 Teaching Tips:

How to be a good a teacher

Classroom management
Top10 for classroom management
Why if……..?
50 tips on motivating students
Some ideas for motivating students
Suitable activities for group and pair work
 Educational aids
Steps in using pair work
Educational objectives
How to write effective behavioural objectives.
Teaching vocabulary
Teaching grammar
Teaching listening
Teaching speaking
Teaching reading
Teaching writing
 Questioning techniques
Tests, quizzes and exams
Assessment
Error correction
 References

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 How to be a good teacher

What makes a good teacher?

These are some of the students' responses to the above question;

 They should make their lessons interesting so you do not feel asleep in them.
 A teacher must love her job. If she really enjoys her job that will make the lessons
more interesting.
 I like the teacher who shares her personality and does not hide it from the students.
 I like the teacher who has lots of knowledge, not only of her subject.
 It's important that you can talk to the teacher when you have problems.
 A good teacher is somebody who has an affinity with the students that she is teaching.
 A good teacher should try to draw out the quiet ones and control the more talkative
ones.
 She should be able to correct people without offending them.
 A good teacher is someone who helps rather than shouts.
 A good teacher is someone who knows our names.

Class room Management

The inexperienced or nervous teacher tends to start
teaching as soon as she enters the classroom. There
are several things to do first, which ' pay of ' in terms of avoiding trouble
later on.
 Checking your equipment: make sure you have got every thing you need
and you have not left something vital in the staff room.
 Checking the room equipment: * see that the board is clean.
* There are pens to write on the board.
 Ensuring access: It is important to make sure that you will have access to
every student in the class. (to hear the speaker clearly- to be able to answer
individuals- to control the least interested students. ).
 Reducing distance: If there are more desks than the students, get the students
at the back to fill desks in front.
 Removing distractions: Make sure that students have on their desks only
things you want them to have.
 Seating arrangement : Determine who sits next to who- how to change the
arrangement to fit the activity.
 Giving clear instructions.
 Monitoring. group and pair work
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 Using students' names.
 Starting the lesson.
 Finishing the lesson: Remember to set homework.
 Farewells and socializing.

Top 10 Tips for Classroom Discipline and management

Classroom discipline and management causes the most fear and consternation in new
teachers. However, classroom management is a skill that is not only learned but
practiced daily. Here are ten tips that can lead to successful classroom management
and discipline. These tips can help you cut down on discipline problems and leave
you with fewer interruptions and disruptions.
 1) It's Easier to Get Easier
Many teachers make the mistake of starting the school year with a poor discipline
plan. Students quickly assess the situation in each class and realize what they will be
allowed to get away with. Once you set a precedent of allowing a lot of disruptions, it
can be very hard to start better classroom management and discipline techniques.
However, it is never tough to get easier as the year goes on.
 2) Fairness is Key
Students have a distinct sense of what is and what is not fair. You must act fairly for all
students if you expect to be respected. If you do not treat all students equitably, you will
be labelled as unfair and students will not be keen to follow your rules. Make sure that
if your best student does something wrong, they too get punished for it.
 3) Deal with Disruptions with as Little Interruption as Possible
When you have classroom disruptions, it is imperative that you deal with them
immediately and with as little interruption of your class momentum as possible.
If students are talking amongst themselves and you are having a classroom
discussion, ask one of them a question to try to get them back on track. If
you have to stop the flow of your lesson to deal with disruptions, then you are
robbing students who want to learn of their precious in-class time.
 4) Avoid Confrontations in Front of Students
Whenever there is a confrontation in class there is a winner and a loser. Obviously as
the teacher, you need to keep order and discipline in your class. However, it is much
better to deal with discipline issues privately than cause a student to 'lose face' in
front of their friends. It is not a good idea to make an example out of a disciplinary
issue. Even though other students might get the point, you might have lost any
chance of actually teaching that student anything in your class.
 5) Stop Disruptions with a Little Humor
Sometimes all it takes is for everyone to have a good laugh to get things back on
track in a classroom. Many times, however, teachers confuse good humor with
sarcasm. While humor can quickly diffuse a situation, sarcasm may harm your
relationship with the students involved. Use your best judgment but realize
that what some people think as funny others find to be offensive.

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 6) Keep High Expectations in Your Class
Expect that your students will behave, not that they will disrupt. Reinforce this with
the way you speak to your students. When you begin the day, tell your students
your expectations. For example, you might say, "During this whole group session, I
expect you to raise your hands and be recognized before you start speaking. I also
expect you to respect each other's opinions and listen to what each person has to say."
 7) Over plan
Free time is something teachers should avoid. By allowing students time just to talk
each day, you are setting a precedent about how you view academics and your
subject. To avoid this, over plan. When you have too much to cover, you'll never
run out of lessons and you will avoid free time. You can also fill up any left over time
with mini-lessons as described elsewhere on this site.
 8) Be Consistent
One of the worst things you can do as a teacher is to not enforce your rules
consistently. If one day you ignore misbehaviors and the next day you jump on
someone for the smallest infraction, your students will quickly lose respect for you.
Your students have the right to expect you to basically be the same everyday.
Moodiness is not allowed. Once your lose your student's respect, you also lose their
attention and their desire to please you.
 9) Make Rules Understandable
You need to be selective in your rules (no one can follow 180 rules consistently).
You also need to make them clear. Students should understand what is and what is
not acceptable. Further, you should make sure that the consequences for breaking
your rules are also clear and known beforehand.
 10) Start Fresh Everyday

What if …………?
 What if students are all at different levels ?
 Use different materials. While one group is working on a piece of language study
(e.g. present continuous), the other group might be reading or doing a more advanced
grammar exercise.
 Do different tasks with the same material. Where teachers use the same material
with the whole class, they can encourage students to do different tasks depending on
their abilities. A reading text can have questions at three levels.
 Use the students: peer help and teaching so the better students can help weaker ones.
 What if the class is very big?
 Use worksheets.
 Use pair and group work..
 Use chorus reaction.
 Use group leaders.
 Use the size of group for your advantage.
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 What if students keep using their own language?
 Talk to them about the issues.
 Only respond to English use.
 Create an English environment: use signs, pictures…etc..
 Keep reminding them.
 What if students are uncooperative?
 Talk to individuals.
 Use activities.
 Enlist help. Talk to colleagues.
. What if students do not want to talk?
 Use pair work..
 Allow them to speak in a controlled way first.
 Use acting and reading aloud.
 Use role-play.
 What if students do not understand the listening tape?
 Introduce interview questions or role-play so that they can predict what is the
listening going to be about.
 One task only: straightforward task, which does not demand too much detailed
understanding.
 Play the first segment only.
 Use the tape script: it can be cut into bits. The students put them in the right order as
they listen.
 Use the tape script 2: the tape script can have words or phrases blanked out.
 What if students in groups finish before everybody else?
 Provide them with some spare activities (little worksheets, puzzles…..etc)
 Plan extensions to the original task so that if group finished early, they can do extra
work on it.

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.

50 Tips on Motivating Students

1.Know your students and use their names as often as possible.

2.  Plan for every class; never try to wing it.

3.  Pay attention to the strengths and limitations of each of your students.  Reward the
strengths and strengthen the weak spots.

4.  Set your room in a U-shape [if possible] to encourage interaction among the
students.

5.  Send lots of positive messages with posters, bulletin boards, and pictures.

6.  Be sure that your classroom is comfortable; check the air circulation, temperature,
lighting and humidity.

7.  Keep the classroom well organized and efficient.

8.  Vary your instructional strategies; use illustrated lectures, demonstrations,

discussions, computers, tutoring, coaching and more.

9.  Review the class objective each day.  Be sure the students see how the entire
program moves along.

10.  Make your instruction relevant.  Be sure your students see how the content
relates to them and the world of work.

11.  Open each presentation with an introduction that captures the interest of your
students.

12.  Move around the room as you teach; walk energetically and purposefully.

13.  Be expressive with your face--SMILE!!

14.  Put some excitement into your speech; vary your pitch, volume and rate.

15.  Use demonstrative movements of the head, arms, and hands; keep your hands out
of your pockets.

16.  Use words that are highly descriptive; give lots of examples.

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17.  Accept students' ideas and comments, even if they are wrong; correct in a
positive manner.

18.  Maintain eye contact and move toward your students as you interact with them;
be sure to nod your head to show that you are hearing what they say.

19.  Give lots of positive feedback when students respond, offer their ideas, perform a
task correctly, come to class on time, bring their materials to class.

20.  Foster an active vocational student organization.

21.  Use appropriate humor in your teaching and in tests, to relieve anxiety.

22.  Post program-related cartoons, and use them on overheads and in handouts.

23.  Provide opportunities for the students to speak to the class.

24.  Be available before class starts, during break, and after class to visit with
students who wish to see you.

25.  Return assignments and tests to students ASAP.  Be sure to make positive
comments and suggestions.

26.  Teach by asking lots of questions during introductions, presentations,

demonstrations, and lab work.

27.  Plan lab activities so that all of the necessary materials are available when the
students are ready to use them.

28.  Give the students an opportunity to participate in the organization and

management of the lab.

29.  Be aware of those students requiring assistance, and then see that they get it.

30.  Maximize the use of time so that the students keep busy with productive, relevant
activities.

31.  Be a model of the work ethic in your dress, language, support of the school, and
respect for the profession.

32.  Be consistent in your treatment of students.

33.  Make sure that your tests are current, valid and reliable.  They must be based on
your curriculum objectives.

34.  Organize a "student of the month" award.

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35.  Invite parents, advisory committee members and school administrators to visit
your class for special activities.

36.  Plan relevant study trips out of the school.

37.  Bring dynamic subject matter experts into your class.

38.  Recognize appropriate behavior and reward it on a continuing basis.

39.  Use a surprise--an interesting film, special break, or similar activity--to reward
the class for good behavior.

40.  Use games and simulations to spark interest, provide a break in the routine, and
to supplement a unit in your curriculum.

41.  Praise students in front of the class; reprimand them in private.

42.  Explain why rules are used, why activities are important, and why some requests
must be denied.

43.  Involve all of your students in your teaching.

44.  Provide clear directions for program activities and assignments.

45.  Plan around 15-30 minute cycles--students have difficulty maintaining attention
after a longer period of time.

46.  Provide opportunities for the students to read alone and in a group.

47.  Make home visits (in the summer) for new students entering your program.

48.  Send "happy-grams" home to parents periodically.

49.  Use task and job sheets to help students remember the steps to perform skills.

50.  Be enthusiastic about yourself, your students, and your profession

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 Some Ideas for Motivating Students

 Explain.
Some recent research shows that many students do poorly on assignments or in
participation because they do not understand what to do or why they should do it.
Teachers should spend more time explaining why we teach what we do, and why the
topic or approach or activity is important and interesting and worthwhile. In the
process, some of the teacher's enthusiasm will be transmitted to the students, who
will be more likely to become interested. Similarly, teachers should spend more time
explaining exactly what is expected on assignments or activities. Students who are
uncertain about what to do will seldom perform well.

 Reward.
Students who do not yet have powerful intrinsic motivation to learn can be helped by
extrinsic motivators in the form of rewards. Rather than criticizing unwanted
behavior or answers, reward correct behavior and answers. Remember that adults and
children alike continue or repeat behavior that is rewarded. The rewards can (and
should) be small and configured to the level of the students. Small children can be
given a balloon, a piece of gum, or a set of crayons. Even at the college level, many
professors at various colleges have given books, lunches, certificates, exemptions
from final exams, verbal praise, and so on for good performance. Even something as
apparently "childish" as a "Good Job!" stamp or sticker can encourage students to
perform at higher levels. And the important point is that extrinsic motivators can,
over a brief period of time, produce intrinsic motivation. Everyone likes the feeling of
accomplishment and recognition; rewards for good work produce those good
feelings.

 Care.
Students respond with interest and motivation to teachers who appear to be human
and caring. Teachers can help produce these feelings by sharing parts of themselves
with students, especially little stories of problems and mistakes they made, either as
children or even recently. Such personalizing of the student/teacher relationship helps
students see teachers as approachable human beings and not as aloof authority
figures. Young people are also quite insecure, and they secretly welcome the
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admission by adults that insecurity and error are common to everyone. Students will
attend to an adult who appears to be a "real person," who had problems as a youth (or
more recently) and survived them.

It is also a good idea to be approachable personally. Show that you care about your
students by asking about their concerns and goals. What do they plan to do in the
future? What things do they like? Such a teacher will be trusted and respected more
than one who is all business.

 Have students participate.

One of the major keys to motivation is the active involvement of students in their
own learning. Standing in front of them and lecturing to them (at them?) is thus a
relatively poor method of teaching. It is better to get students involved in activities,
group problem solving exercises, helping to decide what to do and the best way to do
it, helping the teacher, working with each other, or in some other way getting
physically involved in the lesson. A lesson about nature, for example, would be more
effective walking outdoors than looking at pictures.

Students love to be needed (just like adults!). By choosing several students to help the
teacher (take roll, grade objective exams, research bibliographies or biographies of
important persons, chair discussion groups, rearrange chairs, change the overhead
transparencies, hold up pictures, pass out papers or exams) students' self esteem is
boosted and consequently their motivation is increased. Older students will also see
themselves as necessary, integral, and contributing parts of the learning process
through participation like this. Use every opportunity to have students help you.
Assign them homework that involves helping you ("I need some magazine
illustrations of the emphasis on materialism for next week; would someone like to
find one for me?").

 Teach Inductively.
It has been said that presenting conclusions first and then providing examples robs
students of the joy of discovery. Why not present some examples first and ask
students to make sense of them, to generalize about them, to draw the conclusions
themselves? By beginning with the examples, evidence, stories, and so forth and
arriving at conclusions later, you can maintain interest and increase motivation, as
well as teach the skills of analysis and synthesis. Remember that the parable method
of making a point has some significant historical precedent.

 Satisfy students' needs.

Attending to need satisfaction is a primary method of keeping students interested and
happy. Students' basic needs have been identified as survival, love, power, fun, and
freedom. Attending to the need for power could be as simple as allowing students to
choose from among two or three things to do--two or three paper topics, two or three
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activities, choosing between writing an extra paper and taking the final exam, etc.
Many students have a need to have fun in active ways--in other words, they need to
be noisy and excited. Rather than always avoiding or suppressing these needs, design
an educational activity that fulfills them.

Students will be much more committed to a learning activity that has value for them,
that they can see as meeting their needs, either long term or short term. They will, in
fact, put up with substantial immediate unpleasantness and do an amazing amount of
hard work if they are convinced that what they are learning ultimately meets their
needs.

 Make learning visual.

Even before young people were reared in a video environment, it was recognized
that memory is often connected to visual images. We can provide better learning by
attaching images to the ideas we want to convey. Use drawings, diagrams, pictures,
charts, graphs, bulleted lists, even three-dimensional objects you can bring to class to
help students anchor the idea to an image. .

 Use positive emotions to enhance learning and motivation.

Strong and lasting memory is connected with the emotional state and experience of
the learner. That is, people remember better when the learning is accompanied by
strong emotions. If you can make something fun, exciting, happy, loving, or perhaps
even a bit frightening, students will learn more readily and the learning will last much
longer. Emotions can be created by classroom attitudes, by doing something
unexpected or outrageous, by praise, and by many other means.

Being energetic in your teaching is a motivating factor in itself; adding energy to the
ideas you want to convey will further enhance learning and commitment to the ideas.

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 Suitable Activities for Group
work
 Games
 Question construction
 Guided practice
 Dictation
 Role-play
 Guess a head
 Speculative questions
 Discussions
 Essays

Suitable Activities for Pair Work

 Dialogues
 Substitution drills
 Grammar practice-
 Informal tests
 Providing titles
 Describing pictures
 Question and answer
 Illustrative sentences

Steps in Using Pair Work

* Preparation
Prepare carefully, by means of presentation and practice, so that everyone is
confident in using the language. Leave any needed visual support on the chalkboard.
* Teacher-Student model
Call upon on student to stand. Take one part yourself and go through the whole task.
Ensure they all know what they have to do.
* Public pairs
Get two students to repeat the task, as a second model. If necessary, get further
public pair models.

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* Timing
Tell the class how long the activity will last, typically only two or three minutes.

* Private pairs
Tell everyone to begin. This is sometimes called simultaneous pair work. While it is
going on, go round the room to monitor and assist. No need to interfere if you
provide enough preparation.
* Public check
Stop the activity when you see that most of the class have completed the task.
Choose one pair at random to stand and do the task again, publicly. Choose a second
and a third pair to do the same. They work harder if they know they may be checked
afterwards.

Teaching Aids

* The aids can be categorized into four main types, namely: visual,
aural, audio-visual and language games.
 Visual aids include the chalk board, pictures, posters, drawings, charts, maps,
objects, cloth and magnetic boards, plastic figures and cuttings, film strips, projectors
and slides.
 The aural aids comprise radio programmes, taped materials and language
laboratory.
 Audio-visual aids consist of films, video-tapes, television and microcomputers.
 Games are of many sorts and levels such as card games, board games and paper
and pencil games.
* The above mentioned materials and aids are used for
 Stimulating interest in the foreign language.
 Explaining concepts or illustrating meanings.
 Reinforcing learning.
 Directing or promoting conversations in groups.

* The teacher should be careful to choose the most appropriate aid that
best serves her teaching purposes. The aid should :
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 be suitable for the teaching objectives.
 correlate with the text material or class work..
 simplify the learning process.
 present or illustrate one point at a time.
 draw attention to the purpose it is intended to present.
 be of appropriate size and attractive.
 motivate pupils to practise the language individually, in pairs or in groups.
 be easy to use or manipulate.
 be available in the class room or school environment.
Teachers should consider the following points when using
these educational aids:

 Writing on the board should be clear and

neat.
 Do not overcrowd the board with too much
writing and drawing.
 Divide the board into three sections each
of which can be used for a certain task.

 The lettering, wording or printing should

be neat, clear and large enough to be read by
the whole class including those pupils who
sit at the back.

 should be well selected, simple, clear and

interesting.
 should be big enough to be seen by
everyone in the class.
 should not be too detailed.
 should not show objects or experiences
which are too familiar to pupils.

 The teacher and pupils should get

tape / cassette recorders of good tone quality
and know how to operate them.
 The recordings should be clear, 15
comprehensible and at a normal speed.
 The pauses between items should be
adequate for correct or appropriate responses.
 Educational Objectives

What are my objectives ?

Objectives are divided into

Unit objectives Specific behavioural objectives

are specific actions the students are the statements which
will perform in order to show sum up the list of skills to
development in language be carried out at this unit
skills .
How to write your unit objectives :
 Read the whole unit carefully and ask yourself the following questions
 What is the grammatical point of this unit ?
 What are the vocabulary lists ?
 How are the above two skills used in reading ?
 What is the reading passage about ?
 What type of writing does the book expect the students to perform ?
 Are the drills in their workbooks enough or do I need to prepare extra activities ?
 What teaching aids do I need to prepare to make my lesson more interesting and
easier to understand ?
 The most important question How much do my students already know or do not
know about the subject ?

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 Now develop a framework for the whole unit’s main skills and its embedded sub
skills .
 Don’t forget to link your objectives with your goals.
What teachers should do before writing their lesson plans
 Read the lesson properly with the question in mind:
What is the book trying to teach here?
 Find out the skills that they will be dealing with ((listening, speaking, reading or
writing)).
 Write down what they expect their students to achieve by the end of the lesson :
What the students will be able to do or perform and that is “ Behavioural Objectives “

Questions and Answers

Q) What are the differences between goals and objectives?

A) Because the two terms are often used interchangeably, confusion sometimes
arises. Although both goals and objectives use the language of outcomes, the
characteristic that distinguishes goals from objectives is the level of specificity. Goals
express intended outcomes in general terms and objectives express them in specific
terms. Goals are written in broad, global, and sometimes vague, language. Objectives
are statements that describe the intended results of instruction in terms of specific
student behaviors.

Q) What are the differences between objectives and outcomes?

A) Objectives are intended results or consequences of instruction, curricula,

programs, or activities. Outcomes are achieved results or consequences of what was
learned–evidence that some learning took place. Objectives specify what is expected
and describe what should be assessed; outcomes are behaviors and products
generated by students after instruction and are the objects of assessment.

Q) What is the relationship between objectives and assessment?

A) Erwin (1991) states it well, "One must know what is to be assessed before one
knows how to assess it" (p. 35). A statement of objectives should, in the best of all
possible worlds, precede assessment. Stated in a stronger way, objectives should
drive the assessment methods and instruments and not the other way around.

Q) Before assessment, what is needed?

A) Objectives are needed before appropriate assessment tools and procedures can be
selected or designed. At a minimum, objectives should describe student behaviors
and products that faculty would accept as evidence that the learning outcomes were
achieved. Goal statements are helpful, but are sometimes too general, broad, or vague

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for developing specific assessment tools. Information about how objectives are linked
to goals is useful when reporting and using assessment results.

Q) Are there different types of objectives?

A) Yes, objectives may be classified as cognitive, affective, or skill/performance

dimensions. Cognitive objectives are descriptions of thinking skills. Affective
objectives refer to attitudinal, personal, and social dimensions of outcomes. Skill
objectives such as writing, computer use, speaking, and physical skills are distinctive
from cognitive (knowledge) objectives. Skills are the means by which knowledge is
acquired. Subject matter objectives are a subset of cognitive objectives that are
specific to knowledge of subject matter.

Remember the following points when writing specific objectives

 Study the three domains :-

Cognitive domain - Affective domain - Psychomotor domain
 State them in term of students’ performance .
 Describe the behavioural outcome expected of pupil.
 Use the verbs that can be observed and measured.
 Use the infinitive form of the verb and be consistent
 Limit each specific objective to only one learning outcome.
 Don’t state the subject matter as an objective.
 Don’t forget to link your specific objectives with your unit objectives.
 Some Verbs for Use In Stating Cognitive Outcomes
Knowledge/ Comprehension/ Application /Analysis /Synthesis/ Evaluation
define discuss compute distinguish diagnose evaluate list describe demonstrate
analyze propose compare recall explain illustrate differentiate design assess name
identify operate compare manage justify recognize translate perform contrast
hypothesize judge state restate interpret categorize summarize appraise repeat express
apply appraise plan rate record convert use classify formulate choose label estimate
practice outline arrange decide predict organize
 Some Verbs for Use In Stating Affective Outcomes
Receiving/ Responding/ Valuing/ Organization /Value/ Complex
sit erect answer join adhere act reply greet share integrate practice
accept read complete organize discriminate show report follow influence
 Some Verbs for Use In Stating Psychomotor Outcomes
Perception /Set/ Guided Response/ Mechanism Complex Adaptation/
Origination
identify react display adapt create detect respond manipulate revise compose
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 differentiate start work change arrange perform write operate
 Words that should not be used as cognitive objectives!
know really know understand appreciate become learn thinks critically approach
improve grow increase expand horizons grasp the significance of Page 2 of 3

Bloom’s Classification of Cognitive Skills

Bloom’s classification of cognitive skills is widely used in instruction planning. The

six levels are arranged by level of complexity. Use of this or other classification
systems is recommended to safeguard against a tendency to focus on content
coverage and to ignore what the students should learn to do with content.

Category Definition Related Behaviors

recalling or remembering define, describe, identify, label,
something without necessarily list, match, memorize, point to,
Knowledge
understanding, using, or recall, select, state
changing it
understanding something that alter, account for, annotate,
has been communicated without calculate, change, convert, group,
Comprehensio necessarily relating it to explain, generalize, give
n anything else examples, infer, interpret,
paraphrase, predict, review,
summarize, translate
using a general concept to solve apply, adopt, collect, construct,
problems in a particular demonstrate, discover, illustrate,
Application situation; using learned material interview, make use of,
in new and concrete situations manipulate, relate, show, solve,
use
breaking something down into analyze, compare, contrast,
its parts; may focus on diagram, differentiate, dissect,
identification of parts or distinguish, identify, illustrate,
Analysis
analysis of relationships infer, outline, point out, select,
between parts, or recognition of separate, sort, subdivide
organizational principles

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 creating something new by blend, build, change, combine,
putting parts of different ideas compile, compose, conceive,
together to make a whole. create, design, formulate,
Synthesis
generate, hypothesize, plan,
predict, produce, reorder, revise,
tell, write
judging the value of material or accept, appraise, assess, arbitrate,
methods as they might be award, choose, conclude,
applied in a particular situation; criticize, defend, evaluate, grade,
Evaluation judging with the use of definite judge, prioritize, recommend,
criteria referee, reject, select, support

Behavioral objectives, learning objectives, instructional objectives, and performance

objectives are terms that refer to descriptions of observable student behavior or
performance that are used to make judgments about learning.  At some point,
almost every teacher, especially new teachers and teacher education students, must
learn to write these types of objectives. Here, such objectives are referred to as
behavioral objectives. Acquiring this skill is something of a rite of passage in the
process of becoming a teacher, yet it is a skill that requires practice, feedback, and
experience. Over the past 30 years or so, the emphasis on, and attention paid to
behavioral objectives has waxed and waned as different ideas change about how best
to express instructional intent. To clarify a bit, I have included a rationale for
developing and using behavioral objectives that provides in-depth information that
you might find helpful. Any skill is learned more effectively if the learner
understands the reason for learning and practicing it. Learning to compose behavioral
objectives is not exception.

 Behavioral objectives are about curriculum, not instruction.

This is a key point. Many tend to confuse behavioral objectives with objectives a
teacher may have that relate to student conduct or behavior in a classroom.
Behavioral objectives are learning objectives; they specify what behavior a student
must demonstrate or perform in order for a teacher to infer that learning took place.
Since learning cannot be seen directly, teachers must make inferences about learning

20
from evidence they can see and measure. Behavioral objectives, if constructed
properly, provide an ideal vehicle for making those inferences.

 The purpose of a behavioral objective is to communicate.

Therefore, a well-constructed behavioral objective should leave little room for doubt
about what is intended. A well constructed behavioral objective describes an intended
learning outcome and contains three parts, each of which alone means nothing, but
when combined into a sentence or two, communicates the conditions under which
the behavior is performed, a verb that defines the behavior itself, and the degree
(criteria) to which a student must perform the behavior. If any one of these three
components is missing, the objective cannot communicate accurately.

Therefore, the parts of a behavioral objective are:

 Conditions (a statement that describes the conditions under which the behavior is
to be performed)

 Behavioral Verb (an action word that connotes an observable student behavior)

 Criteria (a statement that specifies how well the student must perform the behavior).

A behavioral objective is the focal point of a lesson plan. It is a description of an

intended learning outcome and is the basis for the rest of the lesson. It provides
criteria for constructing an assessment for the lesson, as well as for the instructional
procedures the teacher designs to implement the lesson.  A behavioral objective
determines the criteria for any assessment rubric. As you will see, without an
objective that clearly communicates specific student behavior or performance, it is
difficult, if not impossible to determine exactly what a particular lesson is supposed
to accomplish.

In order to write behavioral objectives, one should begin with an understanding of 
the particular content to which the objectives will relate. Understanding in more than
one way the content to be learned should be a goal of teachers as well as students.
This implies that teachers or others who prepare objectives as part of lesson plans or
curriculum documents and guides should have more than superficial knowledge of
the appropriate content. Writing a series of objectives that are within a body of
content, but which have neither internal nor external consistency with that body of
content is not a productive use of time. However, the purpose of this is not to delve
into the area of curriculum consistency, but rather present some pointers to help the
reader write better objectives. So, with that in mind, let's begin.

. The Conditions

The conditions part of an objective specify the circumstances, commands, materials,

directions, etc., that the student is given to initiate the behavior.  All behavior relevant
21
to intended student learning outcomes can best be understood within a context of the
conditions under which the behavior is to be performed or demonstrated. The
conditions part of an objective usually begins with a simple declarative statement
such as the following:

Upon request the student will (this means the student is given an oral or written
request to do something).
Given (some physical object) the student will (this means the student is actually
given something, such as a map, a number or multiplication problems, a literary
passage, etc.,  that relates to performing the intended behavior).

Notice that in the examples above, there is no mention of the description of the
instruction that precedes the initiation of the behavior. The instruction that leads to
the behavior should never be included in the actual objective. Instruction that leads
students to accomplishing an objective is a separate issue. Here, we want to
concentrate on describing only the conditions under which the desired student
behavior is to be performed.

 The Verb

We all learned in elementary school that a verb is an action word. In a behavioral

objective, the verb is also an action word, but it is also a special kind of action word.
The verb in a behavioral objective is an action word that connotes an observable
behavior. For example, although we as teachers all want our students to appreciate
one thing or another, it is impossible to see when a student "appreciates" something.
Understand is another noble word that connotes something we want our students to
do, but we cannot see "understanding." The best we can do is make inferences that a
student appreciates or understands something based on what the student does or says
in a controlled situation.

What then are behavioral verbs? The answer is quite simple. A behavioral verb is a
word that denotes an observable action, or the creation of an observable product.
Verbs such as identify, name, and describe are behavioral because you can observe
the act or product of identifying, naming, or describing. Some verbs are embedded in
a phrase that gives them a specific behavioral meaning. Examples are state a rule and
apply a rule. In this case the behavior is contextual, and the context is the rule in
question.

There are many verbs that qualify as behavioral.

The Criteria

The criteria part of a behavioral objective is a declarative statement  that describes

how well the behavior must be performed to satisfy the intent of the behavioral verb.
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Usually, criteria are expressed in some minimum number, or as what must be, as a
minimum, included in a student response. For example, an objective might be of the
form: Given a list of the first 100 numbers arranged in ascending order (conditions),
the student will identify (verb) at least nine prime numbers (criteria). Notice that the
objective doesn't specify which nine numbers, and sets a floor of at least nine as a
minimum. Also, the method by which the student identifies the minimum nine prime
numbers is not specified; that is determined in the actual assessment. The student
could circle the numbers, highlight them, draw line through them, etc. It is also
implied that the student will be correct if he identifies more than nine correctly, but
does not specify whether it is acceptable to identify nine correctly and one or more
incorrectly. According to the objective, it would be acceptable to circle the following
numbers and still meet the intent of the objective: 2-3-5-7-11-13-17-19-23-24-26,
because he got nine correct, and two (24-26) incorrect. If the student must identify
only prime numbers, then the objective would need to be modified to include that
provision.

 Putting it all together

Well-written behavioral objectives are the heart of any lesson plan. If the objectives
you compose are "fuzzy" and difficult, if not impossible to assess, the rest of the
lesson plan you create that is based on the objective is likely to be flawed. Before you
begin to write an objective, spend a little time thinking about what you are
describing, and remember to make the student behavior observable. You will find this
process helps you to clarify what you intend, and you will be better able to
communicate that intent to your students, regardless of their grade level, age, or
subject. On the matter of being "fuzzy," remember this: fuzzy thinking might get you
through the day, but it will never get you through a career.

Any time you write a behavioral objective, ask yourself the question, "Does this
objective clearly communicate and describe the intended learning outcome?" If you
can find exceptions or loopholes as a way of meeting the objective, then the objective
should be rewritten. Learning to write behavioral objectives that describe what you
want takes patience and practice. Make sure you get as much feedback as possible
about your efforts.

Checklist for Evaluating Written Objectives:

The Objective. . .

uses action verbs that specify definite, observable behaviors.

uses simple language.
23
 describes student rather than teacher behaviors.
describes a learning outcome rather than a learning process.
focuses on end-of-instruction behavior rather than subject matter coverage.
indicates a single outcome per objective.
can be assessed by one or more indicators (methods).
is clearly linked to a goal
is realistic and attainable
.
is not simple when complexity is needed.

is clear to people outside the discipline.

Teaching Vocabulary

A good store of words is important for understanding and communication. A major

aim of most teaching programs is to help students gain a large vocabulary of useful
words.
What does it mean to " know' a word?
Knowing a word fully means that the learner should be able to :
 Understand the meaning of that word upon hearing or reading it.
 Spell the word correctly when she needs it in writing.
 Pronounce the word correctly when she uses it in speaking.
 Use it correctly in a spoken or written sentence.
 Read it correctly.
Modes of presentation;
 Ostensive means by "showing”.
● Realia (real things)
● Pictures
● Body (facial expression- gestures – mime and actions)
 Verbal definitions
● Word sets: groups or related words.
● Synonyms: words which mean more or less the same.
● Antonyms: words which have an opposite meaning.
24
 ● Cognates: words in the students native language which have the same or
similar form of the English word.
● Illustrative sentence.
● Build on general knowledge.
Teaching Procedure:
There are three important stages the teacher needs to take into consideration when
preparing and teaching the new lexical items.
Recognition Stage:
At this stage the teacher presents the phonic form, graphic form, lexical meaning and
the grammatical position of each word. During this stage, the teacher:
 says the word two or three times, pronouncing it correctly.
gets the class to repeat the new word a few times. Check the pronunciation
carefully. If you are using a visual, keep it in front of them to make sure they
associate sound and meaning.
 write the new word on the board and have the class read it with out distorting the
pronunciation . ask individuals and have choral repetition.
puts a short sentence on the board so that the meaning will be clear to any one
reading the notes afterwards. Encourage students to compose good illustrative
sentences, but the teacher still need to prepare her own.
Receptive Stage:
During this stage, the teacher provides the learner with exercises that stress reception
rather than production, which may further illustrate the meaning.
Productive Stage:
At this stage, the teacher will concentrate on how to use the newly learned word
productively. The teacher may ask questions, the answers require the use of the target
word.
Testing Vocabulary:
Vocabulary tests focus on the students' ability to discriminate between words.
 Words and their connotations.
 Words and their opposites.
 Fill spaces from lists or without.
 Complete sentences from options.
 Synonyms- choose the word or phrase that has the same meaning.
 Word formation.
 Definitions
 Odd-man out
 Matching. It can be either adjectives with nouns or nouns with verbs.

25
For presenting and practicing the new structure, the
teacher may attempt the following procedures :
* Step 1 : Presentation of new structure
 Evoke the new structure by reminding pupils of a familiar dialogue or text, in
which it was used.
 Use the new structure in a simple dialogue or conversation whose words and forms
are familiar to pupils . Another possibility is to accompany the new structure with
actions to illustrate its meaning.
 Repeat the new pattern several times chorally and individually. Start with more
able pupils.
 For grammatical structures which are difficult to present in a context. The teacher
may present the rule or give a formal explanation provided with enough examples
and practice.
 Relate examples to the pupils’ experience to be more effective and motivating.
* Step 2 : Identification of the new pattern
Write the new pattern on the board for further discussion.
 Draw the pupils’ attention to the form of the pattern.
 Give more examples to reinforce the pupils; comprehension of both meaning and
form if necessary.
 Ask questions to lead students to use the new pattern to check understanding of its
function or structure.
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* Step 3 : Mechanical drills
The purpose of these drills is to help pupils learn the forms of the new pattern and
to practise oral fluency.
The following are some of the possible manipulative drill types
 Repetition drills  The model presented by the teacher is repeated by students.
 Substitution drills  The sentence and cue words are given and students are asked
to substitute the cue words in the sentence.
 Chain drill  In this drill all pupils have the chance to ask and answer a question
in a chain-like manner.
 Transformation  In this drill the pupils are given a sentence to transform into
another- e.g. a question or a negative or a passive sentence.
 Expansion drill  In this drill the pupils are given a word or expression to be
added to the model sentence.
* Step 4: Meaningful drills
 With mechanical drills the emphasis is on the form and on automaticity and there
is only one response to the stimulus by the teacher.
 Meaningful drills focus on the content instead of the form. And the response can
be expressed in more than one way.
 Some examples are:
 Restatement  To conduct this drill, the teacher whispers to a pupil a question.
The second pupil is instructed to answer.
 Rejoinder  The teacher makes a statement containing a certain syntactic
structure, then a pupil responds by communicating something about herself.
 Question and answer.
 Situation drills  by using charts, pictures, drawings, objects or actions – dialogue
or situation – factual drills (questions and answers).
* Step 5 : Communicative drills
 In communicative drills there is no control of the response. The pupils are free to
express themselves or their ideas.
The following interaction activities are typical.
Interviews –Role – playing – Problem –solving.
While conducting communicative activities, the teacher must not keep interrupting
the flow of the activity to correct pupils’ utterances.

Correcting mistakes in drilling

 In mechanical drills where the objective is to internalize new structures, the

teacher is advised to correct the mistake as soon as it occurs
 At the meaningful drill stage, the teacher can draw the attention of pupils to the
mistake in order to allow them to correct it themselves or may give them the
appropriate form of expression.
 In communicative drills, the teacher should overlook mistakes, except for serious
errors, in order not to discourage pupils’ participation effectively in the activity.

27
 Teaching Listening

Teaching listening in the classroom (guidelines)

 The tape recorder is just as important as the tape.
 Once will not be enough
 Prepare your students for what they are going to hear.
 Do not ask them to just listen to the text. Set a task of some sort.
 Different listening stages demand different listening tasks.
 Tasks should be varied and realistic.
 Limit listening time.
 Train students not to understand every word.
 Get students to respond in non- linguistic ways.
The procedure of a listening lesson should contain the below three stages:
1-Pre-listening stage:
Warm up exercises:
 Elicitation/ discussion about the topic ( perhaps based on visuals or
titles )
 To elicit something associated with the topic.
 To encourage students to exchange ideas/opinions about the topic.
 Students looking at the pictures.
 Brainstorming
 Word-star: ask students to predict the words and expressions likely to appear in the
passage..
 Teacher writes them on the board.
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 Giving background information.
 Games
 For warming up relaxation.
 For training basic listening skills, e.g. miming words and expressions heard;
minimal –pair distinctions.
 Guiding questions
 Reading through while listening questions..
 Questions / answers session.
 Written exercises. Students should always be given some preparatory
2-While-listening stage: work. There are few occasions when people listen
 Comparing without any idea of what they expect to hear.
 To compare passage with pre-listening prediction.
 Obeying instructions . students are given instructions and show comprehension by
physical movement.

 Filling in gaps
 Students hear only one of the participants and are asked to reconstruct the utterance
of the others..
 Repetition
 Students are asked to repeat short phrases or complete utterance recorded...
 Ticking off items ( bingo )
 Students listen to a list of words and tick off or categorize them as they hear them.
 Information transfer.
 maps, plan, grids, forms, lists, pictures…..
 paraphrase.
 Students are asked to focus certain sentences and paraphrase them.
 Sequencing
 Give the right order of a series of pictures...
 Information search
 Answer a particular question
 Filling in blanks.
 Students are given the transcript of the listening with some words missing and
must fill in the blanks while listening.
 Matching.
 Match items that have the same meaning to those they hear.
3-While-listening stage:
 Answering to show comprehension of the message.
 Multiple-choice or true /false questions.
 Summarizing.
 Students are given several possible summary sentences and asked to say which of
them fits a recorded text.
 Jigsaw listening.
29
 Different groups of students listen to different but connected passages then they
come together to exchange information to complete a story or perform a task.
 Reading as a follow up to listening activities.
 Match listening with a reading text.
 Writing as a follow up to listening activities.
 Letters, telegrams, postcards, messages; related to passages.
 Speaking as a follow up to listening activities.
 Debate, interview, discussion, role-play associated with the passage heard.

The aim of these is to check whether the

students have understood the overall
message of the text.

Teaching Speaking
“Learning to speak is more effectively
achieved by speaking”
One of the challenges of a foreign language is finding a way to help students
improve their oral fluency.
Our students:
● Share a common mother language.
● Have little or no exposure to English outside the classroom.
● Do not need to communicate in the foreign language.
● Shy or afraid of making mistakes.
How can we teach speaking ?
I –Mechanical practice:
 Train students in sound discrimination.
 Pronunciation should be stressed from the very beginning (( habits acquired
at the start of language study are often difficult to change later on )
 Imitation+ repetition +chorus ( key words & pictures ).
 These drills are totally controlled. Students have no choice in what they say.
It helps with pronunciation- give students self confidence-develop fluency
 Repetition+ memorization=fluency +Ss' self confidence.
Examples: repetition- substitution drill. Totally controlled drills (boring)
II –Meaningful drills :
 The structural controls are progressively relaxed.
 Allow students some choice in what they say.
30
  No chorus work.
 Teacher can give a model and allow students to answer truthfully- or use
pictures to get responses.
Examples; questions and answers exchanges between students
 Introduce pupils to social formulas : greeting- introduction-complaints- asking
for information- expressions with which they can express their ideas creatively.
 Teacher provides situation- content- what to be said.
 Topics have to be interesting motivating and relaxed to student’s experiences.
Pupils should have the opportunity to express their likes
and dislikes.
Teacher Role;
Teacher's job is to help students to interact.
Behave more a friend than a teacher.
No immediate correction of mistakes (This destroys students' self-confidence.
(correct mistakes which lead to miscomprehension )
Supply the general topic for assignment and students are responsible for
generating details.
Supply notes containing most of vocabulary &structures useful to the activity.
( if needed)
Assign topic for the next class so students have time to think about it.
Teach students cooperative skills.( pair work and group work )
Speaking English fluently is achieved through communicative
interactive activities
Examples of meaningful oral work:
● Questions / answers exchanged between students.
● Dialogue adoption.
● Prepared talk.
● Role-play activities ( keep situation simple- provide essential language )
● Questionnaire & quizzes.
● Games.
● Commercials
Dialogue adoption:
Excuse me. Could you tell me the way I'm sorry, but I can't. I'm a stranger
to oxford street. here too.

1-Alter the dialogue to make it conform to the reality surrounding you and
your students.

31
 2-Write the dialogue on the board and have students' suggest more
substitutions.
3-Students can prepare the lines of the dialogue. ( choose their own
words and structures )
4-Students adapt and paraphrase.( act out the dialogue )
5-Outline a similar situation & ask students' to perform conversation
of their own .
This form can be used to teach students new vocabulary and
expressions taught in every unit.

Topic

●
●
●
Vocabulary ●
●
●
●
●
●
●
Useful expressions ●
●
●
●

Evaluating speaking:
The teacher can assess students:
1-Willingness and ability to speak.
2-Certain oral activities in class.
3-Make a rubric with clear criteria for content and fluency e.g.

Content 1 2 3 4 5
fluency 1 2 3 4 5
32
 - Students who speak easily+ good pronunciation= have plenty to say. ( 5+5 ).
-\Students who make themselves understood+ some people in pronunciation +
produces two or three sentences ( 3-4)

10 Ways to ……………….
Keep Students Speaking English

☺ Message: Have messages on the walls, the board and on cards for pairs and
groups. Speak English /We speak English here…
☺ Monitor: Each group appoints a monitor whose job is to keep the group
speaking English.
☺ St the task in English: If groups or pairs know that they will have to speak in
English to other groups, they will do more of the work in English.
☺ Compulsory talking in their own language: When learners began to lose
concentration and began to speak their own language, give them one minute or two
then ask them to speak English for the next nine minutes.
☺ Transform the classroom: Some teachers transform the whole classroom
into an English environment by hanging pictures……..etc.
☺ Microphones: A teacher can either use a real tape or a cardboard one and have
students believe that they are recording each other. This makes them remember or
use English all the time.
☺ I don't understand: Teacher frowns when students use their own language
and pretends that she can not understand. She smiles and compliments as learners
speak English.
☺ Become a character:
☺ A's and B's : Pair students into A's and B's. give the B's new names and let
them pretend to be native speakers in a certain situation.
☺ Matchsticks: Give each group ten matchsticks. A student who speak her
language forfeits on of her group sticks.

33
 Teaching Reading
Reading means looking at words and sentences,
recognizing and comprehending them. The more students practice reading, the better
they will be in making sense of what they read.
Some principals behind the teaching of reading:
 Reading is not a passive skill. To do it successfully, we have to understand what
the words mean, see the pictures the words are painting and understand the argument.
 Students need to be engaged with what they are reading. If they are not actively
interested in what they are doing, they are less likely to benefit from it.
 Students should be encouraged to respond to the content of a reading text, not just
to the language.
 Prediction is a major factor in reading.
 Match the task to the topic. Teachers should choose the right kind of activities.
Reading Stages
Classroom reading normally goes through three stages:
○ Pre-reading: skimming- scanning- vocabulary- guide questions.
○ Reading (silently) guide or comprehension questions.
○ Post-reading: discussion.
1-Pre-reading:
It is a very important stage because in it is the arousal of interest.
How to preview the passage:
 Illustration: pictures help understand and predict.

34
 Introduce the title: Announce the title of the passage and give a brief idea of
the content.
-Use one's own knowledge or background information about the topic they are reading,
-Arouse students' interest in the text by using the title to predict the theme.
-Ask questions about the title that lead to the theme.
 Present new words: present new words as they arise in the text.
 Look for the key words:
 Guiding questions: They should concentrate on main points.
2-Reading:
Students read the passage silently to answer the assigned questions
3-Post reading:
The teacher evaluates students' comprehension through questions
 Answering to show comprehension of the message:
Multiple-choice or true/false questions.
 Summarizing: Students are given several possible summary sentences and
asked to say which of them fits the text.
 Jigsaw reading: Different groups of students read different but connected
passages then they come together to exchange information to complete a story or
perform a task.
 Writing as a follow up to reading activities: Letters, telegrams postcards;
related to passages.
The plan of a reading lesson may contain the following sequencing :
 The teacher writes on the board the day and the date, lesson number, part number
and page.
 The teacher motivates the class by reviewing the material of the previous lesson.
 The teacher presents some of the new words that will appear in the section she
planned to teach.
 The teacher tries to arouse the students' interest in the reading. If there is a picture,
she can ask them about it,
 Now the students are ready to read the passage silently
 After silent reading, the teacher asks few comprehension questions on the passage
content to comprehend what they have read.
 The next step is model reading. The teacher can read the passage aloud with
students listening or repeating to give them an example they should imitate.
 After model reading, students may read the passage aloud and individually. The
main function of this skill is to practice special pronunciation problems.
 The class may then do some of the exercises on words or patterns usually included
in the textbook.
 The lesson ends with the teacher assigning new homework on
material done orally in the class.

Dealing with a difficult

35
text
Help students by:
 More background information.
 Pre teach key words the day before
 Divide the text into small chunks.
 Sign post questions for main points.
 Ask easy questions.
 Paraphrase difficult ideas.
 set easy tasks like matching questions and answers.
 Praise and encouragement.
 Well lesson plan.
 Organize thoughts and ideas.
Model Reading
It is performed by the teacher as an example to be imitated by students. When they
read aloud . it usually comes after silent reading and before students' reading aloud.
Here the attention is focused on pronunciation not meaning.
Reading aloud:
When the students read aloud, the teacher is advised to notice the following:
● Start with good students to read aloud to be good models for their classmates.
● Let her face the class to draw students' attention. Moreover. acing people when
reading or talking to them is the natural way.
● Urge students to listen carefully and participate actively in the correction of
mistakes made by the reader.
● Start with good students to read aloud to be good models for their classmates.
● Do not let one student for a long time. Allow others to participate.
● Lt reading aloud come after students' reading, class discussion and model reading.
● Reading aloud is more interesting by running a competition among groups.

36
 Teaching Writing

 Learning to write is a gradual process which begins with

simple copying and ends with free composition.
 The first stage of writing skill includes handwriting, copying, dictation and
spelling.

Dictation
 Dictation material should be brief , familiar and not beyond the pupils’ range of
comprehension.
 In the early stages of spelling, pupils are usually given words or simple patterns
chosen from their textbooks.
A dictation exercise may follow these steps ;
 The teacher assigns a familiar passage to be prepared at home for dictation.
 The teacher dictates to her class the whole assigned passage or some selected
sentences or words. Each dictated unit has to be repeated three times at a fairly slow
speed. The teacher has to pay additional attention to the accuracy and clarity of her
pronunciation while dictation.
 After dictating comes to an end, correction starts.
 Model answers are written on the chalkboard by students or the teacher.

37
 Each student may check her own exercise. Students may exchange copybooks and
check one another’s exercise. In some cases, the teacher may collect the exercise
copybooks to do the correction herself.
 The teacher is expected to discuss common mistakes with her class.
 Every student is required to write the miss-spelled words in their correct forms
three to five times each.
 In brief , a dictation exercise passes through the steps of preparation, dictation,
correction and finally re-writing.
 Moreover, to help students improve their spelling, they may be provided with
some spelling generalizations on condition that these generalizations are given to the
suitable level of students and in suitable doses.

 The second stage of teaching writing involves two graded steps of composition
writing, namely controlled composition and semi-controlled / guided
composition.
Controlled writing may take any of the following forms :
Missing words – Word ordering –Re-arrangement of sentences- Imitation of
specific patterns – Parallel paragraph – Sentence expansion – Sentence
completion – Guided writing using pictures
Exercises used at semi- controlled composition stage include :
Written interviews, real or imaginary – Pictorial exercises –Narrative exercises-
Short story completion – Letter writing – Cued dialogue – Cloze exercises

 Free writing stage involves free composition.

* As a teacher is preparing students to write a composition,
she has to ;
 Stress on the four elements of composition
Content  ideas – subject – importance – interest – involvement - fun .
Organization transition words – order of events or ideas- relevance of ideas –
topic sentence – summaries .
Mechanics grammar – spelling – punctuation - vocabulary .
Form heading – title – handwriting – margins – capitals – indentation – periods –
spacing – neatness.
 Remember to ask these questions
 What is the subject of the composition ?
 What is the topic sentence ?
 How are you organizing the ideas ?
 What tense are you using ?
 Check spelling, grammar and punctuation.
 Write a title and check indentation and margins.

38
 A writing lesson plan

For the composition lesson, a teacher may follow these

steps
* Preparation
 Remind the class of the form and mechanics of writing.
 Let students study model paragraphs.
 Lead some oral discussion on the topic.
 Supply the class with key words they need for writing on a certain topic.
 Provide students with helpful restrictions on the number of paragraphs they are
required to write, the number of words, sentences , she may give them the topic
sentence and guide them to suitable verb tense.
* Writing
 It is desirable to let students write their composition in the classroom.
 They may write a rough draft at home but the final copy should be written in class.
 While students are writing, the teacher goes round to give individual help where
needed..
* Correction
 The teacher may correct all mistakes or select some of them.
 The teacher can indicate the different types of mistakes by using symbols.
* Re-learning
39
 Discuss common mistakes with class after correcting and returning the
compositions.
 Re-teach areas which need re- teaching.
 Have students rewrite the composition in its correct form.

Questioning Techniques

Asking questions is a natural feature of communication, but

also one of the most important tools which teachers have at
their disposal. Questioning is crucial to the way teachers manage the class, engage
students with content, encourage participation and increase understanding. Typically,
teachers ask between 300-400 questions per day, however the quality and value of
questions varies. While questioning can be an effective tool, there is both an art and
science to asking questions. Every question demands a response (except in the case of
requests and suggestions), so that questions inevitably generate communication.
However the quantity of questions asked needs to be considered in relation to general
time constraints and the need to keep teacher talking time to a minimum while
maximizing learner contributions.

 Purposes of Questioning.
1. Finding out what the participant already knows

This is called establishing "entry behaviour". It is necessary so that the teacher can
avoid repetition, and target the level of presentation appropriately, clearly an
important step at the beginning of a course.

2. Revising a topic

At the beginning of a session, questions help reinforce the learners' understanding of

"where we are now". For the teacher, answers to questions indicate the class' ability
to proceed to new topics or a warning to re teach some older material before
proceeding.

3. Stimulating thinking

Sitting and listening for extended periods leads to inattention. Questions draw a
participant's mind back to the topic.

4. Promoting discussion

Questioning draws on the experience of the participants. It shows that the presenter is
willing to involve others and is interested in their opinions.
Better teacher questioning practices lead
40 to better learning by all students."
5. Varying delivery

Questions help break the monotony of explanation, and provide a cue to learners that
a new segment of information follows. Questions give participants a break from
listening only to the presenter. They are the key to two way communication.

6. Managing and correcting group behaviour

Questions posed to specific participants can correct undesirable behaviour e.g. talking
while others are speaking, inattentiveness, sleeping etc.

7. Checking of understanding

A very important thing to do, after giving a set of instructions to a class, is to check
that they know what is expected of them. The most useful question is, " Now! What
do you have to do?"

 Questioning approaches
1. Targeting Questions:

Questions may be directed to groups or individuals. Avoid directing questions in a

predictable seating order. Direct questions to the back, centre, front and corners of the
room in a random fashion. Don't ask the same one or two people all the time.

2. Delivery:

To ensure that all participants consider the question, ASK the question, PAUSE for
several seconds while looking around the group, then NAME the person to respond.

Example: "Why do presenters use questions?" (Pause .......) "Maria?"

3. Acknowledging answers:

It is essential to show a response to a participant's answer. If they are ignored, they

will assume their answer was wrong. Your silence will be seen as a punishment and
the participant may not try to answer again. How can you respond?

 Praise the answer. Say something like, "That's a sound answer." / "Well
done." / "Just what I was looking for." rather than "Good." "Good." "Good." Be
sincere. Don't use the same response all the time.
 Ask the person or another participant to repeat the answer. If it is a particularly
good answer the repetition will draw attention to it.
 Do not echo answers all the time. If you habitually do this, the group will not
attempt to listen to the person responding.
 Ask another participant to comment on, or explain further, the answer given.

41
 Types of Questions
1. Open questions are those which can be answered by a variety of responses.

Example: " What are the names of some of the important islands in the Pacific Ocean?"

2. Closed questions are capable of only one correct answer. These are useful to test recall.

Example: " Who is the current president of the United States of America?"

3. Rhetorical / Dramatic questions are those for which the presenter doesn't expect
an answer. Example : "What then is the solution to our problem? Obviously there is
no easy answer. etc ..... "

 The key features of good questioners are that they:

( i ) Are brief and concise.

( ii ) Are prepared to rephrase questions

( iii ) Are prepared to draw further responses from participants

( iv ) Use a variety of techniques

( v ) Redirect questions / responses

( vi ) Provide feedback and reinforcement without repeating answers

( vii ) Spread questions around the class.

42
 Tests, Quizzes and Exams
Many teachers dislike preparing and grading exams, and most students dread taking
them. Yet tests are powerful educational tools that serve at least four functions.
 First, tests help you evaluate students and assess whether they are learning what
you are expecting them to learn.
 Second, well-designed tests serve to motivate and help students structure their
academic efforts. students study in ways that reflect how they think they will be
tested. If they expect an exam focused on facts, they will memorize details; if they
expect a test that will require problem solving or integrating knowledge, they will
work toward understanding and applying information.
Third, tests can help you understand how successfully you are presenting the
material.
 Finally, tests can reinforce learning by providing students with indicators of what
topics or skills they have not yet mastered and should concentrate on.
Despite these benefits, testing is also emotionally charged and anxiety producing.
The following suggestions can enhance your ability to design tests that are effective
in motivating, measuring, and reinforcing learning.
A note on terminology: instructors often use the terms tests, exams, and even quizzes
interchangeably.. An examination is the most comprehensive form of testing,
typically given at the end of the term (as a final) and one or two times during the
semester (as midterms). A test is more limited in scope, focusing on particular aspects
of the course material. A course might have three or four tests. A quiz is even more
limited and usually is administered in fifteen minutes or less..
General Strategies
43
 Spend adequate amounts of time developing your tests.

As you prepare a test, think carefully about the learning outcomes you wish to
measure, the type of items best suited to those outcomes, the range of difficulty of
items, the length and time limits for the test, the format and layout of the exam, and
your scoring procedures.
 Match your tests to the content you are teaching.
Ideally, the tests you give will measure students' achievement of your educational
goals for the course. Test items should be based on the content and skills that are
most important for your students to learn. To keep track of how well your tests reflect
your objectives, you can construct a grid, listing your course objectives along the
side of the page and content areas along the top. For each test item, check off the
objective and content it covers.

 Try to make your tests valid, reliable, and balanced.

A test is valid if its results are appropriate and useful for making decisions about an
aspect of students' achievement .Technically, validity refers to the appropriateness of
the interpretation of the results and not to the test itself, though colloquially we speak
about a test being valid. Validity is a matter of degree and considered in relation to
specific use or interpretation. For example, the results of a writing test may have a
high degree of validity for indicating the level of a student's composition skills, a
moderate degree of validity for predicting success in later composition courses, and
essentially no validity for predicting success in mathematics or physics. Validity can
be difficult to determine. A practical approach is to focus on content validity, the
extent to which the content of the test represents an adequate sampling of the
knowledge and skills taught in the course. If you design the test to cover information
in lectures and readings in proportion to their importance in the course, then the
interpretations of test scores are likely to have greater validity An exam that consists
of only a few difficult items, however, will not yield valid interpretations of what
students know.

A test is reliable if it accurately and consistently evaluates a student's performance.

The purest measure of reliability would entail having a group of students take the
same test twice and get the same scores (assuming that we could erase their memories
of test items from the first administration). This is impractical, of course, but there are
technical procedures for determining reliability. In general, ambiguous questions,
unclear directions, and vague scoring criteria threaten reliability. Very short tests are
also unlikely to be highly reliable. It is also important for a test to be balanced: to
cover most of the main ideas and important concepts in proportion to the emphasis
they received in class.

 Use a variety of testing methods.

44
Research shows that students vary in their preferences for different formats, so using
a variety of methods will help students do their best Multiple-choice or short answer
questions are appropriate for assessing students' mastery of details and specific
knowledge, while essay questions assess comprehension, the ability to integrate and
synthesize, and the ability to apply information to new situations. A single test can
have several formats. Try to avoid introducing a new format on the final exam: if you
have given all multiple-choice quizzes or midterms, don't ask students to write an all-
essay final.

 Write questions that test skills other than recall.

Research shows that most tests administered by teachers rely too heavily on students'
recall of information. Bloom (1956) argues that it is important for tests to measure
higher-learning as well. Fuhrmann and Grasha (1983, p. 170) have adapted Bloom's
taxonomy for test development. Here is a condensation of their list:

To measure knowledge (common terms, facts, principles, procedures),

ask these kinds of questions: Define, Describe, Identify, Label, List, Match, Name,
Outline, Reproduce, Select, State. Example: "List the steps involved in titration."

To measure comprehension (understanding of facts and principles, interpretation of

material),

ask these kinds of questions: Convert, Defend, Distinguish, Estimate, Explain,

Extend, Generalize, Give examples, Infer, Predict, Summarize. Example:
"Summarize the basic tenets of deconstructionism."

To measure application (solving problems, applying concepts and principles to new

situations),

ask these kinds of questions: Demonstrate, Modify, Operate, Prepare, Produce,

Relate, Show, Solve, Use. Example: "Calculate the deflection of a beam under
uniform loading."

To measure analysis (recognition of unstated assumptions or logical fallacies, ability

to distinguish between facts and inferences),

ask these kinds of questions: Diagram, Differentiate, Distinguish, Illustrate, Infer,

Point out, Relate, Select, Separate, Subdivide. Example: "In the president's State of
the Union Address, which statements are based on facts and which are based on
assumptions?"

To measure synthesis (integrate learning from different areas or solve problems by

creative thinking),

45
 ask these kinds of questions: Categorize, Combine, Compile, Devise, Design,
Explain, Generate, Organize, Plan, Rearrange, Reconstruct, Revise, Tell. Example:
"How would you restructure the school day to reflect children's developmental
needs?"

To measure evaluation (judging and assessing),

ask these kinds of questions: Appraise, Compare, Conclude, Contrast, Criticize,

Describe, Discriminate, Explain, Justify, Interpret, Support. Example: "Why is Bach's
Mass in B Minor acknowledged as a classic?"

Many teachers have found it difficult to apply this six-level taxonomy, and some
educators have simplified and collapsed the taxonomy into three general levels: The
first category knowledge (recall or recognition of specific information). The second
category combines comprehension and application. The third category is described as
"problem solving," transferring existing knowledge and skills to new situations.

 Types of Tests
 Multiple-choice tests.
Multiple-choice items can be used to measure both simple knowledge and complex
concepts. Since multiple-choice questions can be answered quickly, you can assess
students' mastery of many topics on an hour exam. In addition, the items can be
easily and reliably scored. Good multiple-choice questions are difficult to write.

True-false tests.

Because random guessing will produce the correct answer half the time, true-false
tests are less reliable than other types of exams. However, these items are appropriate
for occasional use. Some faculty who use true-false questions add an "explain"
column in which students write one or two sentences justifying their response.

Matching tests.

The matching format is an effective way to test students' recognition of the

relationships between words and definitions, events and dates, categories and
examples, and so on..

Essay tests.

Essay tests enable you to judge students' abilities to organize, integrate, interpret
material, and express themselves in their own words. Research indicates that students
study more efficiently for essay-type examinations than for selection (multiple-
choice) tests: students preparing for essay tests focus on broad issues, general
46
concepts, and interrelationships rather than on specific details, and this studying
results in somewhat better student performance regardless of the type of exam they
are. Essay tests also give you an opportunity to comment on students' progress, the
quality of their thinking, the depth of their understanding, and the difficulties they
may be having. However, because essay tests pose only a few questions, their content
validity may be low. In addition, the reliability of essay tests is compromised by
subjectivity or inconsistencies in grading.

Short-answer tests.

Depending on your objectives, short-answer questions can call for one or two
sentences or a long paragraph. Short-answer tests are easier to write, though they take
longer to score, than multiple-choice tests.

They also give you some opportunity to see how well students can express their
thoughts, though they are not as useful as longer essay responses for this purpose.

Oral exams.

Oral exams are usually time-consuming, too anxiety provoking for students, and
difficult to score unless the instructor tape-records the answers.

Performance tests.

Performance tests ask students to demonstrate proficiency in conducting an

experiment, executing a series of steps in a reasonable amount of time, following
instructions, creating drawings, manipulating materials or equipment, or reacting
to real or simulated situations. Performance tests can be administered individually
or in groups.

Construction of Effective Exams

 Prepare new exams each time you teach a course.

Though it is time consuming to develop tests, a past exam may not reflect changes in
how you have presented the material or which topics you have emphasized in the
course. If you do write a new exam, you can make copies of the old exam available to
students.

 Make up test items throughout the term.

47
Don't wait until a week or so before the exam. One way to make sure the exam
reflects the topics emphasized in the course is to write test questions at the end of
each class session and place them on index cards or computer files for later sorting.
Software that allows you to create test banks of items and generate exams from the
pool is now available.

 Cull items from colleagues' exams.

Ask colleagues at other institutions for copies of their exams. Be careful, though,
about using items from tests given by colleagues on your own campus. Some of your
students may have previously seen those tests.

 Prepare clear instructions.

Test your instructions by asking a colleague to read them.

 Include a few words of advice and encouragement on the exam.

For example, give students advice on how much time to spend on each section or
offer a hint at the beginning of an essay question or wish students good luck.

 Put some easy items first.

Place several questions all your students can answer near the beginning of the exam.
Answering easier questions helps students overcome their nervousness and may help
them feel confident that they can succeed on the exam. You can also use the first few
questions to identify students in serious academic difficulty.

 Try out the timing.

No purpose is served by creating a test too long for even well-prepared students to
finish and review before turning it in. As a rule of thumb, allow about one-half
minute per item for true-false tests, one minute per item for multiple-choice tests, two
minutes per short-answer requiring a few sentences, ten or fifteen minutes for a
limited essay question, and about thirty minutes for a broader essay question. Allow
another five or ten minutes for students to review their work, and factor in time to
distribute and collect the tests. Another rule of thumb is to allow students about four
times as long as it takes you to complete the test.

 Give some thought to the layout of the test.

Use margins and line spacing that make the test easy to read. If items are worth
different numbers of points, indicate the point value next to each item. Group similar
types of items, such as all true-false questions, together. Keep in mind that the
amount of space you leave for short-answer questions often signifies to the students
the length of the answer expected of them. If students are to write on the exam rather

48
than in a blue book, leave space at the top of each page for the student's name (and
section, if appropriate).

Assessment

What is classroom assessment?

Classroom assessment is both a teaching approach and a set of techniques. The

approach is that the more you know about what and how students are learning, the
better you can plan learning activities to structure your teaching. The techniques are
mostly simple, non-graded, anonymous, in-class activities that give both you and
your students useful feedback on the teaching-learning process.

 How is classroom assessment different?

Classroom assessment differs from tests and other forms of student assessment in that
it is aimed at course improvement, rather than at assigning grades. The primary goal
is to better understand your students' learning and so to improve your teaching.

 How do I use Classroom Assessment Techniques?

49
  Decide what you want to learn from a classroom assessment.
 Choose a Classroom Assessment Technique (CAT) that provides this feedback, is
consistent with your teaching style, and can be easily implemented in your class.
 Explain the purpose of the activity to students, then conduct it.
 After class, review the results and decide what changes, if any, to make.
 Let your students know what you learned from the CAT and how you will use
this information.

 Why should I use CATs?

For teacher, more frequent use of CATs can:

 Provide short-term feedback about the day-to-day learning and teaching

process at a time when it is still possible to make mid-course corrections.
 Provide useful information about student learning with a much lower
investment of time compared to tests, papers, and other traditional means of
learning assessment.
 Help to foster good rapport with students and increase the efficacy of teaching
and learning.
 Encourage the view that teaching is a formative process that evolves over time
with feedback.

For students, more frequent use of CATs can:

 Help them become better monitors of their own learning.

 Help break down feelings of anonymity, especially in larger courses.
 Point out the need to alter study skills.
 Provide concrete evidence that the instructor cares about learning.

Selected CATs for getting feedback on student learning and response to teaching

Time
Name: Description: What to do with the data:
required:
During the last few minutes of the
class period, ask students to
answer on a half-sheet of paper: Review responses and note any Prep: Low
"What is the most important point useful comments. During the next In class:
Minute paper you learned today?"; and, "What class periods emphasize the issues Low
point remains least clear to you?". illuminated by your students' Analysis:
The purpose is to elicit data about comments. Low
students' comprehension of a
particular class session.
Chain Notes Students pass around an envelope Go through the student responses Prep: Low
on which the teacher has written and determine the best criteria for In class:
one question about the class. categorizing the data with the goal Low
When the envelope reaches a of detecting response patterns. Analysis:

50
 student he/she spends a moment
Discussing the patterns of
to respond to the question and
responses with students can lead Low
then places the response in the
to better teaching and learning.
envelope.
Students fill in cells of a two-
dimensional diagram for which
instructor has provided labels. For Tally the numbers of correct and
example, in a music course, labels incorrect responses in each cell. Prep: Med
might consist of periods Analyze differences both between In class:
Memory matrix (Baroque, Classical) by countries and among the cells. Look for Med
(Germany, France, Britain); patterns among the incorrect Analysis:
students enter composers in cells responses and decide what might Med
to demonstrate their ability to be the cause(s).
remember and classify key
concepts.
Ask students to write a layman’s
Categorize student responses
"translation" of something they Prep: Low
according to characteristics you
have just learned -- geared to a In class:
Directed feel are important. Analyze the
specified individual or audience -- Med
paraphrasing responses both within and across
to assess their ability to Analysis:
categories, noting ways you could
comprehend and transfer Med
address student needs.
concepts.
Time
Name: Description: What to do with the data:
required:
Evaluate the quality of each
Students summarize knowledge
summary quickly and
of a topic by constructing a
holistically. Note whether
single sentence that answers the
students have identified the Prep: Low
One-sentence questions "Who does what to
essential concepts of the class In class: Med
summary whom, when, where, how, and
topic and their Analysis: Med
why?" The purpose is to
interrelationships. Share your
require students to select only
observations with your
the defining features of an idea.
students.
Select a type of test that you are
Try to distinguish student
likely to give more than once or
comments that address the
that has a significant impact on
fairness of your grading from
student performance. Create a Prep: Low
Exam those that address the fairness
few questions that evaluate the In class: Low
Evaluations of the test as an assessment
quality of the test. Add these Analysis: Med
instrument. Respond to the
questions to the exam or
general ideas represented by
administer a separate, follow-
student comments.
up evaluation.
After teaching about an
important theory, principle, or Quickly read once through the
procedure, ask students to write applications and categorize
Prep: Low
down at least one real-world them according to their quality.
Application cards In class: Low
application for what they have Pick out a broad range of
Analysis: Med
just learned to determine how examples and present them to
well they can transfer their the class.
learning.

51
 Allow students to write test Make a rough tally of the
questions and model answers questions your students
Prep: Med
for specified topics, in a format propose and the topics that they
In class: High
Student- consistent with course exams. cover. Evaluate the questions
Analysis: High
generated test This will give students the and use the goods ones as
questions opportunity to evaluate the prompts for discussion. You
(may be
course topics, reflect on what may also want to revise the
homework)
they understand, and what good questions and use them on the
test items are. upcoming exam.

Characteristics of Assessment:
 Learner-centered :
It focuses the attention of the teacher and students on observing and improving
learning.
 Mutually beneficial:
It requires the active participation of students. Teachers also improve their teaching
skills and gain new insights.
 Formative :
Its purpose is to improve the quality of student learning not grading them.
 Ongoing :
It is an ongoing process. Teachers receive appropriate feedback about how much they
are achieving their goals. Students also receive focused feedback early and often.
Continuous assessment is based on the following assumptions :
 Teachers need to become more systematic and sensitive observers of learning as it
takes place every day in their classrooms.
 The central characteristics of CA is the moving of assessment from a judgment
role to a development role.

 It can easily co-exist with traditional assessment such as validity, reliability and
efficiency.
 It is a challenge to teachers to create authentic engaging tasks that challenge the
learner to use the language and develop related communicative abilities.
 Self and peer assessment are crucial devices to continuous process. They help one
take control of one's own learning
 Self-assessment ; can use a yes/ no checklist. It is needed to guide the learners;
attention and stimulate thinking.
 Peer-assessment ; can be defined as a response in some form to other learners' work.
To the teacher:
 Be sure that it is directed at the work rather than the person.
 Teach learners to respond to the work of others.
 Focus on the positive ( but do not omit the negative )
 Be authentic and tactful.
Teachers need to introduce continuous assessment gradually, perhaps experimenting
with self- assessment.
52
 - One might give students a brief questionnaire asking them about their
perception of progress and achievement regarding a particular unit.
- One might help learners generate questions about other's work for peer
assessment purposes.
In large classes ,learners can be assessed in groups as well as individually. Learning
is social in nature. The ability to work as a cooperative team member is an essential
skill not only for the class but also for enabling people to contribute to society.
People learn by doing and need to work together in a meaningful way in class.
As we move away from sitting in judgment for our learners, we need to keep finding
creative and authentic ways to make their development the primary focus
of the assessment process.

Error Correction
Students' errors are very useful way of showing what they have or have not learned.
So instead of seeing errors negatively as a sign of failure by the student or the
teacher, we can see them positively as an introduction of what we still need to teach.
Moreover, errors actually help the teacher to determine when and how to correct. .
Basic principles for positive error correction:
 Praise student for correct or partly correct answers.
 Encourage students, focusing on what they have got right ,not on what they have
got wrong..
 Avoid humiliating students.
 Do not echo student's errors.
 Help the student realize there is a mistake in non- threatening manner.
 Correct errors quickly.
 Have the students accountable for correcting her friends' errors.
Techniques for correcting errors:
There is no single best technique for correcting all errors. The most important thing is
that the teacher has be flexible and positively acted in the class and to be aware of the
effect on each individual learner.
Correcting mistakes depends on the objective of the activity herself.
Gestures are of great benefit.
 for helping student to correct herself.
 to save time.
 reduce teacher's talking time.
53
 keep us away from repeating the mistakes.
Here are some possible gestures that could be used in the classroom.

 Past time: Hitch hiking gesture over the shoulder.

 Present time: Pointing to the floor.
 Future time : Pointing into a distance in the front.
 Word missing: Use fingers on your hands for the numbers of word which should
be in the sentence and show that on is missing.
 Mistake being made: Raise your eyebrows or do a turning motion with your hands.
 Word order incorrect: Make a semi-circle with your finger.
 Incomplete sentence: Wave your hand to make the student complete the sentence.

54
 Methods of Teaching English to Arab Najat Al-Mutawa –
1
Students Taiseer Kailani
2 How to Teach English Jeremy Harmwer
3 Teaching English through English Jane Willis
4 Learning Teaching Jim Scrivener
5 Keep Writing ( 1+2) Richard Harrison
TC Jupp and
6 Guided Paragraph Writing
John Milne
7 Write Soon Eileen Prince
Christine Pearspon
8 Strategies for Readers (1+2)
Casanave
Active Comprehension( 4) Charlie Walker
9
Active Comprehension( 1-2-3) Julie Till
10 Better Pronunciation J. D. O'connor
11 Rediscover Grammar David Crystal
12 English Grammar in Use Raymond Murphy
Edith H.Fine and
13 Nitty-Gritty Grammar
Judith P. Josephson
14 English Vocabulary in Use Stuart Redman
Michael McCarthy –
15 English Vocabulary in Use
Felicity O'Dell
16 Boast your Vocabulary Chris Banker
17 Vocabulary Builder ( 1-2) Bernard Seal
18 Common Mistakes in English T.J. Ftikides
19 Language Teaching Games and Contests Wrlee
20 Writing English Language Tests J.B.Heaton
55