learning as 'real teaching/learning'; decisionmaking is perceived
as a waste of time/difficult' (Moulden 1993). They are used to a teacher-centered classroom in
which the teacher is active while the students are relatively passive. (Mendelsohn 1995) Therefore,
the changes cause learners to feel disoriented (Moulden 1993) and when they do work
independently, they are insecure about the quality of their learning (Dam 1995b; Thomson 1996;
Huttunen 1993).

Learners will have to undergo a considerable trnsformation of their beliefs about language
learning to be willing to undertake independent learning (Kelly 1996) and to participate in learner
training that prepares them for it. Thus over and above the need to provide learner training in
strategies and knowledge, it will also be necessary to deal with learners' attitudes towards
autonomous learning. However, this is a change that cannot happen suddenly. Students will need
time to be freed from assumptions and beliefs imposed by their years of schooling ; and until they
do, we would be doing them a disservice to turn around and'impose' autonomy on them (Barnett
1988). For some, autonomy may not be possible perhaps because they have formed such a rigid
view of the nature of learning and their role in it or because they have little tolerance for the
ambiguity that exists between learing plans and learning outcomes (Allwright 1993). As for others
who may be willing to pariticipate in training for autonomy, the answer may lie in careful
"dosification" (Barnett op cit).

2")
 21
Goal structure and motivation As noted in the literature, willingness on the part of a learner is key
to participation in learner training (e.g. Wenden 1991; Eriksson 1993; Dickinson 1995a). As already
noted, in part this is determined by how they view their role in learning. If they do not believe that
they need to share the burden of learning or that they need to get involved, they will not be willing
to take part in the learner training. Besides role perception, however, willingness is based on a
learner's perception of the relevance of the learner training to their own goals. (cf Rubin &
Thompson forthcoming; Wenden 1993; 1995). It, therefore, becomes important to understand the
nature of the goal structure that learners may bring to learner training.

Reporting the outcome of one of the CRAPEL's first experiments in self-directed learning,
Stanchina (1976) noted that learners who remained motivated had clear and immediate goals which
were being served by the experiment. They were able to specify not only the skills they had to
develop but the specialized field within which they had to become competent. (Abe et al '75).

Huttunen's (1986) analysis of student comments about their autonomous learning reinforces and
expands upon the importance of goal structure. Her typology of learners relates four different types
of learners to goal structure . While each learner type participated in the learner training, only the
autonomous learner related the work to a self-set personal goal and with his/her own criteria for
evaluating the outcome. The competitive learner, on the other hand, was not interested in his
development as a learner but only in how this could contribute to an improved grade. The obedient
learner did the tasks when asked depending on the teacher for evaluation; his/her goals were what
the teacher wanted. On the other hand, the indifferent learner did the work but with no real sense
of intentionality. Thus learners' goal structure will have a clear effect on how they participate in
learner training.

Self-confidence Role change means being open to self-criticism and putting up with fear of the
unknown. As Holec (1985) writes, the acceptance of responsibility for one's learning implied by
learner training is a sort of social gamble. The learner may be uncomfortable with what it implies
for other areas of learning. Is he, perhaps, touching off a series of changes in the way he has learned
to behave ? and will he be able tocope ? It will be important, then, that learners have a strong sense
of belief in themselves. Without self-confidence, they will remain hesitant, resistant and even
unwilling in the face of learner training.

Moreover, some learners have been brainwashed into believing that they cannot learn on their
own (Mendelsohn 1995); they may have negative feelings about themselves and their ability or skill
to perform a particular task (Rubin & Thompson forthcoming); or as a language learner in general
(Wenden 1991). Bailey's research (cited in Wenden 1991) on competitiveness in language learning
led to some interesting insights regarding how self-image can influence language learning. When
learners see themselves as successful vis-a-vis other learners, their learning is enhanced; on the other
hand, anxiety results when learners see themselves as less successful and, in some caes, it can be
debilitating causing the learner to avoid contact with the second language. For some learners with
such a self-image, learner training might be perceived as overwhelming, and efforts will have to be
made for them to regain or develop their self-confidence (Dickinson 1987; Ellis & Sinclair 1989).

23
 22

Tasks which enable learners to see the value of the learner training and which, at the same time raise
their confidence in their ability to use them need to be devised at the outset (Mendelsohn 1995;
Huttunen 1993; for other factors that can present obstacles to learner training see Wenden (1991;
for strategies that deal with motivational factors see Oxford (1990).

The teacher
It is acknowledged by most that the incorporation of learner training into a language curriculum,
whether in classsroom settings or a self-access center implies profound changes in the attitudes and
habits of teachers. (e.g. Armanent et al 1981; Huttunen 1990; 1993; Westhoff 1993; Rubin 1994 ED
376 701; Biddle & Malmberg 1990); it requires that their roles be redefined or diversified (Wenden
1985; Wenden 1991; Eriksson 1993). While they will still need to fill their traditional functions
their added pedagogical challenge will be to find ways of developing their learners' ability to learn,
an absolute condition for self directed learning (Holec 1990:17; and this will require a role change.

One of the most profound changes will require that they learn to focus on learning rather than
teaching and to view themselves as co-responsible for the learning process with the learner. They
will have to learn to be open to learner's ideas and suggestions; support his initiatives and encourage
new ones (Dam 1995a; see Mueller-Verweyen 1996; Rubin 1995; Huttunen 1986; 1990; Allwright
1985 for similar notions). The various designations for this new role imply similar responsibilities,
e.g. resource person (Dam 1996; Huttunen 1991; Vaughan; Guerchon & Muir in Wenden 1991; Ellis
& Sinclair 1989); facilitator (Tyacke & Mendelsohn in Wenden 1991; Little 1994; Vaughan in
Wenden 1991); expert sharing secrets of learning with their learners (Chamot 1994); catalysts
(armamentet al 1981); helpers (abe, Stanchina, & Smith 1975; Dickinson 1987); ideas or rationale
persons (Alwright 1981).

These new roles will require teachers who are able, motivated and informed. However, in many
cases teachers are unprepared. Therefore, like learners, they will need to revise their understanding
of teaching and learning. They will have to be provided with attitudinal and methodological
preparation (Carver 1984; Nishitani 1994).

First of all, teachers will need to develop a new understanding of 'teaching'. Hosenfeld (in Rubin
ED 376 701) proposes that they be encouraged to view it as a cognitive apprenticeship; Nunan's
(1996) experience is illustrative"....my own interests inseeingthings from the leanrers' pont of view
developed when I realized that I could not do the learning for my learners -- that in the final analysis
they would have to do their own learning and the best thing I could do was to help them find ways
of doing their own learning."

This new view of teaching will require that teachers gain a better undertanding of learning (cf dam
1995b; Wenden 1991; Chamot in Rubin ED 376 701; Holec 1985). Mueller-Verweyen 1996
suggests that they become trained in analysing learner processes controlled by the learner. This also
means that teachers, themselves, need to become more aware of their own learning process. They
need to be able to analyse what they do intuitively if they are to understand what they are to train
learners to do and to understand the learners themselves. Willing (1985) provides activities tohelp
 23

teachers become aware of their teaching-learning style differences and of the strategies they
actually use. Wenden (1991) suggests a procedure that is intended to help teachers become aware
of the mental operations involved in particular strategies. Teachers do not always see the relevance
of such activities, but they are a prerequisite for helping learners learn to self-direct their learning
or to use cognitive strategies.

Efforts will also need to be made to deal with counterproductive attitudes teachers have
developed about learner training and what it implies, e.g. lack of confidence, self-esteem (Carver
1984; Nishitani 1994; Smith on Leni Dam 1995 ; Dam 1995a; Lyne 1993); unwillingness & fear
(Dam 1995a); uncertainty about how students will react (Miller & Ng 1996; Huttunen 1993) fear
that learner training will lead to anarchy (Kenny 1993) or that it is a threat to one's professionalism
(Eriksson 1995); lack of interest in educational innovation and professional development (Huttunen
1986); lack of a basic trust in the learner's willingness and ability to cope with the various learning
tasks and a respect for his person and his choices (Kohonen 1991) doubts about the legitimacy of
what they are doing and concern for their pedagogic respectability (Kenny 1993; Jensen 1993)

It may also be the case that teachers are reluctant to relinguish their former role in part because
they are not certain just how to meet the demands and fill the responsibilties of the new one.
Therefore, methodological preparation should ensure that they receive proper orientation to and
develop expertise for effective cognitive strategy instruction (Chamot & Rubin 1994) and effective
counselling (Kelly 1996); for guiding students in exercising the skills of SDLL (Huttunen 1986).
Responding to these needs, Dam (in Smith 1995) describes workshop procedures that prepare
teachers for doing self-directed learning; Chamot, Barnhardt et al (1993) and Chamot, Robbins et
al (1993) outline procedures for a scaffolded approach to helping teachers develop expertise in
strategy instruction. Sinclair (1996) explains how language teaching materials can play a role in the
support of teachers.

CONCLUSION

Generally, it may be concluded that there is agreement among practitioners about the need to
provide learner training if learners are to take charge of their learning. However, there is some
dissent upon how this should be done. As noted, for some, all that is required is a context within
which learners can function independently of the teacher. If that setting is provided, it is assumed,
learners' potential to learn autonomously will emerge. A second assumption underlying this view
is that learners have already acquired the knowledge and skills of learning, essential to autonomy,
whatever the setting--with or without a teacher. The alternative view, reflected by the greater part
of the literature on learner training practice, does not make either of these assumptions. It maintains
that learners need to learn how to learn in an explicit and systematic manner and that providing this
kind of instruction is what learner training is about.

The provision of explicit learner training, it is further agreed, means learners need to acquire the
strategies necessary to self-direct and to process the content of their learning, and the literature
provides ample examples of how this can be done. To a large extent, however, the practice shows
 24

that training usually focuses on one or the other of these two main strategy types , i.e. on strategies
to self-direct learning or on cognitive strategies to process learning, with the latter being linked to
a particular language learning task. As for learners' acquired knowledge and beliefs about langauge
learning, while it is also agreed that it plays a role in learners' ability to take charge of their learning,
there is scant evidence in the literature of tasks and materials for helping themto become critically
aware of what they know and to revise and expand this knowledge.

This description of the present state of the art in learner training, therefore, points to a clear
developmental need. That is, the question of how to provide learner training that is both wholistic
and based on learners' communication needs must be addressed. In other words, learner training
should not only include instruction in the use of one type of strategy but in both--strategies for self-
directed learning and strategies for processing learning as well as the knowledge necessary to
deploy these strategies appropriately Moreover, the choice of this learner training content should
.

be based on learners' communicative needs.

Also emerging from this review is the need for teacher education. That is, learner training does
not do away with the need for teachers as the mythology about learner autonomy seems to suggest.
Rather, the provision of learner training requires that teachers diversify their roles. Teachers will
need to learn to apply the skills that they use to provide learners with expertise in language use to
providing them with expertise in learning (cf Wenden 1985 ). They will also need to revise their
understanding of the teaching process to recognize the essential and complimentary role played by
student learning in the FL/SL classroom.
 25

NOTES
1

References to publications that focus exclusively on research are not included since this is a paper
about the practice of learner training.

2
The review was completed in late 1995 and so more recent publications have not been included.

3
The appropriateness of the term 'training' in learner has been questioned by some practitioners (e.g.
Chamot & Rubin 1994;Oxford & Leaver 1996). Indeed, it is an unfortunate and misleading
designation. The concept 'training' is narrow; it implies a kind of conditioning--the acquisition of
lockstep procedures that are implemented mechanically. As suggested in the literature, terms such
as, learner development, learner instruction, learner education are a more accurate and more
adequate description of the complex process of helping learners learn how to learn. (Kohonen 1991;
Chamot & Rubin 1994;Oxford & Leaver 1996; Sinclair 1996). I will, however, refrain from using
this presentation as an opportunity for initiating language change and use the commonly accepted
term, learner training, to avoid distracting the listener from the main issue at hand, that is, a clearer
understanding of the curricular complexities entailed in helping learners learn to learn.

4
A distinction needs to be made between strategies for learning language and strategies of language
use (cf Cohen et al 1995). the focus of this paper, being on learner training, the latter have not been
included though valid arguments can be made for their indirect contribution to the learning process
(cf Rubin 1987).

5
Planning, monitoring and evaluation are alternately referred to as metacognitive strategies, self-
management strategies and skills for self-directed learning. In the schema, they are referred to as
self-management strategies and cognitive strategies are referred to as processing strategies.
 26

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