VOL . 17, NO.

2 – 2020

GEOSCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY EXPLAINED

geoexpro.com
GEOPHYSICS
GEOSCIENCE EXPLAINED Marine Site Investigation

Locating
and Reducing Risk

Sweet Spots:
Shale Petroleum
Systems

GEOTOURISM
A Kerry Diamond

NEW TECHNOLOGIES
China’s Harsh Reservoirs
Spur Innovation

EXPLORATION
Mexico’s Energy Reform

GEOExPro May 2020 1

Previous issues: www.geoexpro.com

Contents
Vol. 17 No. 2
This edition of GEO ExPro focuses on North
GEOSCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY EXPLAINED
America and the Gulf of Mexico; New
Technologies; Near Surface Geophysics;

Doug Sprinkel, UGS.

and Changing Public Perceptions.
30
The 2004 discovery the Covenant 5 Editorial
field in Utah was expected
to be a play opener, so why 6 Regional Update: Dreary Investment
have subsequent results been
disappointing? Outlook
8 Licensing Update: Covid-19 Hits
Licensing Rounds
10 A Minute to Read
12 Cover Story: GEO Science Explained:

© Elnur/Dreamstime.com
48
Universities and graduate training Locating Sweet Spots: Shale
must respond and adapt to industry Petroleum Systems
needs to cope with the digital
transition. 16 Exploration: Mexico’s Energy Reform
20 Seismic Foldout: Exploring the Highly
Brian Williams

Prospective Orphan Basin

50
A look at the fascinating geology 26 GEO Physics: Marine Site Investigation
and stunning landscapes of the and Reducing Risk
Dingle Peninsula in south-west
Ireland. 30 Exploration: Central Utah Thrust Belt –
A Lost Cause?
34 Recent Advances in Technology: From
56 Arrhenius to CO2 Storage – Part VII
Combining geochemistry and
microbiology can effectively de-risk
APT 38 Technology: China’s Deep, Hot, Harsh
offshore deepwater oil and gas Reservoirs Spur Innovation
exploration.
42 Seismic Foldout: The ‘Searcher-Engine
for Oil’ in Mexico’s Hottest Hotspot
Michael Chidsey,
Sqwak Productions Inc.

48 GEO Education: Big Data and Post-

Graduate Training
60
50 GEO Tourism: A Kerry Diamond
Thomas Chidsey is a senior
scientist at the Utah Geological 54 Hot Spot: Pannonian Basin
Survey and likes nothing better
than telling people about the 56 GEO Chemistry: Geochemistry and
geology of his adopted state.
Microbiology in Seep Prospecting
60 GEO Profile: Thomas Chidsey – Going
the Extra Mile

50 11 70 64 Seismic Foldout: Morocco – Lixus

20
30 60 12 56 54 Offshore
64
38
6 10
16 42 70 70 Exploration Update
72 GEO Media: Travels to Rocky Places
74 Q&A: Girls into Geoscience
70
76 FlowBack: Time to Regroup

GEOExPro May 2020 3

Editorial

The World in Freefall GEOSCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY EXPLAINED

All over the world, there is only one topic www.geoexpro.com

of conversation: Covid-19. The pandemic
has resulted in some welcome shows of GeoPublishing Ltd
solidarity, as countries help each other 15 Palace Place Mansion
out with medical assistance, urgent Kensington Court
London W8 5BB, UK
supplies and, importantly, research into
+44 20 7937 2224
vaccines and cures. It will undoubtedly
have some positive long-term effects on Managing Director

Gerd Altmann/
the environment, as people appreciate Tore Karlsson
the clear skies, low pollution and sounds

Pixabay
Editor in Chief
of birdsong resulting from fewer planes Jane Whaley
and cars. Working from home and video- [email protected]
conferencing may well become the norm.
Like many industries, however, oil and gas has been severely hit by the fallout from the Editorial enquiries
GeoPublishing
pandemic, with both demand and the price of oil slumping at a time of already worldwide
Jane Whaley
surplus, exacerbated by additional pumping by Saudi Arabia and Russia as they follow their +44 7812 137161
own competitive agendas. A number of E&P companies are reported to be cutting their [email protected]
CAPEX budgets for 2020 by around 20%, which will see many planned exploration projects, www.geoexpro.com
particularly in capital intensive areas like deepwater, mothballed for the foreseeable future. As
Sales and Marketing Director
a debt-heavy industry, the security for which is usually oil and gas reserves – now worth a lot Kirsti Karlsson
less than they were just a few months ago – we can expect to see bankruptcies, in the service +44 79 0991 5513
sector as well as E&P companies of all sizes. These will result in further job losses, in an [email protected]
industry that was only just beginning to climb out of the last slump. It is a miserable scenario.
Oil will recover, but it will take time. Because of the glut in supply, an increase in demand will
not immediately result in rising prices – although the cheaper energy resulting from this lag in
oil price increase could help world economies recover faster once the virus restrictions are lifted.
Subscription
You will be pleased to hear that GEO ExPro will continue to publish both online and in
GeoPublishing Ltd
hard copy, bringing you the information on exploration and technology in the upstream +44 20 7937 2224
geosciences you need in order to be ready to bounce back when the 15 Palace Place Mansion
crisis is over. The print magazine will be distributed to companies and Kensington Court
London W8 5BB, UK
subscribers worldwide as usual; many conferences and meetings have
[email protected]
been postponed until later in the year, so we will also reserve copies of
each edition to be distributed at those, whenever they may be held. GEO EXPro is published bimonthly
I would like to take this opportunity to send best wishes from the for a base subscription rate of GBP
whole GEO ExPro team to anyone affected by the virus, either in health 60 a year (6 issues).
We encourage readers to alert us
or in business, and look I forward with you to better times ahead. to news for possible publication
Jane Whaley and to submit articles for publication.
Editor in Chief
Cover Photograph:
Main Image: Rasoul Sorkhabi
Inset: Richard Hamilton, SAND
Geophysics

LOCATING SWEET SPOTS: SHALE PETROLEUM SYSTEMS Layout: Mach 3 Solutions Ltd
Print: Stephens & George, UK
Our cover shows long-term GEO ExPro contributor Rasoul Sorkhabi
inspecting the Marcellus Shale. For decades, shales were only viewed issn 1744-8743
as sources or seals, never studied for their reservoir properties. Can
conventional petroleum systems methodology help unlock the secrets of
these enigmatic rocks?
Inset: Using a 3D Chirp sub-bottom profiler during a marine site
investigation survey off western Canada.

© 2020 GeoPublishing Limited.

Copyright or similar rights in all material in this publication, including graphics and other media, is owned by GeoPublishing Limited, unless otherwise stated.
You are allowed to print extracts for your personal use only. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
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to republish material from this publication for distribution should be sent to the Editor in Chief. GeoPublishing Limited does not guarantee the accuracy of the
information contained in this publication nor does it accept responsibility for errors or omissions or their consequences. Opinions expressed by contributors to
this publication are not necessarily those of GeoPublishing Limited.

GEO ExPro May 2020 5

Regional Update

A Dreary Investment Outlook? ABBREVIATIONS

Gulf of Mexico final investment decisions are likely to be put on hold.

Numbers
Exploration and production companies in the Gulf of Mexico have now joined (US and scientific community)
the budget-cutting parade, slashing capex in order to stay afloat in this new oil M: thousand = 1 x 103
market reality. Players such as Talos Energy, Murphy and Kosmos have put new MM: million = 1 x 106
B: billion = 1 x 109
sanctioning on pause, with the exception of approved projects, and additional cuts
T: trillion = 1 x 1012
are being evaluated. Indeed, signs have already emerged indicating that the dual
supply and demand shock will have a deeper impact on E&P sanctioning in the
region than seen during the previous oil price crash in 2016. Reduced exploration Liquids
activity and postponed new development sanctioning will be key to improving the barrel = bbl = 159 litre
current cash flow situation. boe: barrels of oil equivalent
Investments furthest removed from revenue generation will be the first to go as bopd: barrels (bbls) of oil per day
part of E&P cost-cutting efforts. In that sense, exploration activity will take a hit in bcpd: bbls of condensate per day
2020 as operators postpone the spud timing of exploration wells in order to push bwpd: bbls of water per day
exploration expenditure further into the future. Over the last five-year period,
infrastructure lead exploration (ILX) has been a favored exploration strategy Gas
in the Gulf of Mexico due to higher success rates, lower required development MMscfg: million ft3 gas
investment and quicker payback time. However, the current situation is of such MMscmg: million m3 gas
magnitude that we believe even ILX will take a hit. Tcfg: trillion cubic feet of gas

Ma: Million years ago

LNG
Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) is natural
gas (primarily methane) cooled to a
temperature of approximately -260 oC.
Source: Rystad Energy’s UCube

NGL
Natural gas liquids (NGL) include
propane, butane, pentane, hexane
and heptane, but not methane and
ethane.

Capital and exploration expenditures in the US Gulf of Mexico. Reserves and resources
P1 reserves:
Looking Ahead Quantity of hydrocarbons believed
In the mid-term, cost-cutting measures will affect the development side of the recoverable with a 90% probability
investment cycle as well. The rapid oil price decline has left investment decisions
more or less on hold. E&P companies are closely monitoring the situation, awaiting
greater clarity in the oil price outlook before committing cash to currently P2 reserves:
unsanctioned projects. One example of this is the North Platte development, Quantity of hydrocarbons believed
where platform construction bids have been put on hold by Total. However, as recoverable with a 50% probability
time marches onwards and E&Ps become accustomed to a lower oil price outlook,
we expect some sanctioning will occur in the latter part of 2020; subsea tieback
P3 reserves:
developments can have breakeven prices that offer positive net present value in a
Quantity of hydrocarbons believed
$30 oil price environment.
recoverable with a 10% probability
Capital and exploration expenditures will get a trim, but we see that the efforts
will be made on discretional expenditures, which can be deferred. Sanctioned
projects are expected to proceed, although some delays might occur in order to Oilfield glossary:
temporarily reduce expenditures. Current investments directed at the Gulf of www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com
Mexico are primarily related to existing projects under execution, and we see that
the ongoing lack of investment decisions – in addition to a lower oil price outlook
– could cause a dreary investment outlook in the coming years.
Joachim Milling Gregersen, Rystad Energy
6 GEOExPro May 2020
GEOExPro May 2020 7
Licensing Update

Covid-19 Hits
Licensing Rounds
Quaternary

Neogene
2.6
Tertiary

Cenozoic
South Atlantic starts opening
23

Paleogene
As Covid-19 spreads its infectious tentacles ever further and tighter
around the globe, it is no surprise to see the knock-on effect of the
pandemic on licensing round plans throughout the world. Here is a
66*

Norwegian-Greenland Sea starts opening

brief summary of some announcements to date.

Alpine orogeny
Cretaceous

Laramide orogeny
Bangladesh: The Ministry of Power, Energy and Mineral Resources
had planned to announce in March that the launch of Bangladesh’s
next offshore licensing round – the first for eight years – would
open on 15 September 2020, with a deadline for bid submissions

Pangaea breakup
on 10 March 2021 and the award of production sharing contracts 145

Mesozoic
by 26 May 2021. This has now been postponed indefinitely. The Jurassic
round would have concentrated on deepwater blocks thought to be

North Sea rifting

prospective for gas, close to the maritime border with Myanmar.
After the last offshore round, several blocks were awarded, but no

Central Atlantic starts opening

wells have yet been drilled. 201*

*The Big Five Extinction Events

Lebanon: As reported in GEO ExPro Vol. 16, No. 1 (2019), the Triassic
deadline for submission of applications for the 2nd Lebanese
Offshore Licensing Round was initially set for 31 January 2020. In 252*
January this deadline was postponed to 30 April 2020, and it has
Gulf of Mexico rifting
Permian
now been pushed that back to 1 June 2020. Award decisions are

Phanerozoic
expected to be made about September 2020. The round encompasses
Blocks 1 and 2 in the northern part of the Lebanese offshore, and 299
Blocks 5, 8 and 10 in the south, close to the Israeli border. Carboniferous
FORMATION OF PANGAEA
Liberia: The Liberia Petroleum Regulatory Authority opened its
2020 round qualifications on 15 April 2020 as planned, but to
prevent the spread of Covid-19 the launch event was conducted via
a webinar, attended only by Liberian delegates. The round covers 359*
nine blocks in the Harper Basin, one of the last unexplored and Paleozoic Devonian
undrilled regions offshore West Africa.

India: India’s Directorate General of Hydrocarbons has announced

that, in view of the lockdown due to the Covid-19 pandemic, the
Variscan orogeny

last date for bid submissions in the Open Acreage Licensing Policy 419
Silurian
Bid Round V will be extended, although no revised date has yet
been notified. This round covers 11 blocks, eight of which are 443*
Ordovician
Caledonia orogeny

onshore and three offshore. In addition, the ‘Expression of Interest’

(EOI) cycles for Round VI, due to have ended March 31 and Round
VII, scheduled to end July 31, 2020, will be merged, with bidding
based on EOIs received by the end of July. 486
South Sudan: The world’s youngest country had planned to launch Cambrian
its first license round in Q1 2020, with 14 blocks in the north of
the country on offer. However, with uncertainty around the state
of the industry post coronavirus, the launch has been deferred The Great Unconformity 541
indefinitely. South Sudan produces 178,000 bpd but hopes to reach
250,000 bpd soon.
Neoproterozoic
Precambrian

United Kingdom: The UK’s Oil and Gas Authority has confirmed
there will be no new offshore licensing round in 2020. It hopes that
this will allow more relinquishments to take place so more areas will
be available when a round is announced at an as yet unplanned date.

8 GEOExPro May 2020

GEOExPro May 2020 9
A Minute to Read… News from around the world

URTeC 2020: Now More Than Ever

Get the training your team needs to maximize efficiency

AAPG
and profitability. Business and social connectivity is
particularly important during challenging times. That’s why
the Unconventional Resources Technology Conference
(URTeC), July 20–22 in Austin, Texas, remains critical to
you, your colleagues and your business.
URTeC will deliver value by leveraging expertise from
all technical backgrounds – geochemistry, rock mechanics,
seismic technology, horizontal drilling, completion methods,
cost control, and project management – and by examining
what is working within the current business environment. It
is the best opportunity you will have to exchange information,
formulate strategic ideas and solve problems to manage and
optimize your unconventional resource plays.
The objectives of the conference are to provide a high quality and peer reviewed science and technology experience; to
create a premier forum for technical exchange between vendors and users; to identify and solve E&P problems; and to raise the
competency of all petroleum professionals.
In good and in difficult times, bringing together professionals from across disciplines is the best way to find solutions. Plan
now to attend URTeC to connect with everyone and everything unconventional.

Shearwater Enters Deepwater OBS Market

Provider of marine geophysical services Shearwater GeoServices has been awarded a major ocean bottom seismic (OBS)
deepwater remotely operated survey (ROV) project by TGS and partner in the US Gulf of Mexico.
The company already has an extensive track record of innovation and commercial success in OBS, but this is the
company’s fi rst OBS ROV survey, making Shearwater the only company offering a complete portfolio covering towed
streamer and OBS marine acquisition, along with associated
processing services. The addition of deepwater OBS ROV operations
to its ocean bottom node capabilities will leverage the company’s
strengths in source capabilities, operational scale and flexibility and
marks its presence in all sectors of the OBS market, in both acquisition
and processing.
The survey will start in Q2 2020 and is expected to take about four
months. It will use the SW Diamond and SW Emerald, which are
equipped with three high-capacity sources each composed of three sub-
arrays, allowing the data to be acquired using two source vessels instead
of three for the survey, with a consequent increase in efficiency and
reduction in operational greenhouse gas emissions.

Waste to Tackle Waste

Researchers at Flinders University in Australia have come up with a novel
way to clean up oil spills, using waste cooking oil from fast food outlets and
sulfur, a by-product of the petroleum industry. The resulting product (right) is
a hydrophobic polymer – meaning that it separates from water and binds well
to oil, which it absorbs much like a sponge, forming a gel that can be scooped
out of the water. It is capable of absorbing 2–3 times its mass in oil or diesel
and is reusable, as recovered oil can be squeezed from the polymer like water
from a sponge; the oil can also be reused.
Flinders University have now entered into a deal with Clean Earth
Technologies, a company that specializes in developing cleaner approaches
Flinders University

and outcomes for tapping the earth’s richness, in order to commercialize the
Justin Chalker,

absorbent polysulfide, which can also be used as a clean-up solution to other

environmental problems like mercury pollution and fertilizer runoff.
Using waste to tackle waste; a truly ‘green’ solution.

10 GEOExPro May 2020

Structural Reconnaissance with Artificial Intelligence
Artificial Intelligence (AI) algorithms can significantly

Geoteric
speed up the interpretation of large datasets. Fault
delineation is one of those areas where AI can deliver an
independent, unbiased input for the structural interpreters.
A basin scale structural reconnaissance provides an
efficient overview of the main structural elements and
trends, while a regional resolution structural framework
assists in understanding the development of a trap. A more
detailed analysis can focus on the reservoir to understand its
compartmentalization. And finally, at well resolution the AI
algorithms can highlight fault-related risks and offer valuable
insight for the post-drill well performance analysis.
In the example on the right, the Southern North Sea
Megasurvey, provided by the UK Oil and Gas Authority,
was analyzed with the Foundation Network developed by
Geoteric (see GEO ExPro, Vol. 16, No. 2, 2019). Although there are blank zones in the dataset, the actual seismic data covers
around 24,000 km2, offering an unparalleled insight into the complex tectonics of the North Sea. The high quality results offer
an excellent starting point for further, more focused studies, revealing intricate details of a complicated tectonic history.

AAPG Annual Conference Update

Geoscientists and industry professional alike have asked about topics and content will provide a more engaging and dynamic
the current status of the American Association of Petroleum geoscience exchange. The event will also include 15 forums
Geologists (AAPG) Annual Convention and Exhibition and special sessions, 11 short courses, eight field trips, nine
(ACE), June 7–10, 2020. Based on ongoing evaluations, close networking events, four luncheons, U-Pitch presentations,
coordination with the City of Houston, and our understanding student and young professional activities, and more.
of current advisories, the event is still scheduled as planned, Attend with complete confidence as our registration
but we are carefully monitoring the situation. cancelation policies have been updated. Cancelations will
As the global community confronts these challenging times, now be accepted with a full refund if received before May 1,
the health and safety of our members, customers and employees 2020 and any cancelations received between May 1–31 will be
remains our primary concern. With many of the current assessed a $75 processing fee and the balance will be refunded.
declarations and advisories in effect through April, we will Unless ACE is postponed or canceled, refunds will not be
provide additional updates on May 1 or sooner as warranted. processed after May 31, 2020. Due to instructor and direct
The program features more than 1,000 diverse and expense obligations, the refund deadline for Short Courses
informative technical talks and posters spanning 15 and Field Trips will continue to be April 23. No refunds for
concurrent sessions. Newly integrated presentation formats, field trips and/or short courses can be made after this date.

Searcher Opens UK Office

Ground-breaking privately owned seismic company Searcher Searcher

has opened a UK office in Woking, near London, as a platform

to manage its future global new business activities. This is a
perfect location to manage the creation of new seismic datasets
in Latin America, Africa, Europe, Middle East and the Far East,
building on the extensive multi-client datasets Searcher already
holds. “We are so thrilled to be launching this new platform
into a market excited for innovative 3D and 2D seismic
datasets,” said Debbie Sewell, Searcher’s new VP Global
Business Development. “With our sister companies ‘Finder’
and ‘Discover’, this will help us to bring additional value and
business solutions.”
One of Debbie’s first tasks for Searcher was at the 2020
APPEX event in early March, where she awarded Kevin Dale,
Geoscience Advisor at Sasol, with the booth draw prize; 40
trees planted for carbon offsetting. She explained that carbon offsetting is a major part of the Searcher creativity message and
that she believes that attention to detail is what makes the company special.

GEOExPro May 2020 11

Cover Story: GEO Science Explained

Locating Sweet Spots:

Rasoul Sorkhabi
Shale Petroleum Systems
Petroleum system analysis has been a major tool in petroleum
geoscience and exploration – but can it help locate shale ‘sweet
spots’ and thus increase production, reduce risk and minimize
the environmental footprint? RASOUL SORKHABI, Ph.D.

In the last decade US oil production increased by 60%, to Petroleum System Analysis
over 13.4 MMbopd by early 2020. This increased production, When the oil industry began in the 1860s, all oilmen
which has been partly responsible for depressing oil prices, wanted to fi nd were seeps and anticlines to drill. In the
has been made possible essentially because of the shale 1920s, they began to develop concepts and technologies to
revolution, since US conventional crude production has been quantitatively study reservoir rocks. For the next 50 years,
in decline for decades. subsurface mapping and characterization of reservoirs
The shale revolution in the US is currently limited to a few and traps by geological and geophysical methods was the
basins and formations: the Permian, Barnett and Eagle Ford focus in exploration. It was not until the 1970s that source
in Texas, the Bakken in North Dakota, and the Marcellus in rock studies drew serious attention from the industry and
the Appalachian east. However, there are numerous other geochemists developed techniques to identify kerogen
shale plays in North America and elsewhere in the world, and types and estimate thermal maturity of source rocks,
many other countries regard their shale resources producible based mainly on vitrinite reflectance microscopy. As
if economic and technological conditions became optimal. computational and digitization techniques were developed
Meanwhile, there are some fundamental questions about shale in the 1980s, it became possible to perform basin-scale
science that we do not understand. Given that shale formations modeling of oil generation, migration, and accumulation, as
are self-sourced and self-sealed reservoirs, how can we apply geochemists developed ideas and methods to characterize
petroleum system analysis, a methodology developed for petroleum source rocks.
conventional reservoirs and prospects, to these formations? Can A petroleum system consists of physical elements and
petroleum system analysis reduce risk and increase productivity associated processes and here we briefly describe them for
of shale petroleum? This article aims to address these questions. shale formations.

A view of fractured Marcellus Shale of Devonian age in West Virginia (the author is in the picture for scale).
Rasoul Sorkhabi

12 GEOExPro May 2020

 as Hydrogen Index or S2/TOC from pyrolysis); otherwise,
pure organic carbon would produce graphite.
Moreover, the rock should be sufficiently buried and
heated to generate hydrocarbons. There are several methods
to estimate the paleo-temperatures of source rocks,
including burial history diagrams, Tmax readings from S2
peak in pyrolysis experiments, and vitrinite reflectance (R0)
measurements. Hydrocarbons are generated in a temperature-
dependent, step-wise sequence of kerogen (insoluble in
ordinary organic solvents) to bitumen (soluble in organic
solvents) to heavy crude, light crude, wet gas, and dry gas. In
this fractionation, hydrocarbons become simpler and lighter
molecules.

Rasoul Sorkhabi
Many Faces of Migration
Once oil and gas have been generated in the source rock,
Petroleum system analysis in shale formations. some will be expelled and will enter the basin, but some will
remain within the formation. Hydrocarbon expulsion from
Source Rock and Generation the source rock is called primary migration. The expelled oil
Petroleum source rock contains kerogen – highly complex and gas, being buoyant, will then flow (secondary migration)
organic compounds that thermally crack to hydrocarbon through porous carrier beds or open fractures and will
molecules as the rock is progressively buried and heated by eventually accumulate in enclosed reservoirs (pools). Most of
overlying sediments. The source rock is the petroleum basin’s the expelled hydrocarbons, however, diffuse in the basin.
‘kitchen.’ Black claystone (mudstone, shale and marl) is the The ratio of how much oil or gas is expelled from the
best source rock because it retains plenty of kerogen within source rock and how much is retained in the rock formation
its pore space. Limestone can also be a good source rock. differs for various source rocks depending on their conditions.
Coal essentially generates natural gas, although deltaic coal Studies of Barnett Shale, for instance, suggest that 60% of
formations can produce some oil. generated oil was expelled and 40% was retained in the
Not all clay-rich rocks generate hydrocarbons; it depends shale. However, some researchers do not consider expulsion
on the amount of organic carbon in the rock, which is mechanisms to be very effective, and believe that perhaps as
measured as percentage of total organic carbon (TOC). Less much as 80% of hydrocarbons are retained in the source rock,
than 0.5% suggests poor source rock, while TOC of 2–4% possibly because oil saturation in shale plays has been found
indicates very good source rocks. Aside from high TOC, the to be over 75% of the rock’s porosity. How much hydrocarbon
source rock should also possess organic hydrogen (measured is generated in shale and how much is expelled or retained

Hydrocarbon generation in shale. Note that aside from temperature, kerogen type also plays a role in the amount of oil or gas generation.

Rasoul Sorkhabi

GEOExPro May 2020 13

Cover Story: GEO Science Explained

by permeability (milliDarcy for

Rasoul Sorkhabi

conventional reservoirs).
Shale formations are tight rocks
with clay-sized grains less than 4
μm diameter and small pore throats
0.1–0.005 μm. Shale formations
have porosities less than 10% and
rock permeabilities in nanoDarcies.
Because of these tight properties,
shale targets are stimulated by
hydraulic fracturing to produce oil
or gas.
Porosity structure in a shale
is divided into matrix (inorganic)
porosity, kerogen (organic) porosity,
and natural fracture porosity. Free
(mobile) oil resides in the matrix
and facture pores; adsorbed and
absorbed oil is in kerogen (organic)
porosity. Organic matter has 44
times more adsorptive power than
quartz; therefore, kerogen porosity
Lithological spectrum from sandstone to shale reservoirs and their petrophysical comparisons.
is important, although the quality
and producibility of sorbed oil in
remain interesting questions to be investigated using various shale should also be considered. Fracture porosity has not
cases and simulations. been observed to be a major storage feature. Shale porosity
The retained oil in shale can both stay in place and migrate can be calculated on samples in a laboratory or from wireline
within the formation. Intra-formational migration seems to log measurements such as bulk density, neutron porosity, and
be counter-intuitive because shale as a source rock is a very sonic logs, although these have traditionally been developed
tight (low permeability) oil-wet rock. But two important and calibrated for sandstone and carbonate reservoirs, so well
mechanisms can migrate oil or gas within the shale formation. log petrophysics for shale requires more work.
First, shale formations are not homogenous; they contain Fractures provide the main permeability in shale
relatively high-permeability layers (sand, silt or limestone) and formations. Natural fractures in shale may be divided into
fractures which can facilitate oil and gas migrating updip the four categories: bedding-parallel fractures (if mudstone
formation. Second, during the compositional fractionation has been deeply buried to develop fissile platy structures,
of hydrocarbons (from heavy oil to dry gas), the buoyancy of so typical of shale); bedding-vertical joints with spacing
lighter hydrocarbons (with high APIs, high solution gas-to- related to the layer thickness: fracture spacing increases
oil ratios and lower viscosity) will provide a migratory force. with thicker beds; tectonic fractures associated with
Compositional fractionation of hydrocarbons
also happens during production when the Kerogen types in shale and their pyrolysis characteristics. Hydrogen Index and S2/S3
produced hydrocarbons have different gas-to- are derived from pyrolysis of shale samples. S1 is the amount of free hydrocarbon in the
oil ratios than their initial values in the rock. sample; S2 is the amount of kerogen (in mg HC/g); S3 is the amount of carbon dioxide. The
unit for all these three peaks is mg HC/g. Hydrogen Index is S2/TOC (Peters and Cassa, 1994,
Intra-formational migration observed in the AAPG Memoir 60).
US Barnett, Niobrara and Bakken Formations
indicates that polar hydrocarbon compounds
(resins and asphaltenes) remain in situ
because of their high sorption (adsorption and
absorption) in kerogen porosity, while saturates
and aromatics move into organic-lean porous
intervals.

Reservoir Storage and Production

A petroleum reservoir has two functions:
firstly, it stores oil or gas; and secondly, it acts
as a conduit to yield oil or gas into production
wells. The storage capacity is measured by
porosity (the percentage of pore space in a
volume of rock); the yield capacity is measured

14 GEOExPro May 2020

folding and faulting; and
micro-fractures arising from
hydrocarbon generation in the
rock (conversion of kerogen to
hydrocarbon involves volume
increase and fluid overpressure
in the rock). Natural fractures
in the rock may be open or
closed (healed by mineral veins
or compressional stress) but
only open fractures will be
conductive.

Sealing and Entrapment

In conventional (migrated
hydrocarbon) reservoirs, cap
(seal) rock is necessary to
prevent the upward migration
Hydrocarbon fluid types in reservoirs. API values are for stock-tank-oil gravity at surface conditions. The gas-
of oil or gas. The cap rock, to-oil ratio is in standard cubic feet per stock-tank oil barrel at standard conditions of 60°F and 14.7 psi.
usually mudrock or salt, is a
fine-grained, water-wet, low porosity and low permeability mg oil/g TOC), the shale has producible oil, although he also
formation. By contrast, except for the expulsion or tectonic notes that measurements of S1 peak (free hydrocarbon in
fracturing processes, shale formations are self-sealed pyrolysis) and TOC need to be reasonably accurate for this
reservoirs. exercise.
Traps are geometrical configurations that provide a
closure for the accumulated oil or gas in the reservoir. Back to the Future
Traps in conventional prospects are divided into structural, Shale gas production dates back to the 19th century and
stratigraphic, hydrodynamic and combination types. This hydraulic fracturing began in the 1940s. Nevertheless, at the
classification is not directly applicable to shales; however, turn of this century, no one would have predicted the coming
lithological variations (both lateral and vertical) related shale revolution. Shales were only viewed as sources or seals;
to depositional processes play an important role in the they were not cored, logged or studied for their reservoir
framework of shale formations. properties. Shale petroleum system analysis is, therefore, in
its infancy. Nevertheless, several important points require
Classification of Shale Reservoirs attention.
Compared to sandstone and carbonate reservoirs, our Firstly, total petroleum systems include both migrated
knowledge of shale as a petroleum reservoir remains poor. In and self-sourced reservoirs; this is a major addition to the
recent years, some researchers have classified shale reservoirs global hydrocarbon budget. Secondly, like conventional ones,
in North America into three categories: tight shale, in which petroleum systems in shale are dynamic, in which all the
source and reservoir localities are the same; hybrid shale, elements and processes need to be evaluated and integrated
where shale is interbedded with more porous but organic- to locate sweet spots for drilling and production. Given the
lean siliceous or calcareous layers; and fractured shale, often heterogeneities and complexities of shale formations, it is
rich in heavy oil or dry gas, where natural fractures provide necessary to conduct petroleum system analyses in numerous
considerable permeability and porosity. Of course, these are locations of the same shale play. Thirdly, the shale revolution
end-member categories. It is inconceivable to have a shale has motivated us to investigate significant uncertainties in
formation which does not exhibit lithological heterogeneity or our measurements of TOC, pyrolysis (for example, correcting
has remained unfractured. for evaporative loss of hydrocarbons in S1 peak), porosity,
Some researchers divide shale reservoirs into argillaceous, permeability, and so forth. Shale production requires higher
calcareous and siliceous, based on the relative abundance resolution geoscience.
of clay, carbonate, and silica minerals in the rock. Ternary Finally, production from shale formations are drastically
diagrams using these mineralogical data indicate if the shale different from conventional reservoirs. Recovery in shale is
is more brittle (high silica) or not. These are informative less than 10% for oil and about 15–20% for gas, compared
exercises to understand the response of the shale formation to to about 50% oil recovery and up to 80% gas recovery in
hydraulic fracturing. conventional reservoirs. Shale wells have sharp decline rates
A third classification is to divide shale plays into ‘active’ and last only a couple of years, compared to decades-long
(still in the oil or gas window) or ‘inactive’ (overcooked or conventional wells. Moreover, shale production consumes
uplifted) systems. It is important to know if a shale formation a lot of water for fracking and is associated with induced
has producible oil or not before drilling. Daniel Jarvie has seismicity, fugitive methane and other environmental issues.
suggested that if S1/TOC ratio is greater than one (i.e. >100 All this calls for better science and technology.

GEOExPro May 2020 15

Exploration

Mexico’s Energy Reform

Five years on, what has Mexico’s energy reform delivered
for the country’s exploration and production ambitions?
ARUNA MANNIE, Premier Oil

The Mexican Constitutional Energy Reform took place in

CNH 2019
2014 in response to decreasing production, low oil prices,
increasing foreign debt and competition from neighboring
countries. It was the first time since 1938 that the country had
opened its doors to foreign energy investment.

Over 100 Licenses Assigned

Though it got off to a disappointing start with only two
out of the fourteen blocks successfully awarded in the first
round, it wasn’t long before the license round bidding became
competitive. Since then more than US$1.6 billion has been
paid in signature bonuses. The consistency, transparency and
persistence of the Mexican regulatory bodies over the past
five years saw 111 licenses assigned and at least US$35 billion
of investment from more than 76 companies (Figure 1), with Figure 2: Investment in seismic acquisition and reprocessing activities (US$).
commitments to drill a total of 413 wells for hydrocarbon
exploration and extraction by 2023. to sensibly allocate capital spending and drill fewer dry
However, with the change in governmental regime in holes.
the latter part of 2018, the incoming administration has The country has benefitted from a requirement for
halted subsequent licensing rounds until the energy reform companies to commit to a minimum percentage of capital
delivers on its committed work programs and production investment on national content and various technology
starts. This hiatus has advantages, in that it allows the transfer initiatives, ranging from collaboration on projects
service and support industries to prepare for the rapid with universities to the introduction of software and
growth and expansion of activities that is expected to occur technology. The rapid pace of the license rounds saw more
in the next few years. More importantly, it will allow time than US$3 billion invested in 2D and 3D seismic evaluations
for exploration wells to be drilled and evaluated to de-risk (Figure 2) and the energy reforms have already delivered
plays in the basin and allow companies and the government considerable success with the billion-barrel Zama discovery,
as well as the Cholula and Saasken
Figure 1: Over the past five years 111 licenses have been assigned to foreign companies. discoveries (Figure 3). Within just three
years the Amoca-Mitzon-Tecoalli,
Modified from CNH 2019

Hokchi, Ichakil-Pokoch and Trion

discoveries have been appraised by
foreign oil companies, adding more than
two billion barrels of 2P reserves (Figure
1). Mitzon first oil was in July 2019,
producing 8,000 bopd, with Amoca and
Tecoalli expected to come onstream in
early 2021, producing a combined total
of 100,000 bopd. Hokchi and Ichakil
are projected to produce first oil by
2020. With PEMEX existing contracts,
planned field developments and the
extraction contracts assigned in the
energy reform, peak production in 2021
is expected to be around 1.8 MMbopd,
up from the current 1.6 MMbopd,
although less than the 600,000 bopd
expected by the government by 2025.
Further increases will be dependent on

16 GEOExPro May 2020

exploration success from wells bid in license rounds following the imaging and mapping of salt-related traps. In the next few
the energy reform. years, as discoveries are made and the race to first oil continues,
there will be challenges in supply chain management and the
What Were the Challenges? construction of infrastructure whilst maintaining the national
There were definitely advantages for Premier Oil in being a first content requirement.
mover in terms of international companies, but entering any
new international basin poses its own technical Figure 3: Drilling results from exploration wells (March 2020).
and operational challenges and the Sureste
Basin was no different. There were a number
of geological and geophysical questions, many
common to entering any underexplored basin,
especially in a country which is opening its doors
to foreign energy investment for the first time in
76 years. Stringent regulatory compliance such as
financial corporate guarantees and justification
of technical capabilities as an operator were some
of the barriers faced within a time-constrained
environment of the license round. This was to
ensure companies had the financial and technical
capabilities to invest what they promised to
deliver without having to be rescued by farm-outs
or ending up with licenses sitting idle for years.
Sparse well data availability and
inconsistencies in generic well data resulted
in the need for significant investment of time
spent on conditioning wireline logs and QC
of reports. In many cases the seismic imaging
was moderate quality at best, which challenged

GEOExPro May 2020 17

Exploration

Exploration Risks Identified of hydrocarbons, and wells which lack an AVO response
With nine main geological basins in Mexico, covering a diverse were dry. The deepwater Sureste Basin (also known as the
set of sedimentological and tectonic settings, comprising Campeche Basin), is a frontier experience testing unchartered
clastics, carbonates, extension, compression, strike-slip, salt territory, with the Norphlet and Wilcox plays (successful in
diapirism, shale diapirism and even a meteorite impact there the US Gulf of Mexico) targeted by wells in 2020, including
is nothing more a geologist could ask for! With natural oil Chibu-1, which is currently drilling (Figure 1). As further
seeps oozing at the seabed, one can easily be captivated by the exploration wells are drilled in the basin, many of which
untapped potential within this oil-mature province. target the clastic plays, the amplitude story will be unraveled
Mexico shares its early geological history with the US Gulf of and result in better drilling decisions.
Mexico. Rifting initiated in the Middle Jurassic, providing the
accommodation for deposition of the laterally extensive Louann What Does the Future Hold for Mexico?
and Campeche salt deposits and subsequent deposition of the With more than 77 committed exploration wells to be drilled
world class Type II marine carbonate Tithonian source rock. in the next five years there will definitely be no slowing down
The Chicxulub meteorite impact at the end of the Cretaceous is of activity in Mexico. There is also the added advantage of
responsible for the carbonate fields to the east of Mexico. The being protected by the Production Sharing Contracts in a
Paleogene Laramide and Neogene Middle Miocene Chiapaneco lower oil price environment. Plays will be de-risked and our
compressional events resulted in rapid clastic deposition which understanding of the petroleum systems of the Mexican sector
influences the present day structural styles, such as salt- of the Gulf of Mexico will evolve rapidly. Billion-barrel fields will
withdrawal mini-basins, salt diapirs and associated structures, be few and far between due to confined trapping geometries,
compressional folds and listric faults. and it is thought that many discoveries are likely to contain
In the early days of exploration, the focus was primarily on recoverable reserves in the 50–250 MMboe range, requiring
the Sureste Basin, also known as the Salina de Istmo, a proven cluster developments. This could potentially lead to another
prolific hydrocarbon province. It has produced in excess of 18 wave of divestments and acquisitions in the next 3–5 years.
Bboe to date, mainly from Cretaceous carbonate reservoirs, The energy reform can help reverse Mexico’s declining
and is known for the supergiant multi-billion barrel Cantarell production and contribute toward the government achieving
oilfield, one of the largest anywhere in the world. Prospective its goal of increasing production by 600,000 bopd by 2025.
resources are in the order of 13 Bbo and 6.5 Tcfg (CNH 2018). However, this will require greater collaboration between
With current production focused mainly on the carbonates, the international oil companies and the Mexican regulatory
the majority of the established clastic players entering the bodies in order to reduce the timeline from discovery to first
basin were drawn to the seismic ‘bright-spots’ in the supra-salt oil without compromising technical and HSES standards.
and salt flank plays with the poorly imaged sub-salt traps as Clarity from the Mexican government on the future for
a potential upside. Post-drill analysis of wells in the Miocene foreign investment in the country’s energy sector will be
and Pliocene plays in the Sureste Basin revealed reservoir advantageous. The future could be a period in Mexico’s history
presence and seal as the main risks with a smaller percentage of increasing production and development of the Mexican
due to migration. economy as a whole, placing its people and the country on a
With wells few and far between and limited access to global stage with other producing countries worldwide.
seismic angle stacks it
was difficult to properly Figure 4: Gulf of Mexico structural elements – all the challenges a geologist could ask for!
understand the amplitude
responses especially in
light of the fact that there
EarthMoves

are structural traps at

similar depths and age
without AVO responses.
Having an understanding
of the regional geology,
including features such as
tectonic history, petroleum
systems expulsion
and timing and gross
depositional environment
were important for
prospect risking. To date,
with ten other exploration
wells drilled in the Sureste,
we know that seismic
‘bright-spots’ are not
always a reliable indicator

18 GEOExPro May 2020

 Orphan Basin, Canada:
A new, high quality regional dataset covering 22,469 km2 is
enabling the identification of important petroleum system
elements in the underexplored Orphan Basin, offshore eastern
Canada. Block evaluations for the upcoming license rounds

From Regional Prospect Screening

can be performed with confidence with this multi-sensor 205 km
broadband seismic data and its reliable pre-stack attributes.
The most recently acquired part of this regional dataset is the

to Reliable Reservoir Attributes North Tablelands survey, acquired in 2019 as an extension of the
Tablelands and Long Range surveys, which were shot in 2017–

Estimation
2018 by PGS and TGS. Figure 2: (a) Location of the Long
Range, Tablelands and North
Tablelands 3D surveys; (b) Locator
Fast-track data was delivered just five weeks after the last shot of map looking north across the
the North Tablelands survey. A full integrity volume is available surveys. The amplitude extraction
on the seafloor demonstrates
now and provides a single, continuous high-resolution seismic the modern day depositional
Figure 1: Regional line through the Long Range, Tablelands and North Tablelands surveys and key exploration wells showing the horst and graben dataset available for licensing early next year, encompassing the directions. The white line shows
structure of the Orphan Basin. Relative acoustic impedance is overlaid on the Top Cretaceous to Base Jurassic interval into the grabens resolving the track of the 2D seismic section
detailed structures and revealing additional opportunities characterized by low relative acoustic impedance (dark red).
Long Range, Tablelands and North Tablelands surveys. a below.

PGS
Margaree Lona Great Barasway
S b N
150 km

Top Cretaceous
Top Jurassic

Top Jurassic

Orphan High

Seismic Relative acoustic

amplitude impedance
+ +

East Orphan Basin East Orphan Basin

20 GEOExPro May 2020
20 km
-
GEOExPro May 2020 -
22
Exploring the Highly
in the Tertiary section make identifying a) b)

PGS
stratigraphy and possible fluid effects easy. Work
over the three datasets using pre-stack relative

Prospective Orphan Basin

inversion has demonstrated fan geometries in
the younger section of the Orphan basin and the
northern portion of the Flemish Pass basin.

Advanced Tools Image Complex Geology

Eastern Canada is one of the most promising deepwater exploration areas in the world, where In addition to the regional imaging effort over
the implementation of state-of-the-art imaging technology is critical to develop a more this very large dataset, the implementation of
detailed local subsurface understanding. state-of-the-art imaging technology is critical
Figure 4: (a) 60 Hz one-way wave equation migration. (b) LSM delivers a higher
to develop a more detailed local subsurface
SCOTT OPDYKE, CYRILLE REISER, TIAGO ALCANTARA and ELENA POLYAEVA; PGS resolution image with significantly improved fault definition. Blue and orange markers
understanding. Full waveform inversion (FWI) indicate improvements in the Tertiary and Jurassic respectively. Blue arrows indicate
and least-squares migration (LSM) use the improvements in the Cretaceous and Jurassic.
First oil in the Jeanne d’Arc Basin was produced Open Acreage in Prospective Basins extra-broad frequency range recorded in the
in 1997 from the Hibernia Field and since then the Eastern Canada is one of the most promising deepwater GeoStreamer data to better estimate a detailed velocity Relative Vp/Vs overlaid on the pre-stack seismic (Figure
world-class oil-producing fields Terra Nova, White exploration areas in the world. In addition to the producing field and produce a robust image of the subsurface. In 5) around the Great Barasway well reveals some interesting
Rose and North Amethyst have come onstream, basins of East Canada, there are also some highly combination, they can minimize drilling risks and aid AVO anomalies characterized by very low relative Vp/Vs
while oil production from the Hebron Field started prospective underexplored basins such as the Orphan Basin reservoir understanding (Figure 3). values on the flank of the main structure. Based on the rock
in 2017. The Mesozoic basins of Grand Banks alone with potential for exciting new discoveries and world-class Depth migration techniques have been widely used in physics work, low relative Vp/Vs could indicate the presence
are estimated to hold recoverable reserves of 4.6 oil production. Access to new acreage, transparent fiscal areas with strong lateral velocity variation. Though very of hydrocarbons. These anomalies are of reasonable size, and
Bbo and 18.8 Tcf of natural gas. The 2009 Mizzen terms and a predictable land-sale policy make East Canada robust, traditional depth imaging methods suffer from can be spatially tracked on the 3D inset in Figure 5 bounded
oil discovery in the Flemish Pass Basin, estimated an attractive region for oil and gas exploration. acquisition and propagation effects that limit resolution and by some well-imaged faults.
at 200 MMbo recoverable reserves, proved the Exploration targets include Late Jurassic to Early impact the amplitudes in the resulting seismic images. LSM
extension of a working petroleum system, sourced Cretaceous fluvial to shallow marine sandstone is an emerging new imaging technique that compensates Rapid Prospectivity Evaluation
by the prolific late Jurassic source rock, into an area reservoirs sourced by prolific oil-prone Late Jurassic for acquisition limitations and variable illumination, and 3D GeoStreamer broadband seismic data acquired in the
where it was previously untested. This was followed marine shales. A mainly extensional margin provides provides more reliable amplitude information in particular last three years by PGS and TGS in the Orphan Basin
in 2013 by Harpoon and Bay du Nord fields. large structural traps and thick regional seals. Potential in areas of high structural complexity. In Tablelands, a data- demonstrates how regional prospectivity scanning can be
The Bay de Verde appraisal of Bay du Nord was reservoirs from Lower Cretaceous to Lower Tertiary are domain LSM approach was selected to improve the vertical combined with a detailed local appraisal of hydrocarbon
successful in 2015 as was the Baccalieu discovery in stratigraphically positioned above the Kimmeridgian seismic image resolution and enhance the fault definition potential using the high quality pre-stack data and rock
the same area in 2016. source rock super highway. especially in the syn-rift section (Figure 4). physics analysis. The use of state-of-the-art depth imaging
PGS, in partnership with TGS, have been GeoStreamer broadband data reveals a well-defined technologies leads to better subsurface images and improved
acquiring 2D and 3D GeoStreamer MultiClient rift section and high fidelity pre-stack seismic attributes Rapid Prospectivity Screening reservoir understanding. For the most recent North
data in Newfoundland and Labrador To facilitate a more rapid assessment of subsurface Tablelands survey high quality fast-track QI products were
Figure 3: FWI velocity model and LSM depth slice showing the structural
since 2011. The extensive library offshore prospectivity potential, a fast-track image was delivered produced to aid more rapid prospectivity evaluation for
conformability of the estimated high-resolution seismic velocity field.
eastern Canada and the seismic-based for North Tablelands together with QI products for ongoing and upcoming license rounds.
geological products for Newfoundland interpretation and integration with pre-stack broadband
and Labrador are comprehensive. Now attributes. Turnaround time was significantly
this library also includes the contiguous reduced by integrating the imaging and QI work Figure 5: Relative Vp/Vs extraction along a random line going through the Great
Long Range, Tablelands and North efforts. Pre-stack AVO QC was performed during Barasway F-66 well. Note the features of interest off-structure that could be
Tablelands surveys in the Orphan Basin the processing to ensure that the final pre-stack prospective both on the line of section above and the 3D visualization in the inset.
(Figure 2). The seismic data shown in data was fit for purpose and AVO/AVA compliant

PGS
the foldout (Figure 1) from Long Range for further QI analysis.
in the south to North Tablelands in the A final QI analysis including lithology and fluid
north demonstrates the numerous horsts prediction through a three-term AVO inversion
and grabens present in this part of the was performed on the full integrity data from
Orphan Basin. The existing fields and the Tablelands survey using all the available
discoveries are often drilled into rotated information including well log data. Three wells
PGS

fault blocks in the older section and are are present in the region of Long Range, Tablelands
adjacent to tilted half grabens and this and North Tablelands: the Great Barasway F-66
line indicates multiple opportunities well (drilled in 2006), Lona O-55 (drilled in 2010)
for prospective traps for the industry to and the Margaree A-49 well (drilled in 2013). These
test. The 3D data delineates play fairways three wells drilled the main reservoir and source
from the Orphan Basin in the north rock in the area. The Tithonian to Kimmeridgian
to the Jeanne d’Arc Basin in the south interval was used to build a regional rock physics
while the 2D data is available for regional model. The Great Barasway well was modeled and
interpretation and basin analysis. has a good tie to the source rock and high quality
siliciclastic reservoirs.

GEOExPro May 2020 23 24 GEOExPro May 2020

GEOExPro May 2020 25
GEO Physics

Marine Site Investigation The evolving role of

seismic reflection

and Reducing Risk

data within offshore
site investigation.

MARK E. VARDY, SAND Geophysics

Marine site investigation is, at heart, the ability to image the seafloor and or risk mitigation phases is somewhat
about reducing risk. Sometimes subsurface structure continuously limited. For hazards, such as UXO or
it involves minimizing the risk to in 2D or 3D over large areas and at a shallow gas, this often takes the form of
operations posed by UneXploded high fidelity. By combining multiple a presence/absence map, with limited
Ordnance (UXO), shallow gas, and/or different seismic methods, it is possible information regarding the dimensions
unexpected ground conditions. Other to blend data with different resolutions of the potential UXO or the gas
times, it mitigates the design risk for and penetrations, providing both saturation within a possible gas front.
subsequent infrastructure, such as wind sub-meter-resolution imaging of the When predicting ground conditions,
farm monopiles, by providing enough shallow subsurface and lower-resolution the output from the seismic reflection
relevant information about the nature penetration of the full top-hole section, interpretation commonly takes the form
of the subsurface to ensure the design as required. of a simplified ground model, mapping
is appropriate for the entire installation the depths of key interfaces, facies
lifecycle. Alternatively, it can simply Are We Maximizing Data Potential? thickness variations and key structural
involve reducing financial risk, such as As is the case within all industries, features such as faults.
ensuring the aggregates being targeted however, one must always be asking the In reality, the seismic reflection
for extraction are a profitable resource. question: are we getting maximum value data contains much more detailed
At the core of these investigations from the techniques being employed? information about the nature of
sits seismic reflection data, a key This question has been posed the subsurface. Variability in the
methodology that is utilized across many times in recent decades with amplitude, phase, and architecture
all manner of site investigation regard to the seismic reflection data of the reflections provide extremely
projects worldwide. Relatively cheap acquired as part of site investigations, useful first-order information on the
and fast to acquire when compared primarily because the output from the nature of the sediments comprising
to intrusive sampling techniques, geophysical part of a site investigation the subsurface, under what conditions
seismic reflection surveying offers that feeds into subsequent design and/ they were deposited, and how they may
have been deformed post-deposition.
A boomer seismic reflection section from a wind farm site survey. The seismic profile is overlain with
Changes in bedding and post-
an example interpretation of major facies boundaries, along with a ground model constructed using
these. To illustrate how little of the complex, subtle detail on the original seismic reflection profile depositional deformation are captured
is communicated in this ground model, a synthetic seismic section generated using only the major both across major facies boundaries
facies boundaries is also shown (right). It is clear that, unless engineers and project managers look as well as the, potentially more subtle,
at the seismic data, a huge amount of potentially useful information may not be communicated into
internal patterns within each facies.
the later phases of a project. Data courtesy Crown Estates.
The latter information can be
particularly pertinent as it provides
SAND Geophysics

a direct indication as to how the

properties of a particular facies might
vary across a site. Within the aggregates
and offshore mining industries,
such information can be critical in
assessing the financial viability of a
deposit, characterizing it as a 3D (or
pseudo-3D) rock volume. For offshore
construction projects, the variability
of ground conditions within each
facies is important for both health
and safety decision-making, such as
understanding the differential loading
profi le between jack-up rig locations,
as well as the engineering design. For
cable and pipeline installation projects,
understanding spatial variability in

26 GEOExPro May 2020

 These methods are widely used in the hydrocarbon
sector to help identify and characterize potential features
of interest, like gas channels, salt or fault structures, but
have yet to see widespread use within the site survey
sector. However, the potential is significant, particularly
for the effective communication of geological complexity
into the later project phases. Not only do such attributes
more effectively highlight key features of interest on
seismic sections, which often appear confusing to
non-specialists, but many also readily lend themselves
SAND Geophysics

to being efficiently summarized. For example, using

a combination of attributes that highlight the chaotic
and high amplitude reflections from a heterogeneous,
aggregate-rich substrate can be used to both better
Chart of rock quality metric for a marine aggregates area, estimated using constrain the thickness of such deposits (often hard to
seismic attributes (warmer colors indicate greater resource potential). The rock interpret on seismic reflection sections) as well as the
quality data is overlain by deposit thickness contours, illustrating the complex
variability of the heterogeneity, which indicates resource
relationship between thickness and quality of the deposit; thicker deposits do not
necessarily make the best extraction targets. The combination of these data permit potential. Both these features can be easily summarized
project managers to efficiently make well-informed, high-level decisions about the as charts, providing a high-level communication of
resource potential within a prospect area and whether it is financially viable. relatively subtle detail within the geophysical dataset that
would otherwise not have been used.

the shallow geology is critical in route planning to maximize

cable performance and identify the correct trenching tool(s) A Chirp sub-bottom profiler section across a controlled carbon dioxide
for installation. injection site. Seismic amplitudes are overlain with a free gas potential
metric derived using seismic attributes. Warmer colors indicate a
higher potential for free gas being present in the shallow subsurface,
Can We Communicate Better? which highlights not only stratigraphic levels where free gas may have
These features of seismic reflection data are a key piece of accumulated (e.g. horizon H2), but also, potentially more importantly,
information used by the seismic interpreter when building a vertical gas migration pathways, which here can be seen to extend right to
the seafloor (SF), crossing the two main subsurface stratigraphic horizons
seismostratigraphic model, aiding the interpreter in deciding (H1 and H2). Data courtesy of University of Southampton QICS project.
where the major facies boundaries are located and how those
facies relate to each other (e.g. is the boundary conformable
or unconformable?). While an experienced interpreter will
combine all this information into their decision-making
process, it commonly does not move beyond that interpreter’s
desk. Observations and example images of this complex
seismostratigraphic architecture are often included in the
seismic interpretation and geological ground model reports,
but not in a manner that effectively consolidates all the
information available into an easily communicable form that
can be digested by project managers and engineers working
on subsequent project phases.
As such, there are obvious and significant benefits to the
wider project if this more subtle and complex information can
be better communicated, ideally at a higher level.
One potential solution is to use seismic attributes that can
enhance specific variations in seismic architecture, providing
a clearer distinction between seismostratigraphic facies with
contrasting characters (likely, therefore, to have different
material properties) as well as capturing the more subtle spatial
changes within facies with similar characters. A wide range of
seismic attributes can be derived from both 2D and 3D seismic
data, some of which are based upon the physics of the seismic
wavefield (e.g. instantaneous frequency, average energy), while
others are derived from image analysis techniques (e.g. edge
SAND Geophysics

detection, seismic texture). The correct attribute(s) to use will

vary between projects, depending on the nature of the geology
being imaged and the features to be highlighted.

GEOExPro May 2020 27

GEO Physics

Be More Quantitative? sites of interest, allowing the core geotechnical parameters

One significant limitation of such properties, however, is (undrained shear strength and relative density) to be
that they are not truly quantitative. In the aggregate example generated using a standard engineering workflow where they
described, it is assumed that more heterogeneous facies have are most needed.
a better resource potential, but the actual resource potential An immensely useful additional feature of casting the
in terms of grain size distribution and volume fraction of quantitative process within such a stochastic/ML framework
viable aggregates is not derived. Such questions regarding is the ability to estimate confidence intervals. As the initial
deriving more quantitative information from site investigation conditions of these algorithms are random (or at least pseudo-
geophysical data have been posed for many years, in particular random), multiple independent runs with the same input data
related to deriving geotechnical properties that are useful for will provide subtly different predictions. Therefore, combining
infrastructure design and installation. the results from multiple runs provides the interpreter with
Generally, extracting quantitative information regarding a useful tool to understand whether the inversion is stable
the nature of the subsurface from seismic reflection data is as well as capture an estimate of the uncertainty in the
classified under the umbrella term ‘seismic inversion’, which final prediction. For infrastructure design and installation
contains a smorgasbord of different techniques/methods applications, the potential of such information cannot be
to derive estimates of the subsurface properties from the understated.
recorded seismic data. While the inversion of exploration-
scale data for reservoir characterization has been relatively The Way Forward
common for decades, the inversion of site survey data has This article has looked at some of the ways in which the use
been slow to catch on. In part this is because site survey of seismic reflection data for site investigation applications
geophysical data does not lend itself readily to inversion, is evolving. Its role is changing from being a simple facies
often suffering from noise contamination (due to smaller boundary interpretation tool, into something that effectively
source sizes and shallow tow depths) and recording a more contributes across all phases of a project cycle, capturing and
limited representation of the seismic wavefield because of communicating information on the variability of the ground
the smaller offset ranges and lack of low frequency content. conditions, both qualitatively and quantitatively. The potential
In addition, the properties that are of most interest to site of these and similar techniques has garnered significant
investigation applications, like grain size, gas saturation interest across all sectors of the offshore site investigation
and relative density, are related to the recorded seismic industry, making it an exciting time for marine near-surface
reflection data in a very complex, non-linear manner that is, geophysics.
in the case of the more advanced geotechnical properties,
site specific. A sparker ultra-high resolution profile from an offshore wind site investigation at a
Together, these make the problem geologically complex location that has suffered multiple periods of glacial loading/
computationally challenging, but recent reworking, along with the measured and blind predicted CPT tip resistance curves. Shaded
advances in computing power and algorithms gray region is the confidence range of the blind prediction, black line is the ‘best’ blind
prediction, and orange line is the independently measured values. The dashed green lines
mean they are not insurmountable. Casting show the tip resistance envelope predicted using a traditional geostatistical approach. The
the inversion within a stochastic framework, ML prediction effectively captures all the large-scale structure along with some of the higher
which searches a broader range of potential fidelity layering, significantly outperforming the geostatistical results in such a geologically
solutions, provides a more robust solution complex and challenging setting. Data courtesy Netherlands Enterprise Agency.
that has been reliably applied to all manner

SAND Geophysics
of site investigation data, from single-
channel sub-bottom profiler to 3D ultra-
high-resolution multi-channel seismic
volumes. While it is still not possible to cast
these inversions as a one-stage prediction
of geotechnical properties, optimization
algorithms that mimic natural processes,
such as Genetic Algorithms or Simulated
Annealing, allow bulk physical properties
(e.g. acoustic impedance, bulk density,
porosity, Poisson’s ratio) to be derived with
confidence. Combining these results with
modern machine learning (ML) techniques
capable of solving highly complex, non-linear
problems, it is possible to make predictions
of the geotechnical properties from these
bulk properties. Particular success has
been had when using these methods to
generate synthetic CPT profiles at specific

28 GEOExPro May 2020

GEOExPro May 2020 29
Exploration

Central Utah Thrust Belt:

A Lost Cause? THOMAS SMITH

The 2004 Covenant oil field discovery promised to open Editor’s note: New Life for Overthrust
up a very favorable, large onshore oil province. Thirty Belt, in GEO ExPro, Vol. 3, No. 6, 2006,
additional wells have been drilled in the play since, but was Tom’s first article for the magazine.
This update covers some of the lessons
only one found producible oil. What happened? learned since that discovery.

After the Covenant discovery, the April 2005 AAPG Explorer patience of explorationists for over 50 years. Their efforts
reported in an article entitled Utah Play Makes Lots of had resulted in 58 consecutive dry holes for the area, so
Headlines that “the Covenant field discovery in central Utah this discovery set off a great deal of speculation in the play.
opens up one of the most promising onshore plays in the Landowners received large cash offers in order to lease
United States in recent memory.” Doug Strickland, exploration subsurface rights; seismic crews descended on central Utah to
manager for Michigan-based Wolverine Gas and Oil obtain better subsurface mapping; and geologists studied new
Corporation at the time, had spent over 25 years studying the and old data to locate additional traps to be drilled. While the
central Utah thrust belt (also referred to as Utah’s ‘Hingeline’) discovery and the new field have performed well, producing
and was instrumental in obtaining their acreage position. over 27 MMbo from 34 wells for Wolverine, the play continues
After the discovery, he is optimistically quoted in the same to disappoint, plaguing explorationists with dry holes. Thirty
Explorer article, “I honestly expect this to be a billion-barrel exploratory wells have been drilled since, finding only the
province – I expect we’ll find another 10 fields out there.” small, one-well Providence field located 20 km north-east of
Before the Kings Meadow Ranches No. 17-1 well flowed Covenant. With each well drilled, the story is still unfolding in
over 700 Bbopd, the central Utah thrust belt had tested the this complex play.

The Reservoir
Drilling operations at the newly discovered Covenant field, March 2005.
In 1999, Wolverine obtained data and an acreage
Wolverine’s Kings Meadow Ranches No. 17-1 encountered 150m of Temple Cap
Formation and Navajo Sandstone pay to end more than 50 years of disappointing position in the area from which Chevron pulled out
results in the central Utah thrust belt. The well flowed 40° gravity oil from excellent after drilling just one well back in 1981. Th is well
reservoirs averaging 12% porosity and 100 mD of permeability. provided some key dip meter data and, combined
with 2D seismic data, helped identify a prospect that
was considerably updip from the well. Wolverine
used some of the latest drilling methods and
mud systems to get through the Jurassic Arapien
Formation, which consists of highly contorted
mudstones and evaporites that make both drilling
and seismic mapping of structural traps difficult.
The company tagged their reservoir objective, the
Early Jurassic Navajo Sandstone, 425m higher
than anticipated (more on this later). The well was
completed and later flowed 40° API gravity oil from
the 360m-thick sandstone, with the top 150m oil-
saturated.
The Navajo Sandstone is probably best known for
the massive exposures (670m thick) in Zion National
Park (see Navajo Sandstone – A Scenic Reservoir; GEO
ExPro Vol. 4, No. 1). The eolian-derived deposits that
later formed the Navajo and equivalents cover parts
of five western states. Back in the Jurassic, you would
have encountered a great sea of sand, (often referred
to as an erg, from the Arabic ‘arq’ meaning dune
field), similar to today’s Sahara Desert in Northern
Africa or the Alashan area of the Gobi in northern
China.
Thomas Chidsey, UGS

30 GEOExPro May 2020

Structural Setting of the Sevier Belt

Rasoul Sorkhabi
The central Utah thrust belt is a segment of the much larger Cordilleran
orogenic belt that stretches several thousand kilometers from Alaska
to Central America. The Middle Jurassic to early Tertiary Cordilleran
orogenic belt formed during subduction of the Farallon Plate beneath
North America, with associated intrusion magma cooling slowly to
form large granitic plutons like the Idaho and Sierra Nevada Batholiths.
Deformation along the Cretaceous Sevier orogenic belt extends from
south-west Montana, across eastern Idaho and western Wyoming,
through Utah and into southern Nevada. Folding and thrust faulting
occurred in this area during the Cretaceous to Paleocene Sevier
Orogeny (130–60 Ma). The Sevier Orogeny was a time of active
compression in response to the Farallon Plate subduction beneath the
North American Plate.
Along this orogenic belt, sedimentary rock has been deformed by
horizontal compression effectively shortening the rocks. Reservoir rocks
can be faulted and stacked on top of each other or tightly folded to form
hydrocarbon traps. This region hosts numerous fields, mostly gas, in the
Canadian salient in western Alberta. The 1914 Turner Valley light oil
discovery was this area’s first (see GEO ExPro Vol. 5, No. 6). In 1975, the
Pineview discovery in northern Utah set off exploration in the Utah-
Wyoming salient that led to the discovery of 11 additional fields including
two giants (Anschutz Ranch East and Whitney Canyon-Carter Creek).
The central Utah segment is located approximately 300 km south-west of
the Utah-Wyoming segment where the Covenant field lies.

Location of the Covenant and Providence fields in central Utah. Provo is the
nearest large city and Utah’s capital, Salt Lake City, lies just off the map 70
km north of Provo.

“Since the Covenant discovery, new outcrop work,

regional well correlations and age-dating has refined our
understanding of the reservoirs,” says Thomas Chidsey, senior
scientist at the Utah Geological Survey (UGS). “Building on
the initial age-dating work by Chris Tolland with Oolithica
Geoscience Ltd., UK, it was determined that the upper section
of the reservoir is the Middle Jurassic Temple Cap Formation,
which unconformably overlies the Navajo. The reservoir
consists of coastal dunes (White Throne Member) associated
with tidal flat deposits (Sinawava Member). Today’s analogs
for these deposits are found along the Namibia coast of south-
western Africa.”
Covenant is currently the only field in Utah that produces
from the Temple Cap Formation. The White Throne Member,
much like the Navajo, has excellent porosity and permeability
and the field produces about equally from both reservoirs.

The Structure
“Before drilling the discovery and subsequent wells, Wolverine
geoscientists had mapped an anticline that had formed on
an east-directed thrust off a larger, underlying thrust fault,”
says Chidsey. “Yet, when an injection well was drilled west of
the field into the Navajo Sandstone where they expected to
encounter the Navajo twice based on their mapping, it was
only hit once.”
Chidsey explains, “Their new interpretation fits more
closely with the type of structural features found along the
regional-scale Sanpete-Sevier valley anticline that has been UGS

GEOExPro May 2020 31

Exploration
a)
extensively mapped by Utah
Geological Survey geologists
and others. Now, we were
looking at the producing
anticline being formed by
west-directed back thrust
rather than the east-directed
thrust splay fault. The now-
mapped back thrust likely
developed after the anticline
had formed. This thrust
reconfigured the ‘paleotrap’
proven by Dr. David Wavrek,
president of Petroleum
Systems International, Inc.,
and others in the 2010 paper,
Central Utah Thrust Belt
Discoveries – A Tale of Two
Hydrocarbon Charges. The
lack of significant associated
gas at the Covenant field is
due to water washing during
the remigration event.”

Complicating Factors North-west – south-

Finding the Covenant east cross-sections
through the Covenant
and Providence fields
field discovery well.
took a great deal of hard (a) Old interpretation;
work by the geoscientists (b) current
and possibly a little luck. interpretation showing
the anticline that was
These two finds, and a lot
formed by a west-
of dry holes, lend more directed back thrust.
complexity to the play than
had been anticipated by
b)
geoscientists at the time

UGS modified from Dr. Daniel Schelling

of the Covenant discovery.
Unraveling the petroleum
system and accurately
mapping structure are two
of the complexities facing
explorationists in this play.
Petroleum systems
models take in all the
elements that are necessary
for hydrocarbons to
accumulate and be
preserved. In most mature
producing basins, the
geologic elements (source
rock, migration, reservoir,
trap and seal) and the timing
relationships are relatively
well understood.
“We are just starting to
demonstrate the complexity
of the petroleum system
in the central Utah thrust
belt,” says Dr. Wavrek.

32 GEOExPro May 2020

“The two discoveries give us a clue

Thomas Smith
as to this complexity. The Covenant
and Providence hydrocarbon charge
was generated from Mississippian
source rocks but at very different
times. The Covenant hydrocarbons
were generated early on at 90–100 Ma
when the current field configuration
was not established. A paleo-trap was
necessary for the accumulation to form.
Subsequent structural deformation that
formed the current trap (70–80 Ma)
resulted in hydrocarbon remigration
with concurrent oil–water interaction
stripping volatiles from the liquid
phase. The hydrocarbon charge for
the Providence field was later than
the Covenant field (70–80 Ma) and
was coincident with the structural
development of the field. This field also
contains the original gas-saturated
liquid hydrocarbons that the Covenant Primary reservoirs for the Covenant field: the White Throne Member of the Temple Cap Formation is
field lacks.” pictured along the skyline, underlain by the Navajo Sandstone. These two formations are separated
This is not the only complexity by the J-1 Unconformity located at the tree line just above the Navajo Sandstone. The early Jurassic
Kayenta Formation is in the foreground.
in the petroleum system that Dr.
Wavrek would like to bring out.
“The Arapien Formation poses two formations in the region often have complexity of this play. This play may
additional complicating factors in low porosity and permeability and are never see the results seen in the thrust
finding producible hydrocarbons,” unable to store or produce oil.” belt salients that lie to the north. The
he explains. “First, this complex Covenant may just remain the ‘lucky
and deformed mixture of clastic The Next Steps one’ until some geoscientist finds yet
components, salts, and carbonates While geoscientists have learned a another prospect that a company is
does not always provide the perfect great deal about the central Utah thrust willing to risk big on. “There is much
seal. While the Arapien Formation belt, successful results have been very still to understand in central Utah,” says
is considered a regional seal, there hard to come by, in part, from the true Chidsey.
are situations where it does leak that
lead to dry holes. Satellite imaging A hallmark of the Navajo Sandstone is the distinctive cross bedding, as exposed along the scenic
shows the effects of micro-seepage drives through Zion National Park.
through this shale by altering mineral
Thomas Smith

signatures at the surface (GEO ExPro

Vol. 3, No. 6). The complex mixture
of greatly variable rock types pose the
second complexity by distorting the
time to depth conversion on seismic;
hitting the reservoir much higher than
predicted at the Covenant field was
a clear example of this phenomenon.
Since velocities through most salts are
much faster than through carbonate
and clastics, a salt pod (known to exist
in the Arapien Formation) would be
underlain by a seismic pull-up and a
false anticline could be mapped.”
“Finding good reservoir rocks
could also be another complicating
factor,” Chidsey points out. “Outside
the excellent reservoirs in the Navajo
and Temple Cap sandstones, other

GEOExPro May 2020 33

Recent Advances in Technology

From Arrhenius to CO2 Storage

Part VII: Arrhenius’ Greenhouse Rule for CO2
LASSE AMUNDSEN and MARTIN LANDRØ, NTNU/Bivrost Geo
“Is the mean temperature of the
ground in any way influenced by
In Part II of this series (GEO ExPro Radiative Forcing the presence of heat-absorbing
Vol. 16, No. 3, 2019) we referred to The greenhouse effect is caused by gases in the atmosphere?”
Arrhenius’ relationship between the absorption of longwave, infrared Svante Arrhenius, 1896
radiative forcing (heat warming) radiation from the Earth by greenhouse
of CO2 and its concentration in the gases in the atmosphere. Changes in the
atmosphere, and glibly informed you concentration of these gases lead to a by an increase in atmospheric CO2
that the effect is logarithmic. However, change in the radiative energy absorbed, concentration since pre-industrial
there is no simple proof as to why this and thus a change in the temperature times. The second one, obtained from
is the case. In this article we investigate of the atmosphere, leading to a change computer climate models, is the forcing
this, as it sheds light on understanding in its radiation back to Earth. The produced as a result of doubling the
climate feedback and sensitivity. difference in radiation received by the concentration of atmospheric CO2. The
We go on to show how the surface Earth between two defined conditions forcing can be converted to a mean
temperature changes with variation in is called radiative forcing (Myhre et al., global surface temperature change by
CO2 concentration. Our simplifications 2013). multiplying it by a climate sensitivity
should only be regarded as the fi rst There are two common examples parameter which varies between the
steps toward getting a feeling of the given in the literature. The first is different models. Radiative forcing is
greenhouse effect. the forcing believed to be caused considered a direct measure of the
amount by which the Earth’s energy
In 2014, NASA launched the satellite OCO-2 (Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2) to monitor CO2 in the budget is out of balance.
Earth’s atmosphere.
On Arrhenius’ Greenhouse Rule for
NASA/John Howard/JPL

CO2
The history of CO2 and climate usually
starts with Arrhenius’ 1896 paper
arguing that increased levels of CO2
could raise global temperatures. Other
scientists rejected this assertion,
based on their belief that CO2 did not
absorb any radiation wavelength that
was not also absorbed by water vapor:
the atmospheric CO2 level is so small
compared to the level of water vapor
that its effect would be insignificant.
Therefore, for nearly 50 years the
scientific consensus stated that CO2
could not affect Earth’s temperature.
However, Arrhenius believed that
atmospheric CO2 (and other gases) had
an effect on surface temperatures; and
he formulated a greenhouse rule for CO2
by stating: “If the quantity of carbonic
acid increased in geometric progression,
the augmentation of the temperature
will increase nearly in arithmetic
progression.” The augmentation of the
temperature is the change in the rate
of heating Earth’s surface (i.e., radiative
forcing).

34 GEOExPro May 2020

 To interpret Arrhenius’ statement, we
need to recall some basic math. Progressions
(also called sequences and series) are
numbers arranged such that they form
a predictable order; i.e. that given some
numbers, we can find the next numbers
in the series. A sequence of numbers is an
arithmetic progression if the difference
between any two consecutive terms is
always the same. When the initial term
of an arithmetic progression is a1 and the
common difference of successive members is
d, then the n’th term of the sequence is given
by an = a1 + (n−1)d. A sequence of numbers
is called a geometric progression if the ratio
of any two consecutive terms is always
the same. The general form of a geometric
sequence is a, ar, ar2 , ar3 , … where r is the
common ratio, and a is a constant. What
is of interest to us now is that geometric
sequences show exponential growth (or
decay), as opposed to the linear growth (or
decline) of an arithmetic progression.
Now, according to Arrhenius’
calculations, when CO2 increases in
geometric progression – say, from 1 to 2 to
22 = 4 to 23 = 8 … i.e. has exponential growth
– the radiative forcing increases (nearly) in
arithmetic progression – i.e. shows linear
growth. Since logarithmic and exponential
functions are inverse functions, equation (1)
below suggests itself. In particular, when C/
IPCC Working Group 1

C0 = (1,2,4,8…) then ∆F = (0,1,2,3,…)αln(2).

In Table VII of his paper (see Part II),
Arrhenius lists calculations of variation of
radiative forcing caused by a given variation
of CO2. At latitude 0, CO2 ratios of 1, 1.5,
Radiative forcing since 1750. 2.0, 2.5, 3.0 yield temperature increases
of 0, 3.1, 4.9, 6.3, 7.2, respectively. We can

The Keeling Curve is a graph of

the changes in atmospheric CO2
concentrations since 1958 taken
at the Mauna Loa Observatory,
3,300m above ground level
in Hawaii, by the Scripps
Institution of Oceanography. The
measurements show a steady
rise from about 316 ppm in 1959
to 414 ppm in March 2020. The
annual fluctuation in CO2 is
caused by seasonal variations
in CO2 uptake by land plants.
Since CO2 is a greenhouse gas,
the curve has been interpreted
by many climate scientists as
a warning signal for global
warming. The effect of the
outbreak of the coronavirus
pandemic declared by the World
Health Organization (WHO) on 11
March 2020 is expected to show
up in this curve after some time.

GEOExPro May 2020 35

Recent Advances in Technology

easily check the validity of Arrhenius’ and C0 is the reference concentration CO2 concentration. Thus, increased
observation by calculating the constant at the beginning of the period being concentrations have a progressively
α for each of his calculations, which studied. The form in equation (1) was smaller warming effect.
we find to be in the range 6.6–7.7 and used by IPCC 1990 with coefficient Let’s calculate the radiative
thus in agreement with the quote we α derived from Hansen et al. (1988). forcing from the beginning of the
have taken from Arrhenius’ paper. The The best estimate based on radiative Industrial Revolution, C0 = 275 ppm, to
relationship between concentration and transfer calculations with 3D October 2019 when C = 408.55 ppm.
radiative forcing is nearly logarithmic. climatological meteorological input Equation (1) gives the warming effect
data (Myhre et al., 1998) is α = 5.35. ∆F = 2.06 W/m2. That may not sound
Why Logarithmic? Even though there is no theoretical like much until you multiply by Earth’s
Logarithmic equations for calculating basis for formula (1), it has been total area, which gives a total warming
the radiative forcing of CO2 are accepted by the scientific community effect of about 1,050 TW – more than
common. The functional form: as a reasonable approximation for the 58 times the world’s average rate of
range from 275 ppm to 378 ppm of energy consumption, which is currently
∆F = α ln(C/C0) [W/m2]    (1) CO2, the levels from the beginning of about 18 TW.
the Industrial Revolution to 2005. The The logarithmic dependency is
was published by Wigley (1987) using logarithmic relationship implies that intriguing. Clues of its usefulness
the model of Kiehl and Dickinson radiative forcing will rise by roughly are given also in textbooks, usually
(1987). Here, C is the CO2 concentration the same amount for each doubling of pointing to the spectroscopic features

Do Goats Combat Climate Change?

All animals emit

Alexas_Fotos/Pixabay
methane, which can
be converted into
CO2 equivalents;
goats in Norway
emit approximately
24 kilotons per year.
Since the goat and
sheep population is
decreasing, the area
of cultivated land is
also decreasing, to be
replaced by bushes
and trees. This
causes a reduction
of approximately
6% in the albedo
effect (the difference
between cultivated
agriculture
landscape and the
same landscape U make me goat crazy.
covered by bushes
and trees). So, there are obviously two counteracting effects: the decrease in global temperature caused by increased albedo if,
say, five goats keep 1,000m2 clean, compared to the increase in temperature caused by the emissions from the same goats. For
simplicity we assume that the goats are only fed by the grass and vegetation they eat. We use the equations derived in this article
to obtain a ballpark estimate and compare the two effects.
The change in temperature due to change in albedo is ∆Talbedo = T∆α/(4(1 – α)). The change in albedo for the 1,000m2 has
to be scaled by the earth’s surface. In addition, we have to correct for the fact that approximately 70% of the incoming solar
radiation is reflected by clouds and does not hit the earth’s surface. Then ∆α = 0.06 · (1 – 0.7) · 1,000/(5.1 · 1014) = 3.53 · 10 -14,
leading to a temperature change of ∆Talbedo = 3.65 · 10 -12K which of course would have a negligible effect on climate.
The five goats emit approximately 1.86 tons of CO2 per year; this represents 1.86/(35 · 109) = 5.31 · 10 -11 of the total global
yearly emissions. The yearly increase in atmospheric CO2 is (see the Keeling curve) approximately 1.82 ppm/year. From
equation (6) we find that the change in temperature is ∆Tco2 = 3.71 · 10 -13K. We observe that the albedo effect is approximately
ten times the CO2 emissions from the five goats. It is of course a very simplified example, where several of the numbers used
are not perfect, but we can actually state: goats do combat climate change.

36 GEOExPro May 2020

of the absorption lines. The interested reached where the surface temperature First, calculate from equation (5) the
reader may consult Goody and Yung has increased by ∆T. Equation (1) in climate sensitivity factor λ = 0.302 km2
(1989) or Pierrehumbert (2010). More Part VI defines the new temperature W-1. Secondly, calculate γ = λα = 1.61
recently, Huang and Shahabadi (2014) as T(β + Δβ). For a sufficiently small and insert into equation (6) to find the
have proposed a simpler argument perturbation, a Taylor series expansion temperature increase ∆T = 1.61 ln(2) K
for why we would expect logarithmic of T(β + ∆β) yields: = 1.12°K. Thus, the simple greenhouse
dependence for monochromatic model predicts a global warming of
radiance, i.e. at a single wavelength. T(β)Δβ around 1.12°C for a doubling of CO2.
ΔT = T(β + Δβ) – T(β) = (3)
8(1 – β/2) This value is too low compared to
Temperature Increase more advanced models, which allow
A figure in Part VI (GEO ExPro Vol. By use of equations (1, Part VI) and (2) for positive feedback, notably from the
17, No. 1) depicts radiative equilibrium above we can eliminate ∆β in equation increased water vapor due to increased
for the Earth system with a single- (3) and obtain the linear relation: temperature. A simple remedy for
layered atmosphere. At the surface including this feedback process is to
the downward radiation flux emitted ∆T = λ∆F       (4) posit an additional increase of ∆β to
by the atmosphere is F = (β/2) approximate the effect of the increase
σT4 , where we have substituted the where λ is the climate sensitivity factor: in water vapor that would be associated
atmospheric temperature with the with an increase in temperature.
surface temperature according to λ = T(β)/(S(1 – a))       (5) Allowing ∆β to double, the model
equation (2) in Part VI. Increasing, say, then predicts ∆T ≈ 2.24°C for a doubling
CO2 concentration by a given amount We proceed with a cavalier disregard for of CO2, roughly consistent with the
corresponds to an increase ∆β of the the observed limitations of the one-layer IPCC understanding that climate
absorption efficiency. The radiative educational atmospheric model and sensitivity is somewhere between
forcing is the radiative response to insert Arrhenius’ rule (1) into equation 1.5–4.5°C of warming for a doubling of
the forcing agent, taking place quickly (4), thereby suggesting that: pre-industrial CO2 levels.
without change in temperature; then We await the IPCC’s new assessment
the energy imbalance imposed on the ∆T = γ ln(C/C0) [K] ; γ = λα   (6) of global warming, due in 2021. New
climate system is: computer models predict a warming
The Earth is generally regarded as surge, where equilibrium sensitivity
∆F = ∆βσT 4 (β)/2       (2) having warmed about 1°C since the looks to be 5°C. However, in assessing
beginning of the Industrial Revolution, how fast climate may change, the next
Now, since more energy is radiating around 1750, when the global average IPCC report is expected to look to
down on Earth than is radiating back amount of CO2 was 275 ppm. We can other evidence as well, in particular
out to space, the planet gets upset; its use that temperature T = 15°C (288.15K) how ancient climates and observations
response is to heat up. Eventually, after as a baseline for estimating the effect of of recent climate change constrain
decades, a new equilibrium state is CO2 doubling. sensitivity.

GEOExPro May 2020 37

Technology

China’s Deep, Hot, Harsh

Reservoirs Spur Innovation
The experiences, lessons learned and best practices of Chinese geoscientists working in difficult
reservoirs can be of benefit to others.
SUSAN SMITH NASH Ph.D., AAPG
In the quest to produce hydrocarbons from China’s famously drilling techniques in order to successfully geo-steer wells
deep, harsh and hot reservoirs, Chinese companies, together and to avoid moving out of the target zone. The new tool was
with research efforts involving key state laboratories and successfully applied in 18 wells in the Weirong Gas Field
universities, have developed innovative new techniques and operated by Sinopec.
technologies, many of which have direct applicability to other
basins and reservoirs in the world. Slim Liner Cementing Technology
The following examples are just a few of those which China’s ultra-deep wells, such as those in the Shunbei Block,
were implemented in 2019 and early 2020. The first ones present serious challenges when it comes to cementing,
involve research performed at the Chengdu University of particularly in the case of a narrow annulus. Some of those
Technology, while the final example is the result of findings challenges include high bottom hole temperature and
by Sinopec’s research facilities and operations. The full studies pressure, weak cement sheaths, high displacement pressure in
are forthcoming in issues of Sinopec’s Petroleum Drilling the downhole pump, and the development of a high-pressure
Techniques, with abstracts to be available through AAPG’s brine layer. To solve the problem, a team at Sinopec developed
Search and Discovery website. a new slim liner cementing technology that involved enhanced
Chengdu University of Technology is one of four AAPG- rheology design and a gas-kill valve that avoided the problems
China Research Centers, which were formed to provide a of channeling.
means for scientific exchanges and conferences between
geoscientists. These research centers are located at China EOR Technologies in China’s Continental Oilfields
University of Petroleum-Beijing, Chengdu University of The low price of oil and gas does not have the same impact
Technology, China University of Petroleum East (Qingdao), on Chinese oil and gas exploration and production that it
and Northeast Petroleum University. might for other countries, primarily due to the fact that
the petroleum is destined for domestic consumption, and
Drilling and Completion for Ultra-Harsh Conditions forms a part of the country’s 5-year and 10-year plans. There
Moving outside the lab and looking at drilling and completion is particular emphasis in EOR (enhanced oil recovery) in
operations in the complex environment of the southern China’s mature fields because of the existence of excellent
Sichuan Basin, engineers and geologists have worked together infrastructure, such as pipelines, gas conditioning, as well
to develop innovative X-Ray Fluorescence and logging-while- as proximity to markets. As a result, there have been two
major thrusts in Sinopec’s
Chengdu University of Technology in Sichuan province. research. The fi rst was
to develop CO2 injection
Susan Nash

whenever possible, using

carbon captured in coal-
fi red plants, in order to
store it and then inject
it into the old fields.
Secondly, there has been
an emphasis on reducing
noise, eliminating
methane emissions and
on conserving water,
particularly in the fields
that are technically
in urban areas. One
promising technique
is to use dual parallel
simultaneous injection and
production, or SIP.

38 GEOExPro May 2020

GEOExPro May 2020 39
Technology

SIP in the Daqing Oilfield the age of petroleum generation and then identifying faulting,
The technique of dual parallel simultaneous injection and fracturing, and migration pathways has been to use advanced
production uses a downhole oil–water separation device, geochemistry, including isotope fingerprinting, to clarify the
which allows the separated water to be injected back into dates of five major tectonic movements, before then tracing
the formation, while the oil with a now much reduced water the 12 separate unconformities.
content is lifted to the surface. In essence, what this gives us Because the 13 separate oil and gas reservoirs in the
is simultaneous injection and production. Used in the Daqing Sichuan Basin primarily produce gas, with the exception
Oilfield operated by PetroChina, initial results included of the Jurassic Ziliujing Formation, which also contains
an impressive reduction of water cut from 98% to 77%. oil, the study of gas adsorption along with the reservoir’s
Research work is continuing on this technique, with further geomechanical profile has allowed teams of geologists,
improvements in sensors and analytics being noted, resulting in geophysicists and engineers to develop 4D models that
improved efficiency and better prediction of equipment failure. display how stresses and strains change over time, and
the impact of this on the maturation of kerogen, and thus
New Technologies for Prospectivity Determination identify the regions of preferential enrichment. In conducting
The exploration process starts by determining the this simulation, it is possible to start building a model that
prospectivity of the reservoirs. To that end, new approaches includes recommendations for the location of the laterals.
to basin modeling are built by bringing together in-depth Findings were summarized in the diagram below.
geochemical and pore characterization studies. For example,
at the Chengdu University of Technology, researchers Many Successful Innovations
such as Professor Wen Zhou, Dean of the School of Energy The technologies described in this brief article represent
Resources, study the prolific but extremely challenging only a few of the innovations designed to successfully tackle
Sichuan Basin, which contains several petroleum systems, the challenging reservoirs in China. While the conditions in
and possesses challenges like carbonate reservoirs, tight gas most of the world’s reservoirs are not so daunting, the lessons
sand, volcanic reservoirs, shale oil and shale gas, coalbed learned can be applied in many places, with better initial
methane and oil sand. One effective method for determining success, lower costs and longer-lived production.

Summary of findings from the prospectivity determination study undertaken at the Chengdu University of Technology.
Zhou, 2020

40 GEOExPro May 2020

Buscador:
In 2016, in the white heat of Mexico’s newly opened offshore exploration scene, Searcher overcame
the operational challenges of acquiring data in water depths between 20 and 2,000m, to produce
the amazing quality Buscador 2D survey. The much-improved images obtained in the shallow water
compared to legacy data allow the identification of many new plays and prospects.

The ‘Searcher-Engine for Oil’ In addition, in what has proved to be an even more prolific area over the last two years, the survey
ties ENI’s Mizton and Tecoalli Fields, successfully showing the same stacked amplitude anomalies

in Mexico’s Hottest Hotspot

that ENI recently revealed as the key to success in their reprocessed 3D dataset.

The foldout line below demonstrates the quality of the seismic, where it is possible to see amplitude
supported structures; amplitude anomalies in potential stratigraphic traps in turbidite channels
associated with mixed turbidite contourite systems; and good shallow and deep water reflectivity
enabling regional source rock mapping for thermal maturity and migration pathway modeling.
Location of Searcher’s seismic
datasets offshore Mexico with
geological basins outlined and the
location of major recent Talos and
Buscador 345-km-long 2D strike line in TWT, demonstrating the many features visible in this high quality dataset. ENI discoveries.

42 GEOExPro May 2020 GEOExPro May 2020 44

Offshore Mexico: Improvements in seismic these basins (see map previous page). These new data
were acquired with longer streamers, allowing more
processing are revealing precision in the use of far-offsets to find hydrocarbons

Extraordinary Play
huge potential in the directly – something still difficult to do with legacy
southern Gulf of Mexico. reprocessing. With excellent imaging across all the
western part of the Mexican GOM, the survey design

Systems Identified
KARYNA RODRIGUEZ and
provides modern, high quality imaging of the most

Cairn Energy
NEIL HODGSON,
prospective nearshore areas sweeping around the
Geoscience Team; Searcher
coast, as well as tying key wells, main discoveries and
22 previously mapped prospects and leads. Aided by
The Mexican part of the Gulf of Mexico (GOM) is bear fruit with the Zama discovery, operated by Talos Searcher’s Seisintel, which captures 2D and 3D seismic
a proven world class hydrocarbon province. With a Energy. This is a great example of utilizing modern, high activity, streaming survey navigation directly from
staggering 56 Bboe cumulative production and proven fidelity seismic processing to realize the potential of the vessels to a desktop in real-time, a special feature of
1P, 2P and 3P reserves of around 80 Bboe, it is estimated extremely prolific Sureste Basin. this program was to make sure the grid tied lines from Sketch section through the Saasken well (preliminary results).
to still hold prospective conventional resources of the other surveys which were being acquired at the same time.
around 52 BBboe (www.pemex.com). The Sureste (Salina Advances in Seismic Processing Key To complement this dataset, a deeper water 3D cube was access to the geological framework in the basin analysis
del Istmo/Cinturon Plegado Catemaco) Basin is the most In our industry, the area that has shown most reprocessed in the same year, covering the South Campeche report was conflated with Seisintel information to identify
explored, with 61 Bboe recoverable from 480 discoveries, advancement over the last ten years is seismic Basin where the Zama Talos and more recently, in February existing seismic data gaps on the margin. This in turn
including the super-giant Cantarell Field – one of the processing. New algorithms, better processes and 2020, the Saasken ENI discoveries were made. informed the optimization of the 2D survey (Buscador Near-
largest hydrocarbon accumulations in the world. undreamed-of computing power enable even legacy data Shore) and the specification of the 3D surveys that needed
These impressive oil resources were mostly charged to be reprocessed and reveal previously unimageable Regional Basin Analysis reprocessing (South Campeche Ultracube).
from the world class Tithonian source rock (average treasures. Another example from the Sureste Basin, The acquisition and reprocessing of the aforementioned In each basin, extraordinary play systems are developed,
5% TOC, HI of 600 and 120m thickness). A unique but in shallower water depths nearshore, is the ENI datasets was supported by a regional basin analysis such as fractured carbonate, salt evacuation basins, Early
sequence of tectonic events combined with a fortunate reprocessed legacy seismic data over the Amoca, Mizton study carried out by Searcher with the participation of Tertiary turbidites, Late Tertiary subsalt, Late Tertiary
stratigraphic evolution has resulted in multiple stacked and Tecoalli discoveries, which has revealed multiple geoscientists who had previously worked in Finder, a supra-salt mini basins and Pliocene drape, each tapping
play systems in both deeper, older carbonate systems stacked amplitude anomalies. When tested in an company with extensive experience in the area, who see into the proven hydrocarbon source, and mostly revealing
and shallower, younger clastic deposits. Despite this appraisal campaign, this more than doubled the original clear evidence to support the ‘in situ plate tectonic model’ good Direct Hydrocarbon Indications (DHIs) on both
significant potential, since 2007 production has been reserve estimates to 2.1 Bboe. This complex of fields, (Keith James, 2009) for the Caribbean. The in situ model Searcher’s 2D and 3D seismic datasets. Offshore Mexico,
declining from the mature fields and new fields have which had only been awarded in September 2015, was was modified in this study (Jablonski and Larsen, AAPG in the area covered by Searcher’s seismic datasets, there
been slow to come on stream. brought onstream as quickly as July 2019. DataPages 2017) and its influence extended to the GOM, remain significant unexplored clastic prolific play fairways
To revitalize the economy and exploration for oil and To the north-west of the Sureste Basin, the much less providing a simpler explanation for some of the observations with abundant undrilled amplitudes, salt-related traps,
gas, in 2013 Mexico introduced new reforms, inviting explored Cordilleras Mexicanas, Tampico Misantla and made in the region, such as an increase in Upper Wilcox carbonate potential where the fracture network was not
participation from international exploration players Burgos offshore basins lie in an arc stretching all along Formation sand deposition attributed to the onset of the fully understood, and fractures not intersected. Drilled plays
and generating a lot of interest in the country, resulting the east coast of Mexico. In 2016, whilst overcoming the Cayman Trough spreading ridge and associated compression are likely to have missed pay potential, and there are valid
in several major seismic acquisition campaigns to extreme operational challenges of acquiring data in water onshore Mexico and eastern US Cordilleras. It also provides structures with drilling issues classified that were as dry and
support the very successful series of license rounds held depths between 20 and 2,000m, Searcher recorded a an explanation for the much wider distribution of the thick a Jurassic secondary play which remains mainly untested.
between 2014–2018. In 2017 this new initiative began to nearshore regional grid of modern 2D seismic across all Jurassic and Cretaceous sequences particularly in Jamaica,
where little sedimentation is expected according to the High Quality Regional Datasets
Searcher’s 2017 reprocessed Ultracube South Campeche 3D with the well projected on Kirchoff and RTM versions: (a) South Campeche 3D Kirchoff
– note high vertical resolution; (b) South Campeche 3D RTM iterative salt model building sequence. Note excellent salt flank imaging.
Pacific model, as well as insights into the Pacific plate Whilst it had been assumed that Mexico’s declining production
history and its interaction with North America, suggesting had resulted from a of lack of funding for exploration, in fact a
Well that subduction only affects the western portion of the subtler problem has been revealed. The issue was not a lack of
continent, with the thrusts observed in the eastern lowland key investment in drilling wells but instead a lack of investment
of Mexico being the result of the Caribbean plate expansion. in the underlying seismic data. Globally, seismic acquisition
It also proposes a trigger for Miocene gravity slides as the – and more so, seismic processing – has been advancing at a
Cayman Trough spreading accelerates, continuing to create prodigious rate over the last 10–15 years.
compressional tension onshore Mexico as well as a trigger Now, explorers offshore Mexico can take advantage for
mechanism for halokinesis and some important insights into the first time of this superior imaging in the nearshore,
hydrocarbon migration and timing. manifestly demonstrated in the Buscador 2D data. New
The objective of the new acquisition and reprocessing DHIs are imaged, new prospects mapped and the potential
campaign was to provide a cost-effective dataset to allow of new plays can be hunted down and evaluated. The
oil companies to focus their exploration budgets on key handicapping of the past has handed explorers today a huge
prospective areas. Additionally, the accompanying basin advantage with the chance to use high quality regional
analysis report developed by Searcher identified 24 distinct datasets to focus on finding the giant fields of the future.
play levels across 15 geologically separate regions, with The Zama and Saasken discoveries, as well as the ENI
play intervals from Jurassic through to Pleistocene. The development success story, just mark the beginning of this
area around the coast in general is highly prospective with journey, started by improvements in seismic processing, and
more outboard potential plays including basin floor fans still to be traveled by an industry that will be focused more
and gravity driven structures in the south of the Gulf. Early than ever now on oil in shallow water giant potential plays.

GEOExPro May 2020 45 46 GEOExPro May 2020

 DEC 6-10, 2020 | HOUSTON, USA

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event that will connect
you with more than 700
speakers including global
energy leaders. Discuss the
challenges and opportunities
of energy in transition and
so much more.

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GEO Education

Big Data and Post-Graduate Training

The future for subsurface analysis and graduate training: a call to universities to respond
and adapt to industry needs.
Dr. MIKE BOWMAN, Honorary Professor, University of Manchester

Today’s upstream oil and gas subsurface geoscience and A Dramatic Challenge
engineering technical communities are facing a new world The last 30 years has seen a growth and proliferation of
as Artificial Intelligence (AI), data analytics and big data petroleum-focused subsurface master’s training programs.
become an increasingly core part of the subsurface workflow. These developed in response to increased demand and a
Not since the late 1980s have such challenges presented conscious shift of companies to needing broader-based
themselves to upstream oil and gas. Successful companies generalists with master’s level education. In parallel with this
will be those that are flexible and adapt to the changes, the number of sponsored applied Ph.D. studentships, which
which will also have a knock-on effect on universities that had flourished during the 1980s, dropped significantly. At
have developed petroleum-related geoscience and subsurface the same time demand for specialist subsurface geological
engineering graduate and research programs. The challenges and engineering skills flattened out and, in some areas (e.g.
are exacerbated by the impact of the climate emergency, with biostratigraphy), began to decline. These changes fundamentally
some institutions shifting consciously away from carbon- shifted the focus and balance of applied subsurface post-
related investment and research. Many larger company graduate education at many universities and institutions.
strategies are also moving away from coal and oil to cleaner Today we are facing what promises to be an equally
gas and renewable fuels with no damaging emissions. dramatic challenge that is likely to have far-reaching effects on
All of this is being accompanied by reduced exploration those universities that do not respond and adapt to industry
investment and increasing focus on improving recovery needs. AI and data analytics are leading to profound changes
efficiency in existing fields, providing a further dimension to to the nature and scale of the technical subsurface workforce
the challenge. in many operating and service oil and gas companies and

© Elnur/Dreamstime.com

48 GEOExPro May 2020

as a result, on future employment demand. The growth in Training) might evolve to produce more business-oriented
automation underpinned by data analytics and AI is already and commercially-savvy students complementing their
reducing demand for graduate level entries in many of the research expertise. In the immediate future, key skills gaps
medium to large-size companies that have traditionally been will be in subjects such as geomechanics and reservoir scale
the source of much employment in the recent past. The data structural geology, as well as digital petrophysics, rock
analytics revolution is leading to a change in working practices description and modeling.
with less need for dedicated asset teams constantly upgrading Successful universities will evolve their programs and
and rebuilding subsurface models and descriptions throughout offers to address the rapidly changing demand. A wider
the life of a field. The future looks very different, with much range of subsurface energy industry systems will become
smaller asset teams and more automated workflows and model part of the mix and drive demand, including topics such as
upgrades, where interventions and new work will be driven by geothermal, carbon capture, ultilization and storage and
deviations outside an uncertainty range defined by an asset’s radioactive waste disposal. Many of the skills needs in these
data-driven models and descriptions. Larger companies will non-petroleum areas are generic, being related to subsurface
likely evolve to have small subsurface asset teams supported description and modeling. Partnerships and collaborations
by larger centralized groups comprising experts, specialists between universities and industry similar to the CDT model
and broadly experienced practitioners, organized to react offer a possible route to sustained success.
to any alarms or deviations from a model-based subsurface
description and reservoir performance prediction. This Collaboration Needed
organizational model will likely be replicated by the major It is really important that higher education institutions adapt
service providers, supporting smaller operating companies. and evolve to these changing demands or many programs will
disappear and the pipeline of appropriately skilled graduates
Rapidly Changing Demand will not meet the demand from a broader subsurface
All of the above is leading to a profound change in the energy systems agenda. The next five years promise to be a
graduate education supply model. The numbers registered on fascinating time as these changes begin to take effect.
master’s programs will probably continue to decline or at best Collaboration and partnerships are not an easy working
level out for those well-recognized and established programs. model for what are often naturally competitive and reluctant-
Some programs may disappear completely if they cannot to-change higher education establishments and those more
evolve and adapt to changing needs. Commensurately there conservative oil and gas companies, but some universities
will likely be increased demand for Ph.D. level recruitment in are already beginning to adapt and evolve, and many larger
the areas of subsurface description and reservoir performance companies are recognizing the changing organizational
prediction. Models like the UK’s CDT (Centre for Doctoral models and their impact.

GEOExPro May 2020 49

GEO Tourism

A Kerry Diamond
The locals call them ‘Kerry Diamonds’; beautifully clear, euhedral quartz crystals found
on the Dingle Peninsula in south-west Ireland – but the real gem is the Peninsula itself!
Prof. BRIAN WILLIAMS
The Dingle Peninsula, the most northerly of the major Bay Lineament (DBL) that provided the foundation for both its
peninsulas of south-west Ireland, is an area of outstanding tectonic and sedimentary evolution.
natural beauty. About 50 km long and 25 km wide, it is The Paleozoic rocks of the Peninsula have been profoundly
dominated by a mountainous spine stretching from the affected by three major periods of deformation related to
Slieve Mish Mountains near Tralee in the east, through the plate tectonics over a 185 Ma period: the Early Caledonian
dramatic Brandon Mountain Range in central Dingle and (around 470 Ma); the Late Caledonian [Acadian] (around
onwards to Mt. Eagle and the Blasket Islands in the south- 400 Ma); and the Variscan Orogeny (318–297 Ma). These
west. The stunning mountains reach to 950m, terminating deformational episodes generated folding on various scales
at sea cliff s interspersed by beautiful sandy bays; scenery and thus repetition of rock sequences is present throughout
beloved by fi lm producers, from Ryan’s Daughter to the Peninsula. Five major fold structures dominate the area
Star Wars! (Figure 2) and five large faults have played an important role
The unique landscapes of the Peninsula are generated by in controlling basin initiation, subsidence and sediment infi ll.
the very wide diversity of preserved rock sequences, mainly The Fohernamanagh Fault (FF) in particular is possibly of
sedimentary and volcanic, together with large-scale tectonic great significance in that it has been interpreted as a ‘terrane
features that have evolved through 485 million years (Ma) of boundary’, bringing together two quite different Lower
Earth history. Devonian basin fi lls of contrasting sediment provenance and
climatic overprint (Figure 3).
Three Major Deformation Periods
The Peninsula preserves a unique succession of Ordovician Into the West: The Dunquin Group
to Carboniferous rocks (485 to 330 Ma in age), dominated To achieve an overview of the Mid-Paleozoic geology of
by a thick, continental red-bed Devonian sequence which the Dingle Peninsula, head to the village of Dunquin at the
comprises the most complete Old Red Sandstone magnafacies western extremity of the mainland. Two excellent roadside
in Ireland. Together with the underlying shallow marine and viewpoints en-route on the flank of Mt. Eagle allow one
volcanic Silurian sequence, this Mid-Paleozoic suite accounts to take in the breathtaking views of the Blasket Islands
for over 5.8 km of the Peninsula’s rock assemblage. (Figure 4). Then on to Clogher Head, where the view to the
The Dingle Peninsula is situated to the south of the north embraces the reference section of the marine Silurian
Iapetus Suture zone (the Early Caledonian plate boundary). Dunquin Group, and the high cliffs of the Sybil Head area
It is bounded by two long-lived, east-north-east trending where red-bed outcrops of the proposed accreted terrane, the
lineaments, the North Kerry Lineament (NKL) and the Dingle Smerwick Group, can be seen on the skyline (Figure 1).

Brian Williams

Figure 1: View north from Clogher Head of the low cliffs of the Silurian Dunquin Group and high cliffs of the
Devonian Smerwick Group. Inset: A ‘Kerry Diamond’ (courtesy Monika Razkova, Rocky Road Minerals).

50 GEOExPro May 2020

modified after Richmond & Williams, 2000

Figure 2: Simplified geological map of the Dingle Peninsula.

The 1,500m-thick Silurian and pyroclastic fall and flow deposits, continental, red-bed facies of the
succession in the Dunquin Inlier magnificently seen in the immediate Devonian is only seen on the Blasket
comprises fossiliferous shallow marine vicinity of Clogher Head. The island of Inishnabro; everywhere
sediments interspersed with volcanic geochemical signature of these volcanics else in the Peninsula this contact is
and volcaniclastic horizons. Low in indicate occurrence at a destructive unconformable or faulted, missing the
the succession, upward-coarsening plate margin: a rare example of Wenlock youngest Silurian stages of the Dunquin
parasequences with shelfal siltstones, volcanism south of the Iapetus Suture. Group (Figure 5).
storm-induced sandy bedforms and The post-subduction thermal subsidence,
interbedded volcanic ash horizons following the acme of volcanic activity in Backbone of the Peninsula
indicate rapid sea level fluctuations the Late Silurian, saw a return to shallow The Devonian Dingle Group dominates
controlled by volcano-tectonic events. marine storm-dominated sedimentation. the geology and landscapes of the
These give way to major volcanic The conformable transition from Peninsula. The Dingle Basin developed
intervals of andesitic/dacitic lavas the shallow marine Silurian to the as a sinistral pull-apart continental
Figure 3: Geological cross-section of the Dingle Peninsula.

Modified from Richmond and Williams, 2000

GEOExPro May 2020 51

GEO Tourism

undergoing sinistral, strike-slip

Ken Higgs
movement and generating gravel-
rich alluvial fans with lateral input
into the Slea Head River (Figure
6) from the north (Glashabeg
Conglomerate Formation) and
south (Trabeg Conglomerate
Formation).
In early Emsian times the
fan systems shut down and the
axial river system became sand
dominated. All this occurred prior
to the onset of the Lower Devonian
Acadian Orogenic event.

Figure 4: The Blasket Islands from Mt. Eagle. Comprising Dingle Group rocks, these abandoned islands Into the Desert
are known for their Irish literary significance as well as their geology! The Smerwick Group rocks – up
to 1 km thick – in the north-west Dingle domain (Figure 2)
basin bounded by the NKL and DBL, and subsidence centered were deposited in an isolated, hydrologically-closed basin,
along the Dunquin Fault accommodated the accumulation of under an arid climatic regime; the basin sequence contains
4.3 km of sediment. arguably the oldest aeolian deposits in the British and Irish
Dingle Group sediments are exposed extensively around Isles. The Group’s outcrop is constrained between the NKL
the south and south-west coasts, forming the backbone of the and the FF. They are comparable in age with the Lower
mountains in central and western Dingle. They are red/purple Devonian Dingle Group to the south of the FF. Some authors
in color due to oxidation of the iron-rich sediments that interpret the Smerwick Group as an allochthonous terrane
accumulated under semi-arid climatic conditions. The rocks tectonically emplaced from the north-east by sinistral strike-
are almost exclusively fluvial or lacustrine in origin, so are slip movement along the FF. The Smerwick and Dingle Groups
largely devoid of body fossils but locally preserve trace fossils. were both uplifted and deformed by the Acadian Orogeny;
Microflora help to constrain the age of the Group as Lower thus the Middle Devonian sequence in the Dingle Peninsula
Devonian, 415 to 407 Ma. rests with marked unconformity on the Lower Devonian (and
The Siluro-Devonian boundary probably occurs within older) rocks of the Peninsula.
the initial red-bed deposit of the Dingle Group, the lacustrine The Acadian orogenic event was followed by a period of
Bulls Head Formation, which is beautifully seen on Great crustal extension, so Middle Devonian sediments of the
Blasket Island and at Dunquin harbor. It was deposited Dingle Peninsula were deposited under a very different
in a shallow ephemeral lake mapped over 500 km2, but tectonic regime to the Lower Devonian. The Middle Devonian
contemporaneous subsidence facilitated a preserved 220m comprises the coeval Caherbla/Pointagare Groups which
thickness. Wind-wave ripples and mud cracks abound in this crop out extensively in the south-east and north-east of the
heterolithic fine-grained facies. The lake was rapidly infilled Peninsula. The extensional Caherbla Basin developed across
from the south, forming the Eask Formation, an 800m-thick, the entire Peninsula as a hot, arid intra-continental rift
low slope fan apron, the result of a series of superimposed
sheet flood events with a lateral input into the Dingle Basin. Figure 5: Unconformable contact on Clogher Head.
In middle Lower Devonian times a dramatic change
in the fluvial input into the basin occurred, as ephemeral
conditions gave way to perennial river deposits, this time
along a major axial pathway. This was probably due to a
combination of climatic and tectonic events. The result
Ken Higgs

was the fluvial input of sand and gravel from a catchment

area to the west-south-west, with sediment dispersal
toward the east-north-east. This is the Coumeenoule
– Slea Head River facies and represents a low sinuosity
fluvial system comparable to the Brahmaputra River of
today, with a drainage area possibly in excess of 10,000
km2. Rapid subsidence along the line of the Dunquin Fault
accommodated the 1.25 km of preserved sediments in these
formations.
Tectonic activity in the hinterland intensified with time,
evidenced by the upward-coarsening nature of the system.
At the same time the NKL, FF and DBL were all active,

52 GEOExPro May 2020

bounded to the south by the
DBL reactivated as a normal
fault down-throwing to the
north.
The 1,000m-thick Caherbla
Group comprises a massive
aeolian complex where the
wind-generated phenomena
include both dune- and
draa-scale bedforms into
which coarse-grained
breccio-conglomerate alluvial
fans flowed. The hot, arid
Caherbla landscape supported
a thriving arthropod
community, evidenced by

modified after Todd

the abundant trackways and
burrows in this mixed aeolian/

et. al. 1988

fluvial depositional system.
In the Dingle Peninsula
compression from the Late Figure 6: Depositional model, Upper Dingle Group – the axial Slea Head River and the lateral alluvial fan systems.
Carboniferous Variscan
Orogeny (~300 Ma) resulted in very large (km-scale) open Brian Williams is Emeritus Professor of Geology, University
upright folds, which trend north-east to south-west in the of Aberdeen and Adjunct Professor in Geosciences, University
west and east-west in the Peninsula’s eastern sector as College Dublin.
evidenced by the Slieve Mish Anticline (Figure 2). The orogeny
also tightened some of the earlier Caledonian and Acadian A longer version of this article and the references are available
folds and reactivated older major faults. online.
The Late Devonian, mainly the Slieve Mish Group,
largely fluvial sandstones and conglomerates, and the Acknowledgments
overlying shallow marine shelfal limestones of the Lower Much of the illustrative material used in this article is derived
Carboniferous Tralee Group dominate the Upper Paleozoic from Higgs, K. and Williams, B., 2018, The Geology of the
sequences in the Dingle Peninsula. These are best seen at Dingle Peninsula: a Field Guide, Geological Survey of Ireland,
outcrop toward the eastern end of the Peninsula near Tralee, Guide Series. I thank Professor Ken Higgs (University College
flanking the Slieve Mish Anticline, which plunges toward the Cork) for his excellent field photography GSI (Dublin) for
east and closes near the town of Tralee, with the declining permission to reproduce the figures. Many of the maps
topography of the Slieve Mish mountains beautifully and models are from the Ph.D. Geology research in Dingle
reflecting this closure. over a 20-year period by my splendid students – Drs. Doug
Boyd; Simon Todd; Rod Sloan; Lorna Richmond and Lance
Final Modification of Dingle’s Landscapes Morrissey, from both Bristol and Aberdeen Universities.
The Irish landscape was molded into its present shape during
the Quaternary ice age in Ireland (2.85 Ma–11.7 Ka). There Figure 7: Glaciated landforms viewed from the vicinity of Mt. Brandon.
were several glacial events and interglacial episodes, and it Ken Higgs
is the products of the younger Munsterian and Midlandian
glaciations that are best preserved in the Peninsula.
The glaciated valleys of Derrymore Glen and Annascaul
well-illustrate the glacial modification of the landscapes in the
eastern area. More dramatically, the higher mountain ranges
of central and western Dingle display magnificent erosive
landforms, particularly in the Mt. Eagle area, Brandon Ranges
(Figure 7) and the Owenmore Valley. U-shaped valleys; misfit
streams; hanging valleys – often with striated margins; glacial
lakes in corries such as at Lough Doon, or drowned corrie
amphitheaters like Sauce Creek all attest to the power of
glacigenic processes in shaping landscapes.
Thus, the final touches were produced to the topography of
the beautiful Dingle Peninsula for us to enjoy today – a ‘Kerry
Diamond’ indeed!

GEOExPro May 2020 53

Hot Spot
Brought to you in association with NVentures.

Pannonian Basin:
Repeated and Repeatable Success JON FORD, NVentures

The last three years’ technical success rate in the eastern through inversion and strike-slip faulting. Stratigraphic traps
European Pannonian Basin ranges between 83 and 94%, while result from continental, fluvio-deltaic and marine sandstone
the commercial success rate is at least 50% and will probably depositional geometries shed off footwall highs.
approach the technical success rate.
Reported flow rates are in the range 1.4–17.2 MMcfgpd; Surface Issues: Licenses, Players and Politics
typical individual pool size is modest at 20 Bcf, but wells The Pannonian Basin stretches over Bosnia, Croatia, Slovenia,
target stacked reservoirs, so success, once established, is Austria, Hungary, Slovakia, Ukraine, Romania and Serbia.
repeatable. Reservoir depths average 2,200m and drilling This multitude of jurisdictions may be perceived as a barrier
costs are low. Existing gas infrastructure and manageable for new entrants; however, most countries are either members
permitting and legislative environments lead to quick- of the EU or follow EU guidelines and overall there is contract
connect commercialization. Work program commitments are integrity. Formal license rounds are a regularity, with Bosnia
moderate. and Herzegovina and Romania announcing offerings in the
Key to this success is a simple application of modern Pannonian Basin in 2020, following Croatia’s success in 2019.
techniques, in particular 3D seismic hunting for DHI’s, across Seismic and drilling permitting is thoroughly regulated:
a multiplicity of reservoir targets in a structured basin where straightforward access demonstrates an ‘open for business’
the risk on hydrocarbon source and migration is low. In 2006 atmosphere compared to Western Europe.
the US Geological Survey estimated a mean Yet-To-Find of 1.1 In addition to former state players such as MOL, INA,
Bboe for the basin, with an upside of 2.2 Bboe. NAFTA and NIS, just four oil companies have operated
Why then is the Pannonian Basin not a key destination for exploration wells in the Pannonian Basin in the last three
more players? years: ADX, Aspect, Serinus and Vermilion, all of whom
have had success, mostly finding gas. Vermilion have built
Play Elements a portfolio across Croatia – where they are the dominant
The primary petroleum system can be seen as a classic back acreage holder – Hungary and Slovakia, based on the
arc: the broad Pannonian Basin is the post-rift result of a recognition of underinvestment in the Pannonian Basin and
series of discrete back arc Middle Miocene syn-rift basins the opportunity to apply modern technology at low cost.
developing on the north-easterly directed Alpine thrust belt. Vermilion have had five successes from six wells in 2019 and
The pre-rift contains a secondary petroleum system. plan five wells in 2020.
Syn-rift sequences occur in restricted basins containing Additional strategy is the redevelopment and extension of
source rock candidates mature for oil at depths as little as existing discoveries via 3D seismic and modern drilling and
2,000m due to the high heat flows from the thinned rifted completion techniques.
crust, with maximum depths of burial
into the wet gas window. A biogenic
gas source is recognized in the post-rift
Pliocene.
Carbonate and marine to fluvial
sandstone reservoirs occur in both the
syn- and post-rift. At least 18 different
reservoirs are recognized in Hungary in
the Badenian, Sarmatian and Pannonian
stages (Middle Miocene to Pliocene).
For example, the Algyo field in Hungary
has produced >600 MMboe from 34
separate reservoirs, with average pay
thickness of 9m per sand reservoir,
porosities of 17–25% and permeabilities
up to 0.5D. The combined stratigraphic
and structural trap extends over 80 km2.
Deep tight and shale gas concepts are
being tested.
Multiple structural trapping
mechanisms result from rifting
geometries and from post-rift alteration

54 GEOExPro May 2020

GEOExPro May 2020 55
GEO Chemistry

Geochemistry and Studies offshore Nova Scotia

have shown that combining
Microbiology in geochemistry and microbial
genomics can effectively de-risk

Seep Prospecting offshore deepwater oil and gas

exploration.
MARTIN FOWLER, APT Canada and CASEY HUBERT, Geognomics Inc. and University of Calgary

Hydrocarbon seep detection is often the first step in risking exploration (e.g. Hubert and Judd, 2010). One method
indicating possible prospectivity in frontier offshore basins. is to examine sediments for bacteria that actively metabolize
Hydrocarbon seeps can be detected indirectly by satellite hydrocarbons in the seabed. This is most often done using
imagery and, if available, by seismic evidence. Since these are traditional growth-based screening and more recently, as
indirect methods, they are usually followed up with surface in the study described here, using genomic tools like PCR
core sampling with geochemical analysis to provide stronger assays to target functional genes, such as methane- and
evidence of actual occurrence. Geochemical data can be alkane-monooxygenases for aerobic or anaerobic hydrocarbon
then used to differentiate between biogenic and thermogenic degrading microbial populations. The advent of these
hydrocarbons. In practice, detecting subsurface petroleum genomics tools is critical since growth-based screens are
seepage from analysis of cores is difficult. This is because the typically failing to capture a large majority (i.e. >99%) of the
geochemical expression of the seepage area is very limited, microbial diversity in natural samples (Amann et al., 1995);
and the geochemical character of a shallow sediment core by sequencing DNA directly this ‘uncultured’ majority is
sample is a usually a mixture of different inputs, including included in the analytical signal. Here we describe how
migrated hydrocarbons and recent and ancient organic matter combining geochemical and microbiological data is increasing
deposited with the sediments. confidence that there are hydrocarbons migrating to the
Microbiological approaches have been used to complement surface, close to deepwater prospects offshore Nova Scotia.
geochemical data in detecting petroleum seepage for de-
Offshore Nova Scotia
The shallow water Scotian Shelf (<200m
Map of offshore Nova Scotia. Highlighted locations are site 2016-41, which shows the presence of water depth) is relatively well explored,
thermogenic gas hydrate and strong indications of petrogenic liquid hydrocarbons, and sites 2016-48
and 49 (very close to each other), which show the presence of biogenic gas hydrates. The sites by a star with 25 discoveries and production
are additional 2016 sites where there is support from both geochemical and microbiological data for until recently from the Sable Island
hydrocarbon seepage from the subsurface. Yellow dots indicate 2015 sites and green dots are 2016 sites. area. In contrast, the deepwater Scotian
Slope, which extends from the shelf
break at 200m to almost 4,000m water
depth, is poorly explored. Just 13
locations have been drilled over an area
of 80,000 km2, with only four of these in
more than 2,000m water depth. There
have been only minor discoveries or
shows in shallower wells reported to
date. Although drilling has not been
very successful, oil and gas seeps have
been reported using indirect methods.
However, there has been no definitive
proof to link these seep reports to the
presence of working petroleum systems
on the Scotian Slope.
The principal objective of offshore
piston-coring expeditions has been
to identify evidence for an oil-prone
source rock on the Scotian Slope from
geochemical analyses of sediment
samples in close proximity to surface
expression of petroleum seepage.
Prospective sites were evaluated on

56 GEOExPro May 2020

Extractable Organic Matter Gas Chromatograms (EOM-GCs) of samples from: (a) site 2016-1, which shows no evidence for the presence of petrogenic
hydrocarbons and is dominated by C23–C33 odd numbered n-alkanes derived from recent higher land plant material; and (b) site 2016-41, which shows
strong evidence of petrogenic hydrocarbons seeping to the surface, indicated here by the higher abundance of C15–C20 n-alkanes relative to those derived
from recent organic matter. The C15–C19 and C27–C31 odd numbered n-alkane peaks are labeled.

the basis of available seismic reflection Data Obtained from Cores first time on the Scotian Slope, at
data, interpretations of sea-surface Recovered cores were variable in three separate sites (Campbell, 2019).
hydrocarbon slick occurrences imaged depth and up to 10m long. They were At sites 48 and 49 the methane in
in satellite data, and near real-time immediately sampled near the base for the hydrate had a mostly biogenic
assessment of seabed and water column headspace gas analysis and multiple origin, whereas the gas composition
anomalies using multibeam echo additional depths were sampled and isotopes at site 41 indicated a
sounder and high resolution seismic from each core for geochemical and thermogenic oil-associated gas, based
reflection systems. It should be noted microbiological analysis. Geochemical both on its composition (i.e. its wetness)
that even when the sampling vessel analyses were performed by Applied and isotopes (e.g. δ13methane values
is on location, hitting a target feature Petroleum Technology (APT) and between –42.2 and –49.0‰). Sediment
with a piston core is very difficult, with microbiological assays were performed samples from site 41 have EOM-GCs
the majority of cores not managing to by the Geomicrobiology Group in the that show high amounts of lighter
sample the seabed close to the target. Department of Biological Sciences at the hydrocarbons over the nC15–nC20 alkane
Piston coring in 2,500–3,000m water University of Calgary. Gas samples were range (see figure above), including an
depth can vary as much as 500m laterally analyzed for composition and isotopes. unresolved complex mixture (UCM).
from the target as a consequence of the Sediment samples were evaluated for Shallower samples show a larger UCM
wireline deviating 5° from vertical, which their Total Organic Carbon (TOC) with n-alkanes in lower abundance
is not uncommon when working on the content, extracted and the total extract relative to isoprenoids such as pristane
open ocean. This is critical, as Adams (EOM) analyzed by gas chromatography and phytane, suggesting biodegradation
and Dahdah (2011) noted that sediment (GC). A subset of extracts was selected is occurring in the shallow seabed.
cores collected 15 to 25m (49–92 ft) for more detailed gas chromatography- Samples from site 41 also show a higher
away from a real target might not show mass spectrometry analysis based on relative abundance of thermally mature
a thermogenic geochemical signature in the appearance of their EOM-GCs. biomarkers compared to biologically
the resulting sediment core. Geochemistry methods and data can be inherited isomers which dominate
Three expeditions took place between found in Fowler and Webb (2015, 2017, most other samples, and also a higher
2015 and 2018. In 2015 and 2016, a 2018). Bacterial community composition concentration of diamondoids.
total of 70 piston cores were taken was determined on triplicate sediment Site 41 appears to provide the best
from different locations (Campbell and samples throughout the entire depth evidence to date for a mature oil-prone
MacDonald, 2016, Campbell, 2019). of the cores through 16S rRNA gene source rock on the deepwater Scotian
In 2018 an autonomous underwater amplicon sequencing using the method Slope. This site was revisited in 2018,
vehicle revisited interesting sites, where of Dong et al. (2017). resulting in gravity core samples
additional gravity coring was performed During the 2016 expedition, gas that confirmed this location is where
(Campbell and Normandeau, 2019). hydrates were encountered for the petroleum seepage reaches the surface.

GEOExPro May 2020 57

GEO Chemistry

A seismic cross-line
through the Tangier 3D
Survey in the proximity
of site 2016-41. It shows
a salt diapir with a bright
spot amplitude anomaly
above it, indicating the
possibility of reservoired
hydrocarbons. Faults to
surface are also present,
representing potential
for hydrocarbons to
seep to the surface. This
probably explains why
petroleum seepage was
detected in cores from
sites 2016-41 and 2018-7,
as they were taken in the
closest proximity to the
fault expression at surface.
Other cores taken in 2015
and 2016, further from
the surface expression of
faulting, did not detect
petroleum seepage.
m
00

00
00
00
0

0
50
10

20
25
15

Subsequent analysis of recently The microbial groups detected in those with positive microbiological
available 3D seismic data (BP’s Tangier the hydrocarbon-positive sediment indications. Using data from two
3D), indicates that sites 2016-41 and samples are commonly observed in completely different techniques, we
2018-7 were collected above a buried salt deeper sediments and were ubiquitous are confident that there is subsurface
diapir with overlying seismic amplitude in the deeper (>1m) layers of the cores petroleum seepage close to four
anomalies and crestal faults that likely in this study. Depth profiles associated coring sites in the deepwater offshore
act as conduits for migrating fluid, as with a handful of microbial sub- Nova Scotia. These interpretations
shown on the seismic section above. species (i.e. differentiated by their gene are supported by pore water sulphate
Geochemical indications of relatedness) revealed patterns that are concentrations that drop off rapidly
thermogenic gas and/or sediments consistent with geochemical anomalies with depth in these sediments,
with possible petrogenic hydrocarbons for hydrocarbons, suggesting that suggesting anaerobic hydrocarbon-
were observed at a number of other these bacteria (and their associated degrading populations are active at
sites but, unlike at site 41, the data genomic marker sequences) can serve these sites.
is ambiguous enough that varying as biomarkers. As such, microbiology is From a petroleum systems
degrees of uncertainty remain. To offering an additional line of evidence perspective, our seep data supports the
address this, geochemical results in petroleum seep prospecting on the presence of one or more mature source
were compared with microbiological Scotian Slope. Studies in deepwater rocks on the Scotian Slope, with at least
data. DNA sequencing of bacteria prospects in the Gulf of Mexico have one capable of generating a black oil in
and archaea revealed that sites which shown similar patterns for closely the vicinity of site 41.
showed geochemical anomalies for related microorganisms (Hubert et al.,
the presence of hydrocarbons had 2018). Sites 48 and 49, where biogenic References Available Online
conspicuous microbial community gas hydrates were encountered, show
profiles, with anomalies in certain similar anomalies but with slight Acknowledgments
groups of uncultured bacteria. The modifications, indicating that some The authors acknowledge funding
lack of cultured representatives for bacteria do not distinguish between for this project from Nova Scotia
these bacteria means that they are thermogenic and biogenic methane Department of Energy and Mines
poorly understood, since the only whereas others might, hinting at the (NSDoEM), Offshore Energy Research
information about them comes from possibility for bioassays that can identify Association, Genome Canada and the
DNA sequencing and not culture-based migrated thermogenic hydrocarbons. cooperation, support and guidance of the
physiology experiments. Therefore, the Geological Survey of Canada. Natasha
metabolic explanations for observed Increasing Certainty Morrison (NSDoEM) provided helpful
patterns are not straightforward, despite Sites with strong geochemical comments and the seismic figure above
the striking distribution patterns in the evidence for the presence of and Carmen Li (Geogenomics Inc and
seabed. hydrocarbon seepage were mostly University of Calgary) provided data.

58 GEOExPro May 2020

GEOExPro May 2020 59
GEO Profile

Going the Extra Mile

Thomas Chidsey quietly goes about his work at the Utah Geological Survey, rarely
making any headlines or seeking notoriety, yet this dedicated and humble geoscientist
carries out those ‘extras’ that clearly set him apart from his peers.
THOMAS SMITH

After working with Thomas Chidsey River Formation covering microbial Early Adventures
and using his knowledge of a variety of carbonates. Chidsey brought an entire Growing up in the Wilmington,
geologic subjects, I realized that he is a suitcase full of cores to display as well as Delaware and Washington, D.C.
special, one-of-a-kind person. Yet, when little slabs of microbialites and 75 bags metropolitan areas, Tom was a western
co-worker Michael Vanden Berg, Energy of oolitic sand from the Great Salt Lake movie fan and always dreamed of
and Minerals Program Manager at the to hand out at the conference. From heading west. Being a member of
Utah Geological Survey (UGS), related Utah and through the London tube to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-
the following anecdote to me, I knew I Piccadilly Circus, Tom lugged this heavy day Saints, he could not help notice
had to find out more about Tom and tell suitcase to the conference. I have to say it that Church-owned Brigham Young
his story. was a smashing success; everyone loved University (BYU) could achieve one of
“I met up with Tom Chidsey in the little giveaways and viewing the core.” those dreams. Located in Provo, Utah,
London at the ‘Microbial Carbonates in This is just one example of what a along the beautiful Wasatch Mountain
Space and Time’ symposium that was dedicated geoscientist and educator Range just south of Salt Lake City, Tom
held in June, 2013 at The Geological Thomas Chidsey really is; a person who ventured west to get his education.
Society,” Michael explained. “We were always goes above and beyond, which “I had no idea of what I was going
there to deliver two posters, one on lifts him into a rarified space well above to major in when I started school,”
the Great Salt Lake and one the Green the crowd. says Tom. “A sophomore in my dorm

Tom Chidsey at ‘The Wedge’ overlook in the San Rafael Swell of east-central Utah.

Michael Chidsey, Sqwak Productions Inc.

60 GEOExPro May 2020

recommended I take a non-science geology course called experience would eventually help me land my job at Utah
‘Life of the Past’. This course was to fulfill a general physical Geological Survey.”
science requirement for my first semester just because ‘it was
easy’. Just after two months into the course, my search for a The Dream Job
major had ended, changing my life forever.” Tom started working at UGS in 1989. “It was my dream
“After taking this introductory geology course,” says Tom, job come true,” he says. “I’ve had the freedom to work an
“I went to the office of the lecturer, Dr. Morris Petersen, incredible variety of projects all across the State and beyond.
who also happened to be the Chairman of the Geology Three geologic provinces come together in Utah and rocks
Department and told him I wanted to major in Geology. To of just about every age and depositional environment can be
my surprise he replied, ‘we would love to have you major in found here along with some very interesting modern analogs
geology!’ Dr. Ken Hamblin introduced me to the geology of of these same rocks. All of this is less than a day’s drive away.”
the Grand Canyon and Dr. Lehi Hintze eventually became While taking full advantage of the freedom provided by
my thesis advisor. Most of my professors are gone now but all his new job and the geology that surrounds their offices in
had a great influence on me and my career.” Tom remains very Salt Lake City, he certainly hit the ground running. Tom has
connected to BYU, collaborating with professors on projects numerous publications on Utah petroleum geology, carbon
and teaching core workshops to their students. dioxide resources and sequestration, oil and gas outcrop
After graduating with a Masters in geology, Tom joined analogs, microbial carbonates, the general geology of Utah’s
Exxon in 1977 to work in south Texas out of Kingsville. many parks, and is even a co-author of papers on Mars rover
“Exxon had a very active production office there and hired a protocols using Utah sites. He has been the editor/co-editor of
lot of geoscientists fresh out of school,” says Tom. “There was nine UGA, AAPG and UGS field guidebooks and bulletins.
a wonderful camaraderie among us, with the older geologists
teaching us about logs, finding prospects, and
Studying the microbial carbonates in the Great Salt Lake, Utah; Tom and co-authors were
sitting wells. I was able to see most of my prospects able to shed light on the formation of these microbial mounds that are similar to important
drilled in the area before an opportunity to work reservoir targets offshore Brazil and in other petroleum basins around the world.
back in Utah beckoned.”
Rick Fritz, the current American Association
of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG) president-
elect, was one of those young hired hands that
arrived in Kingsville just a month before Tom.
“This was an exciting time for all of us young
geologists,” remembers Rick. “We were all
assigned to an engineer and told to keep the
drill bit turning. Busy was an understatement.
We all had to generate prospects as Exxon had
a large gas contract to fill. I remember Tom as a
bright pioneer and very driven, developing a lot
of prospects and getting them drilled. We were a
close group and when I left Kingsville, I created
the ‘Weevil’ award, as that is what we called
ourselves, made out of an old, very ugly bowling
trophy of mine. It was ‘awarded’ to new hires as
they left the area for other offices, and guess what
… I got it back when I became director at AAPG.
It is a history of those of us that had worked the
area; Tom’s was the first of 20 names on the award.
Anyway, we are still all great friends and ski
together every spring break.”
Tom left Texas to work on the hot Utah thrust
belt play along with the Uinta Basin, Utah and the
Green River Basin of south-western Wyoming.
The geologic knowledge of the region he gained
while at BYU was a valuable asset during his nine-
year career with Celsius/Wexpro (now Dominion
Michael Vanden Berg, UGS

Energy). Tom also became active in the Utah

Geological Association (UGA). “During this time,
I led field trips, published some papers and gave
presentations of the geology of Utah, all of which
I found enjoyable and appealing,” says Tom. “This

GEOExPro May 2020 61

GEO Profile

Some of his work and publications

Michael Vanden Berg, UGS

explain oil and gas activity in Utah to its
citizens and he has devoted considerable
time and energy in educating the public
about geology and petroleum resources.
His enthusiasm for geology can be
contagious. “I have been told that when
I talk to people about Utah’s geology,
my face lights up,” he says. “Everyone
has a natural curiosity about how our
world formed and I am happy to try my
best to explain some of the things I have
studied and know. I am always surprised
that few people realize that Utah has
significant petroleum resources. It is
fun to fill them in and give them what I
call ‘Petroleum Geology 101’. I try to be
humble and less technical in explaining
the technology that helps meet our
energy needs to a public that may truly
lack a full understanding.”
Retracing Major Powell’s 1869 travels, Tom and his elder son, Michael, enjoy rafting the Colorado
Past and Future River and admiring the amazing geology exposed in its cutting of the Grand Canyon.
Tom recently published one of his
‘outside’ interests, a story entitled Major John Wesley Powell’s In addition to retracing Powell’s journey, Tom’s interest
1869 Journey Down the Green and Colorado Rivers of Utah. in geology and history has taken him to all 50 states and 17
He has retraced the trip and his attention was often “arrested countries, seeking out new places and geosites. He has stood
by some new wonder” Powell had marveled at during his in Charles Darwin’s study and scrambled down the craggy
journey. “I first saw the Grand Canyon while on a four-day cliffs to James Hutton’s famous unconformity at Siccar Point
field trip taught by the late, great Ken Hamblin,” says Tom. in Scotland. To him, “seeing such revered sites in the history
“With this great introduction to geology, I have often felt a of geologic study is the BEST.”
debt of gratitude for the incredible contributions and ideas His interest in history runs deep and very personal. “Great
past geologists have given all of us in this field. They are an grandfather Chidsey fought for the Pennsylvania Volunteers
inspiration to me personally.” in the Civil War and my grandfather in World War I,” says
Tom. “I have visited all the battlefield sites where they fought
Tom with his wife of 44 years, Mary, at Hutton’s unconformity, Siccar
and plan to write about their experiences for the family after
Point, Scotland.
I retire.”
When not being a
Scott Ritter, BYU

geologist, Tom’s life, along

with that of his wife Mary,
centers around their two
sons, a daughter and nine
grandchildren. Active in his
church and community, Tom
would like to be remembered
“as one who loved geology,
particularly Utah, and wanted
to share this with others
through publications, field
trips and presentations.”
“Timing is everything in
life and it has worked out very
well for me. My professors,
colleagues, friends and family,
and the support of UGS, UGA
and AAPG in what I have
worked on have given me the
wonderful career I have had.”

62 GEOExPro May 2020

Morocco:
Since early 2019, Chariot Oil & Gas has performed an extensive interpretation program on over 1,700 km2 of
Figure 2: Merged Miocene top reservoir
legacy PSTM 3D seismic data, shot over the Lixus Offshore license area in 2006 and 2010. Figure 1 highlights the seismic amplitude map.
Mio-Pliocene siliciclastic succession, which reaches over 5 km thickness in the central area. Sediment loading
Figure 3: Location map of the Lixus license
of thick high net-gross reservoir systems drives syn-depositional salt and mud tectonism, controlling sediment

Lixus Offshore: How new

in the offshore Rharb Basin (3D seismic
accommodation space and developing trapping geometries for the on-block hydrocarbon accumulations and extent in blue).
exploration prospects, including the 2009 Anchois thermogenic gas discovery.

data analysis techniques are Advancements in data analysis and imaging techniques throughout the past decade have provided insights
into reservoir distribution and enabled the discrimination of gas-filled sands. Approximately 1 Tcf of remaining
recoverable gas is estimated to be held in the Anchois discovery and surrounding analogous satellite prospects,

transforming a basin with on-block resources increasing to over 2 Tcf when incorporating other Miocene targets identified to date.

As Moroccan energy demand is forecast to double between 2015 and 2030 and the country remains reliant on
imported fossil fuels for 96% of its energy, understanding how to maximize value from previously overlooked
indigenous exploration plays becomes increasingly important. The potential contribution of gas from the Lixus
Offshore block would allow Morocco to significantly reduce its reliance on imported fuel, ushering in a new era
of increased self-sufficiency and reduced environmental impact from power generation.
Figure 1: Regional [PSTM] arbitrary seismic line across the Lixus license (display is full stack amplitude co-blended with seismic relief attribute).

20 GEOExPro May 2020 -

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Resolving Neogene Clastic Fairways
Using modern analysis techniques to understand the true potential of reservoir systems in a
diverse basin.
MELISSA CHIN and DUNCAN WALLACE; CHARIOT OIL & GAS
Figure 5: Cartoon schematic cross-section through the Rharb Basin demonstrating the variable post-nappe sediment thickness and internal architecture of Lixus
The Lixus Offshore block is located within
mini-basin walls.
the Rharb Basin on the north-west Moroccan
Atlantic shelf (Figure 3). The Rharb Basin access greater clastic sediment supply shedding off from the this fault system as accommodation space has opened
represents the westernmost foredeep of the growing orogen. during deposition. Subsequent inversion due to reactive mud
African Rif Belt, part of the greater Betic-Rif- When the Gibraltar Straits reopened in the Early Pliocene tectonics has created trapping geometries.
Tell range, which spans the Mediterranean (Figure 4c), renewed circulation of Atlantic–Mediterranean Petrophysical analysis of well data proved that the
margins of North Africa and southern Iberia. bottom currents caused a gradual shift from sand-rich Miocene sands have excellent reservoir properties, with up
The focus of recent exploration throughout the turbidite to mud-rich contourite deposition by the Late to 30% porosity and >1 Darcy permeability. Well-to-seismic
Rharb Basin has predominantly been the post- Pliocene. This depositional system is mirrored in the Gulf ties demonstrate that these gas-bearing sands, mapped as
nappe Neogene basins, so called as they are set of Cadiz, as confirmed by research drilling at Site U1387. soft (trough) events, show increase in full-stack amplitude
atop a thick, argillaceous, olistostrome known The distinctive Early Pliocene Unconformity marks this response and strong class III AVO anomaly on offset stacks.
as the Pre-Rifaine Nappe. reflooding as a regionally extensive, erosional event. These properties, along with other qualitative attributes such
The significant Upper Miocene–Pliocene The magnitude of sand supplied into the basin by the as flat spots, velocity push-downs and low frequency wavelets,
post-nappe section is dominated by deep orogenic wedge during this tectonic evolution is supported are found in mapped prospects, but absent in proven water-
marine sediments, composed of hemipelagic by wells drilled on-block that penetrate the Upper Miocene– bearing sands. The well-seismic calibration of proven gas-
mudstones punctuated by massive deposits Pliocene (Figure 4, inset pie charts). Biostratigraphy data in bearing sands at the well location has proven invaluable in
of sand-rich turbidite flows. The sands are these wells also confirm the deposition of turbidite systems de-risking remaining basin prospectivity.
represented on seismic data (Figure 1) by a) in a distal, deepwater setting. Through mapping of regional Recent PSDM reprocessing of the vintage dataset is
high amplitude, high relief, laterally coherent data, it is evident that this area marks the terminal point of further de-risking discovered and prospective resources
reflectors; a stark contrast to the underlying Figure 4: Central figure showing the deposition into the basin. within the proven Miocene gas play, as well as opening new
post-nappe isopach superimposed on
Pre-Rifaine Nappe, which is imaged as a pre-Miocene lithology; basin terminus play systems for gas in the Pliocene and for oil in the sub-
chaotic, slow velocity, amorphous unit. within Lixus area. Onshore isopach Data Analysis and Prospectivity nappe section through the significant improvements in deep
A characteristic feature of the post-nappe modified after Iribarren (2009). Correlation of seismic, well and outcrop data across the entire imaging. With proven resources ready for commercialization
a–c: Maps showing Late Miocene to
section is the division into a complex network Pliocene paleogeographic evolution, Rharb Basin clearly shows that the Lixus area is an extension and long-term growth opportunities through a diverse set of
of ‘mini-basins’. These are created by the modified after Capella et al. (2018). of the proven onshore oil and gas producing basin. Larger exploration plays, the high potential of this area is only just
mobilization of underlying Triassic salt and resource potential exists offshore owing to a combination starting to be fully resolved.
olistostrome muds, which is driven by rapid of the greater accommodation space and the distal setting,
b) c) References available online.
sediment loading of Upper Miocene–Pliocene leading to the deposition of thicker and more aerially extensive
units. Soft sediment withdrawal takes place reservoir bodies (Figure 5). Feeder systems that originate Figure 6: Spectral decomposition at reservoir level draped over the regional
below areas of greater overburden, causing the from the onshore supply mature clastics into lower slope to structure map highlighting distribution and extent of Miocene reservoirs.
redistribution of salt and mud into tall sediment basin floor channel and fan deposits in the offshore domain.
walls and diapirs. This process also led to the Channel systems can be seen clearly on spectral decomposition
development of significant basin-edge listric maps (Figure 6), where sands show a strong contrast against
and normal fault systems, providing major background shales on the frequency spectrum. Brightening on
structuration throughout the post-nappe section. spectral decomposition not only aids mapping of sand fairways
In 2009, the Anchois-1 exploration well but also provides geophysical evidence of the presence of gas,
penetrated three stacked high quality reservoir as demonstrated at the Anchois discovery. Using spectral
sand intervals. The two upper sands were gas bearing, Tortonian (Figure 4a). During this period, the Atlantic– decomposition as a tool in facies identification and to map
both with 50m gas columns; the third sand at the base of Mediterranean marine gateways, also referred to as the distribution of reservoir systems has been very powerful
the well was water-wet. This well was key in calibrating the Betic and Rifian corridors, allowed throughflow of compared to the use of conventional seismic amplitudes alone.
the seismic response of gas-fi lled reservoirs and in marine waters (Capella et al., 2018). Current direction Restoration of depositional environments, achieved by
demonstrating that thermogenic gas is able to migrate through these gateways and the Straits of Gibraltar, combining these observations with isopach reconstructions,
through the Nappe from deeply buried, gas-mature which was also open at this time, was controlled by was also key to understanding how the sands entered the
source rocks. westward propagating tectonics. basin and were distributed within different mini-basins. For
Increased uplift rates across the Alpine belt and example, a basin entry point is interpreted at Turbot, with
Clastic Source and Reservoir Distribution the resulting closure of these gateways caused a major a sand-rich succession thickening against the easternmost
The Alpine orogenic event led to the emplacement of the increase in clastic sediment supply to the Atlantic basins basin-bounding growth fault of the Lixus mini-basin (see
Pre-Rifaine Nappe, an allochthonous unit that reached in the Messinian (Figure 4b). This termination of ocean Figure 2). Extensions of this system can be tracked around
the Atlantic in the Late Miocene (Figure 4). Well data circulation triggered the Messinian Salinity Crisis the basin edge to the north, through the Maquereau
suggests that emplacement was complete by the Late in the Mediterranean and allowed Atlantic basins to prospects area, where thick sands have accumulated along

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Exploration Update
Brought to you in association with NVentures.

The Elusive Deepwater Gippsland Gas Prize

ExxonMobil have recently completed a three-well drilling campaign on VIC/P70
offshore Gippsland Basin, south-east Australia. The first two wells, Baldfish-
1 and Hairtail-1, were reported dry in 2018, whilst the latest well Sculpin-1, is
expected to be reported dry, with no announcement to the contrary. Sculpin-1 was
drilled to about 4,700m in an Australian record-breaking 2,239m of water.
ExxonMobil were hoping to build on the Dory gas discovery of 2008 in the
north of the block, although the location of Sculpin-1 further south in the block
suggests a step out from this play. Apache originally drilled Dory 1 in 2008 and
found 30m gas in good quality reservoir in the Latrobe (Upper Cretaceous) Group,
before the well was plugged and abandoned as sub-commercial. Liberty took that
license and ExxonMobil bought P70 in 2017 for an undisclosed amount, with press
reports talking about potentially 2 Tcfg at Dory. Failure here could be attributed
to structure as depth conversion plays a role over a subtle trap; Dory and other
prospects do not ‘close’ in time due to deepening water and deep canyons at the
water bottom, and large velocity variations in the carbonates above the target
Latrobe group. The stratigraphic nature of the Latrobe nearshore and shoreface sands with fluvio-deltaics also poses challenges
for trapping and seal. The jury is out on whether the block will deliver on multi-Tcf promises, and whether Dory is a big enough
fish for ExxonMobil to go ahead and develop. Indeed, rumors already circulate that this will be one of many assets subject to
ExxonMobil’s global divestment strategy.

Mixed Results in the Rhine Graben

Neptune with partner Palatina GeoCon are testing oil at Schwegenheim-1 in
the German Rhine Graben, but not from the main target Triassic Buntsandstein
Formation, which is the reservoir in the nearby Römerberg-Speyer oil field.
Römerberg, believed to contain 150 MMbo in-place, was discovered by accident
in 2003 whilst drilling to a geothermal target. Instead, two shallower secondary
targets, of undisclosed age but speculated to be in the Upper Trias or Lower
Tertiary, have been production tested in Schwegenheim-1, with a gross total of
1,500 bo being produced to a local refinery.
The well was drilled to 2,600m and took 53 days to drill. It is yet unclear if the
discovery will be commercial, a similar situation to Rhein Petroleum’s Steig-1 2019
discovery which recovered a total of 4,000 bo from an Oligocene reservoir in the
Rhine Graben. These two wells, plus drilling in the north of Germany by Neptune,
such as at Adorf, demonstrate that exploration drilling is feasible in this part of
Western Europe.

Jebel Ali Gas Bonanza

In February, the UAE announced the significant discovery of 80 Tcf of in-place
shallow gas resources, named Jebel Ali. The resources lie within an area of
5,000 km2 between Saih Al Sidirah in Abu Dhabi and Jebel Ali in Dubai. ADNOC
drilled more than 10 exploration and appraisal wells to establish the discovery.
The field is potentially the largest global gas discovery in the last 15 years, with the
exception perhaps of the Rovuma Basin gas discoveries offshore Mozambique.
News of the discovery came on the back of ADNOC and Dubai Supply
Authority (DUSUP) signing a strategic cooperation agreement to continue to
explore and develop the shallow high-quality organic gas resources between
the two emirates in a joint project. The shallow nature of the resource will also
mean that the development costs of gas production are lower than exploiting Abu
Dhabi’s sour gas resources.
Both conventional and unconventional drilling and completion technologies
and methods are being used by ADNOC to access this gas. In addition, the number
of drilling rigs required will be reduced by utilizing horizontal drilling and
hydraulic fracturing, which in turn will facilitate the best productivity rates.

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GEO Media

Travels to Rocky Places JANE WHALEY

World of Geology: Travels to Rocky Places the more classic image of the mountain’s steep face. A keen
Tony Waltham caver, many of his best photos are taken inside caverns.
Whittles Publishing
Man and Nature
Like many other geologists, retired university professor Tony Among the most interesting images in this book are those that
Waltham has spent much of his life traveling the world, remind us of how important geology is in everyday life – and
recording his journeys with some stunning photographs. also how we must remember that fact, and the problems that
A selection of over 100 of his images have been compiled ensue if we don’t. These were the images and stories that I
in an excellent new book, called World of Geology: Travels to found most fascinating.
Rocky Places. It has a simple but effective format: following A stunning photo of the Morning Glory hot spring in
a brief introduction, which includes an introduction to Yellowstone Park, for example, showed a deep blue pool,
geology for the uninitiated, each photo is displayed on but the accompanying text tells us that the photo dates
a single page, while the opposite page has a description from 1970, and the whole pool is now a dirty mustard
of the image and the stories behind it. Geology features color, probably because the delicate balance of water flow,
strongly, of course, written in a straightforward style, easily temperature and bacteria has been upset by the coins
understood by the non- thrown into the pool. The
specialist but with plenty ship’s graveyard in the Aral
of interesting information Sea provides another visual
for the geoscientist – but reminder of how easily we
there are also many personal can create an environmental
anecdotes, little bits of disaster; the diversion of its
history and other items of feeder rivers to irrigation
general interest. schemes turned this vast inland
lake into an arid desert.
Interesting Range of Some photos, by contrast,
Photos remind us of man’s ingenuity
The photos in the book at attempting to bend geology
encircle the globe, from and nature to our advantage.
Patagonia at the tip of South For about 1,000 years the
America to Spitzbergen rice terraces in Batad in the
inside the Arctic Circle, and Philippines have climbed up
from New Zealand through the steep mountain sides, but
Africa to Alaska. Some of the the accompanying text tells us
places visited are probably on that this has only been possible
every geologist’s bucket list. because they are faced with local
We admire the spectacular clay dominated by kaolinite,
Niagara Falls; Myvatn in the most stable of the clay
Iceland, where you can minerals. From Cheddar Gorge,
stand with a foot on either side of a diverging plate boundary; a popular picturesque tourist attraction, we have a photo of
the magnificent Tangariro volcano in New Zealand; Petra’s rock blasting at the top of the ravine, undertaken to prevent
wonderful banded red sandstone; and many, many more. landslides into the Gorge along bedding-plane weaknesses.
There are also photos of beautiful places that I will add to
my bucket list, including many in some little-visited parts A Glorious Journey
of Asia. Places like the Gangapurna Glacier, “tucked away in
the remote northern side of the Annapurna Range,” which is This is a book any person interested in their natural
about 6 km long and descends nearly 4,000m before it melts surroundings would like to have – and since it has soft covers
away, edged by textbook moraines. Or the beehive-shaped and is only about 15 cm across, it is light enough to fit into a
sandstone hills of the Bungle Bungles in northern Western traveler’s backpack. A number of the photos were taken several
Australia; or the vertical limestone cliffs of the El Chorro decades ago, so the printed picture quality was sometimes not
Gorge in southern Spain with its vertigo-inducing walkway; as good as might be expected, but the interesting range and
or the granite laccolith at the Chilean Torres del Paine, to descriptions more than make up for this.
name just a few. Tony avoids the obvious photogenic scene, Tony sums it up in his preface: “Perhaps the whole book is
preferring, for instance, a close-up view of exfoliation on best viewed as a glorious journey of discovery.” A journey that
the famous Half Dome in the Rocky Mountains rather than I was very happy to join him on.

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Q&A

Encouraging Girls How can we stop the decline in the

number of women studying geoscience
degrees? Sarah Boulton and Jodie Fisher

Into Geoscience from Plymouth University tell us about

Girls into Geoscience, a UK initiative
aimed at letting female secondary school
pupils know more about the subject.
What is Girls into Geoscience?
Girls into Geoscience, or GiG, is an outreach initiative geoscientists coming together to raise the profi le of the
primarily based around an annual two-day event held at the geosciences to the wider community.
University of Plymouth. Aimed at female students in year
12 (16 to 17-years-old) we welcome all who are interested What are the plans going forward?
in geoscience, from those who have studied geology or have Our initiative has grown recently; Ireland has set up GiG
some geological knowledge, to those who are completely new Ireland, running their third event this year, and the University
to the geosciences. of Glasgow started GiG Scotland last year, while 2020 will see
On the first day we offer an optional field trip, to the first GiG Wales event. With links to other international
demonstrate that there are no barriers to female inclusion programs we are beginning to see a global network developing.
in the field, whilst the second day consists of talks and However, we realize there is still more we can do to break
workshops, with topics from throughout the geosciences. down the barriers that may exist in females when thinking
These sessions showcase the range of geoscience career about STEM subjects and careers. Many girls make their
pathways that are possible across industry and academia, career choices by the time they are 14, and gender stereotypes
and provide role models for the girls and an insight into the about potential careers are set as early as the age of four. To
university experience. address this issue we launched GiG Junior last year for girls
aged 12–14 to inspire them into STEM and show them where
Why did you feel there was a need to set this up? the geosciences could take them. The University of Leicester
We knew the figures. Women still only make up 22% of the held the first GiG Junior event last October, and they are
UK STEM workforce, and a similar pattern is seen in the planning another event this year.
geosciences. At degree level the numbers are better; however,
only about 40% of places on geoscience courses are being Is the oil industry discussed at a GiG session?
taken up by women. We wanted to do something to encourage Earth scientists see themselves as custodians of the planet, but
more girls to consider the geosciences, but the final straw there is no getting away from the fact that for modern life to
came when a prospective student told us her teacher had told continue we need the extractive industries and the materials
her geology was not for girls! This was a mindset we could they produce. In recent years the number of students studying
definitely try to change. geology has fallen, perhaps partly owing to the close links
between the subject and the oil industry. We have had a
What difference has it made? number of women from the oil and extractive industries
Running now for seven years, more than 320 girls have attend GiG as speakers and role models, who have shown both
come to our events; some of our first attendees are already the diversity of what these industries do but also what they
embarking on their own geoscience careers and fulfi lling are doing in terms of sustainability. We hope that the students
their ambitions having completed their university studies. leave the event with an understanding of how earth scientists
Feedback from attendees has helped us understand the impact can be part of the solution across a range of industries.
of the events, and the difference we have made to the girls,
many of whom are the only female on their A-level Left: Dr. Sarah Boulton is Associate Professor of Active Neotectonics at the
course, or the only one at school interested in studying University of Plymouth and is a co-founder of Girls into Geoscience. Right: Dr.
Jodie Fisher manages the earth science research laboratories at the University of
the geosciences at university. GiG has given them the Plymouth and undertakes workshops and geoscience sessions for schools. She is
opportunity to meet like-minded students and to start also a co-founder of Girls into Geoscience.
to form their own networks, giving them the confidence
University of Plymouth, Alan Stewart

that they are not the only one interested in geology!

We give the girls a chance to see if geoscience is really
for them through role models and fieldwork, and our
surveys show that 100% of the girls attending would
recommend GiG to anyone considering studying the
geosciences.
Locally we have also seen an increase in the
number of girls on our courses at the University of
Plymouth. GiG has also had an impact on our equality
agenda. Overall, we are seeing a community of female

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FlowBack

Time to Regroup Conversion Factors

Covid-19 is having an huge impact – but are there any positives to Crude oil
the situation? 1 m3 = 6.29 barrels
1 barrel = 0.159 m3
International Petroleum (IP) Week, the London gathering of the great and good in 1 tonne = 7.49 barrels
the oil and gas sector organized by the UK Energy Institute, seems like a very long
time ago. How the industry was getting on transitioning to a low carbon economy Natural gas
took front and center stage at the event but coronovirus, or Covid-19, as we are 1 m3 = 35.3 ft3
now calling the virus, was the elephant in the room. Predictably enough we missed
1 ft3 = 0.028 m3
the Chinese delegation this year but plenty of Italian and Spanish oil folk were
traveling. The virus was a threat but containable.
Would IP Week have taken place if it had been scheduled for the end of March Energy
rather than February? Almost certainly not. Other industry events are getting 1000 m3 gas = 1 m3 o.e.
postponed or canceled one by one and while not in complete lockdown the sector 1 tonne NGL = 1.9 m3 o.e.
has moved to tick-over mode.
Positives? More oil is being pumped as producers fight for market share – but
Numbers
carbon emissions are lower than for a very long time as users cut back. In February,
for example, China’s state-owned refiners announced a cut in refining throughput Million = 1 x 106
of nearly a million barrels a day. Major ports such as Shanghai and Shenzhen Billion = 1 x 109
reported a 20% decline in trade for the same month as labor shortages caused by the Trillion = 1 x 1012
virus started to bite.
At IP Week this year, Matt Haddon of the sustainability firm ERM talked about Supergiant field
“an old economy, new economy thing.” Low carbon priorities, argued Haddon, were
Recoverable reserves > 5 billion
producing “the most urgent structural shift that the sector has seen for decades.”
Oil and gas majors were having to rethink their roadmap and energy provision in all barrels (800 million Sm3) of oil
its many forms was very much on the agenda. equivalents
With the oil price currently down below $30 a barrel will transition among the
majors continue? What can we expect when BP CEO Bernard Looney sets out how Giant field
the company is going to get to net zero carbon by 2050? The answer, I suspect, is Recoverable reserves > 500 million
careful, measured progress in a new economy not only shaped by climate change
barrels (80 million Sm3)
but by the virus and by other nasty bugs which may follow. BP for one is now the
world’s largest investor in solar energy. Shell is involved in the world’s largest pilot of oil equivalents
project for producing green hydrogen. Equinor believes it can achieve carbon
neutrality as early as 2030. Major field
These are strange times but they are times when the industry has a chance to Recoverable reserves > 100 million
regroup – despite the spat between OPEC and Russia. The global economy may be barrels (16 million Sm3)
sick for the moment but this particular patient can prepare for its recovery.
of oil equivalents
Nick Cottam

Historic oil price

Crude Oil Prices Since 1861
Nominal Real (2014 dollar)
140

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US Dollars per barrel

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140
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ID 97292065 © Xdew77/Dreamstime.com

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