Addis Ababa University

Addis Ababa institute of technology

CENG 3301 Transport Engineering

CHAPTER 5
Traffic Controls
devises
Instructor: Asres Simeneh
[email protected] 1

Outline of chapter
• Traffic Markings
• Longitudinal markings
• Transverse markings
• Object markers and delineators
• Traffic Signs
• Regulatory signs.
• Warning signs.
• Guide signs.
• Traffic signal

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 Traffic Control devices
• Traffic control devices are the media by which traffic
engineers communicate with drivers.
• Three broad categories:
• Traffic markings
• Traffic signs
• Traffic signals
• Messages are carried through the use of color, Shape,
Pattern and Legend

Color
 Most easily visible characteristic of a device.
 It is recognizable long before a general shape and specific
legend can be read and understood.
 Common colors are red, yellow, green, orange, black, blue, and
brown.

Shape
 After color, the shape of the device is the next element to be
distinguished by the driver.

 Particularly in signing, shape is an important element of the

message, either identifying a particular type of information that
the sign is conveying or conveying a unique message of its own.
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Pattern
• Pattern is used in the application of traffic markings.
• In general, double solid, solid, dashed, and broken lines are
used.

Legend
• Are also used to transmit message.
• Legend must be kept simple and short, so that drivers do not
divert their attention from the driving task, yet are able to see
and understand the specific message being given.

1. Traffic Markings
• Are the most abundant traffic devices in use.
• Serves variety of purposes and functions
• Fall into three broad categories:
 Longitudinal markings
 Transverse markings
 Object markers and delineators
 Longitudinal and transverse markings are applied to the
roadway surface using a variety of materials, the most
common of which are paint and thermoplastic.

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 Cont..

• Reflectorization for better night vision is achieved by mixing

tiny glass beads in the paint or by applying a thin layer of
glass beads over the wet pavement marking as it is placed.

• The latter provides high initial reflectorization, but the top

layer of glass beads is more quickly worn. When glass beads
are mixed into the paint before application, some level of
reflectorization is preserved as the marking wears.

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 A. Longitudinal Markings
• Placed parallel to the direction of travel.
• Involve centerlines, lane lines, and pavement edge lines.
• Drivers do not automatically form neat lanes without the
guidance of longitudinal markings; rather, they tend randomly
on the cross-section, encountering many difficulties.
• Provide guidance for the placement of vehicles on the
traveled way and basic trajectory.
• Longitudinal markings provide for organized flow and
optimal use of the pavement width.

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 11

Centerlines
• Separates the opposing streams (movements) of traffic.
• Usually no center line is provided for roads having width less
than 5 m and for roads having more than four lanes.
• The center line may be marked with either single broken line,
single solid line, double broken line, or double solid line
depending upon the road and traffic requirements.
• On urban roads with less than four lanes, the center line may
be single broken line segments of 3 m long and 150 mm wide.
The broken lines are placed with 4.5 m gaps.

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 Fig.
Centre line
marking for a
two lane road

• On two-lane, two-way rural highways, centerline markings

supplemented by signs are used to regulate passing maneuvers.
• A double-solid yellow center marking indicates that passing is not
permitted in either direction. A solid yellow line with a dashed
yellow line indicates that passing is permitted from the dashed
side only. Where: passing is permissible in both directions, a single
dashed yellow centerline is used.
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Lane Markings
• The typical lane marking is a single white dashed line
separating lanes of traffic in the same direction.
• The dashed lane line indicates that lane changing is permitted.
A single solid white lane line is used to indicate that lane-
changing is discouraged but allowed. Where lane-changing is
to be prohibited, a double-white solid lane line is used.

Double solid line for a two lane road 14

 Edge Markings
• Edge lines indicate edges of rural roads which have no curbs to
delineate the limits up to which the driver can safely venture.
They should be at least 150 mm from the actual edge of the
pavement. They are painted in yellow or white.
• All the lines should be preferably light reflective, so that they
will be visible during night also.

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Warning lines
• Warning lines warn the drivers about the obstruction approaches.
• They are marked on horizontal and vertical curves where the
visibility is greater than prohibitory criteria specified for no
overtaking zones.
• They are broken lines with 6 m length and 3 m gap. A minimum
of seven line segments should be provided.

Fig. Warning line marking

for a two lane road 16
 B. Transverse Markings
• Includes any and all markings with a component that cuts
across a portion or all of the traveled way.
• All transverse markings are white.
Crosswalk Markings
• It is recommend to be marked at all intersections if there is
significant conflict between vehicles and pedestrian exists.
• Also be used at areas with heavy pedestrian flows.
• The use of parallel transverse markings to identify the
locations with heavy pedestrian flows.
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Pedestrian marking
near an intersection

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 Parking Space Markings
• Are not purely transverse, as they contain both longitudinal and
transverse elements. However they are officially categorized as
transverse markings.
• They are always optional and are used to encourage efficient use
of parking spaces. Such markings can also help prevent violation
of parked vehicles into loading zones, taxi stands and bus stops,
and other specific locations at which parking is prohibited.
• They are also useful on arterials with curb parking, as they also
clearly demark the parking lane, separating it from travel lanes.

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Typical Parking
Space Markings

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 Directional arrows
• Are used to guide the drivers in advance over the correct lane
to be taken while approaching busy intersections.
• Because of the low angle at which the markings are viewed by
the drivers, the arrows should be elongated in the direction of
traffic for adequate visibility.
• The dimensions of these arrows are also very important.

Fig.
A typical example of a
directional arrow

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 Word and Symbol Markings

• These include arrow markings indicating lane-use restrictions.

Such as left or right turn only lane approaching an intersection.
• Some of word markings include
 "ONLY" used in conjunction with lane use arrows, and
 "STOP" which can be used only in conjunction with a STOP
line and a STOP sign.
 "SCHOOL" markings are often used in conjunction with signs
to demark school and school-crossing zones.

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 C. Object Markers
• Used to denote obstructions either or adjacent to the
traveled way. There are three types of object markers used.

Typical Type 1
Object Markers

Typical Type 2
Object Markers

Typical Type 3
Object Markers
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Cont..
• Obstructions within the roadway must be marked using a
Type 1 or Type 3 marker.
• When type 3 marker are used, they must have the alternating
yellow and black stripes sloped downward at a 45° angle
towards the side on which traffic is to pass the obstruction.

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 2. Traffic Signs
• In general, traffic signs fall into one of three major categories:
• Regulatory signs.
• Warning signs.
• Guide signs.

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Regulatory Signs
• These are used to inform road users of selected traffic laws or
regulations and indicate the applicability of the legal requirements.
• Regulations may relate to right of way, speed limits, lane usage,
parking, or a variety of other functions.
• Regulatory signs shall be installed at or near where the regulations
apply. The signs shall clearly indicate the requirements imposed
by the regulations and shall be designed and installed to provide
adequate visibility and legibility in order to obtain obedience.

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 Cont..
• Except for some special signs, such as the STOP and YIELD sign,
most regulatory signs are rectangular, with the long dimension
vertical. And some are square.
• The background color is white with a few exceptions. while legend
or symbols are black. In symbol signs, a red circle with a bar
through it a prohibition of the movement indicated by the symbol.

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Cont..
Right of way series:
Example: STOP sign and GIVE WAY sign

Speed series:
Example: Speed limit signs, truck speed, minimum speed signs

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Movement series: includes Turn signs, alignment signs,
exclusion signs, one way signs etc.

Parking series: Include parking prohibitions or restrictions,

places where parking is permitted, the type of vehicle to be
parked, duration for parking etc.

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Cont..
Pedestrian series: Include both legend and symbol signs for
safety of pedestrians and include signs indicating pedestrian
only roads, pedestrian crossing sites etc.

Miscellaneous: Wide variety of signs that are included in this

category are: a "KEEP OF MEDIAN" sign, signs indicating
road closures, signs restricting vehicles carrying hazardous
cargo or substances, signs indicating vehicle weight limitations
etc.
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 Warning Signs
• Warning signs call attention to unexpected conditions on or
adjacent to a highway or street and to situations that might not
be readily apparent to road users.
• Warning signs may alert road users for a reduction of speed or
an action in the interest of safety and efficient traffic operations.
• Most warning signs are diamond-shaped, with black lettering or
symbols on a yellow background.
• When used, warning signs must be placed far enough in advance
of the hazard to allow drivers adequate time to perform the
required adjustments.

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Cont..
• Warning signs are used to inform drivers of a variety of
potentially hazardous circumstances, including:
 Changes in horizontal alignment
 Intersections
 Advance warning of control devices
 Converging traffic lanes
 Narrow roadways
 Changes in highway design
 Grades
 Roadway surface conditions
 Railroad crossings

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 35

Guide/Informative/ Signs
• Provide information to road users concerning destinations,
available services, and historical/recreational facilities
unfamiliar road users.
• Directional or destination information is provided by signs
with a green background; information on services is provided
by signs with a blue background; cultural, historical, and/or
recreational in formation is provided by signs with a
brown back ground.

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 • Route markers,
• Destination signs,
• Mile posts,
• Service center
information

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3. Traffic signal

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 Cont..
• One of the most effective ways of controlling traffic at an
intersection is the use of traffic signals.
• Traffic signals used to eliminate many conflicts because
different traffic streams can be assigned the use of the
intersection at different times.
• Since this results in a delay to vehicles in all streams, it is
important that traffic signals be used only when necessary.
• The most important factor that determines the need for traffic
signals at a particular intersection are:
Intersection’s approach traffic volume,
Pedestrian volume
Crash experience. 39

Conflict Points at a Four

Approach Un-signalized
Intersection

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 Cont..
The main objectives of Signal Timing are:
 Reduce the average delay of all vehicles
 Reduce the probability of accidents
 These objectives are achieved by minimizing the possible
conflict points when assigning the right of way to different
traffic streams at different times.
 The objective of reducing delay sometimes conflicts with
that of accident reduction. This is because the number of
distinct phases should be kept to a minimum to reduce
average delay, whereas many more distinct phases may be
required to separate all traffic streams from each other.
When this situation exists, it is essential that engineering
judgment be used to determine a compromise solution.
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Cont..
• The operation of signalized intersections is often complex,
involving competing vehicular and pedestrian movements.
• Operational analysis of signalized intersections require to
be easily manipulated and optimized.
• In general, however, it is usual to adapt a two-phase system
whenever possible, using the shortest practical cycle length
that is consistent with the demand. At a complex
intersection, though, it may be necessary to use a
multiphase (three or more phases) system to achieve the
main design objectives.
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 Types of Signal Operation
• Traffic signals can operate on four different ways
Pre-timed
• The cycle length, phase sequence, and timing of each interval
are constant.
Semi-actuated operation
• In semi-actuated operation, detectors are placed on the minor
approach(es) to the intersection; there are no detectors on the
major street. The light is green for the major street at all times
except when a "call" or actuation is noted on one of the minor
approaches.
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Cont..
Full actuated operation.
• In full actuated operation, every lane of every approach
must be monitored by a detector. In this operation, the
cycle length, sequence of phases, and green time split may
vary from cycle to cycle.
Computer control.
• In this system, the computer acts as a master controller,
coordinating the timings of a large number (hundreds) of
signals.

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 Components of a Signal Cycle
Cycle
• A signal cycle is one complete rotation through all of the
indications provided. In general, every legal vehicular movement
receives a "green" indication during each cycle, although there are
some exceptions to this rule.

Cycle length
• The cycle length is the time (in seconds) that it takes to complete
one full cycle of indications. It is given the symbol "C."

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Two-Phase Signal System

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Interval.
• It is a period of time during which no signal indication changes. It
is the smallest unit of time described within a signal cycle. There
are several types of intervals with in a signal cycle:
(a) Change interval (yi) is the "yellow" indication for a given
movement. It is part of the transition from "green" to "red," in
which movements about to lose "green" are given a "yellow"
signal, while all other movements have a "red" signal. It is timed
to allow a vehicle that cannot safely stop when the "green" is
withdrawn to enter the intersection legally.

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(b) Clearance interval (ari). It is the display time of a red

indication for all approaches. It is sometimes used as a phase
exclusively for pedestrian crossing or to allow vehicles and
pedestrians to clear very large intersections before opposing
approaches are given the green indication.
(c) Green interval (Gi). Each movement has one green
interval during the signal cycle. During a green interval, the
movements permitted have a "green" light, while all other
movements have a "red" light.
(d) Red interval (Ri). Each movement has a red interval during
the signal cycle.

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 Cont..
4. Phase
• A signal phase consists of a green interval, plus the
change and clearance intervals that follow it. It is a set of
intervals that allows a designated movement or set of
movements to flow and to be safely stopped before
release of a conflicting set of movements.

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Signal Timing at Isolated Intersections

• An isolated intersection operates independently (not
coordinated with that of any other intersection)
• The cycle length for an intersection of this type should be
short, preferably between 35 and 60 seconds, although it may
be necessary to use longer cycles when approach volumes are
very high.
• Cycle lengths should be kept below 120 seconds, since very
long cycle lengths will result in excessive delay.
• Several methods have been developed for determining the
optimal cycle length at an intersection, and (in most cases)
the yellow interval is considered as a component of the green
time.
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 Cont..
• Before discussing two of the design methods, we will discuss
the basis for selecting the yellow interval at an intersection.
Yellow Interval
• A bad choice of yellow interval may lead to the creation of a
dilemma zone, an area close to an intersection in which a
vehicle can neither stop safely before the intersection nor
clear the intersection without speeding before the red signal
comes on.
• The required yellow interval is the time period that
guarantees an approaching vehicle can either stop safely or
proceed through the intersection without speeding.
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Schematic of a
Dilemma Zone at
an Intersection

W = Width of intersection (ft)

L = Length of vehicle (ft)

• For the dilemma zone to be eliminated, the distance Xo should be

equal to the distance Xc. Let τmin be the yellow interval (sec) and let
the distance traveled during the change interval without accelerating
be uo(τmin) with uo = speed limit on approach (ft/sec). If the
vehicle just to be clears the intersection, then

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For vehicles to be able to stop, however,

Xo = the minimum distance from the intersection for which a vehicle

traveling at the speed limit uo during the yellow interval τmin cannot
go through the intersection without accelerating; any vehicle at this
distance or at a distance greater than this has to stop
δ = perception-reaction time (sec)
a = constant rate of braking deceleration (ft/sec2)
• For the dilemma zones to be eliminated, Xo must be equal to Xc.
Accordingly,

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Cont..
• If the effect of grade is added, the previous equation becomes:

Where G is the grade of the approach and g is the acceleration due to

gravity (32.2 ft /sec2).
• Safety considerations, however, normally exclude yellow intervals
of less than three seconds and usually not made longer than five
seconds.
• If yellow intervals are required as computed from the above
equation an all-red phase can be inserted to follow the yellow
indication. The change interval, yellow plus all-red, must be at
least the value computed from the above equation. 54
 Example
Determine the minimum yellow interval at an intersection whose
width is 40 ft if the maximum allowable speed on the approach roads
is 30 mi/h. Assume average length of vehicle is 20 ft.
Solution:
We must first decide on a deceleration rate. AASHTO recommends
a deceleration rate of 11.2 ft /sec2. Assuming this value for a and
taking δ as 1.0 sec, we obtain

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Cycle Lengths of Fixed (Pre-timed) Signals

• Several design methods have been developed to determine the
optimum cycle length, two of which are:
1. The Webster Method and
2. The Highway Capacity Method.

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 I. Webster Method
• Webster has shown that for a wide range of practical conditions
minimum intersection delay is obtained when the cycle length is
obtained by the equation.

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Cont..
• Total Lost Time in figure below shows a graph of rate of
discharge of vehicles at various times during a green phase of a
signal cycle at an intersection.
• The number of vehicles that go through
the intersection is represented by the area
under the curve.
• Dividing the number of vehicles that go
through the intersection by the saturation
flow will give the effective green time,
which is less than the sum of the green
and yellow times.

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 Cont..
• This difference is considered lost time, it can be expressed as

• Total lost time is given as:

• R is the total all-red time during
the cycle.
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Cont..
• Allocation of Green Times:
• In general, the total effective green time available per cycle is
given by:

Where
C = Actual cycle length used (usually obtained by rounding off
Co to the nearest five seconds)
Gte = Total effective green time per cycle

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 Cont..
• To obtain minimum overall delay, the total effective green
time should be distributed among the different phases in
proportion to their Y values to obtain the effective green
time for each phase.

and the actual green time for each phase is obtained as

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Minimum Green Time.

• At an intersection where a significant number of pedestrians
cross, it is necessary to provide a minimum green time that will
allow the pedestrians to safely cross the intersection.
• The length of this minimum green time may be higher than
that needed for vehicular traffic to go through the intersection.
• The green time allocated to the traffic moving in the north–
south direction should, therefore, not be less than the green
time required for pedestrians to cross the east–west
approaches at the intersection. Similarly, the green time
allocated to the traffic moving in the east–west direction
cannot be less than that required for pedestrians to cross the
north–south approaches.
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 Cont..
• The minimum green time can be determined by HCM
expressions as:

Where:

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Example
Signal Timing Using the Webster Method
Figure below shows peak-hour volumes for a major intersection
on an expressway. Using the Webster method, determine a
suitable signal timing for the intersection using the four-phase
system shown below. Use a yellow interval of three seconds and
the saturation flow given.
Assume the influence of heavy vehicles and turning movements
and all other factors that affect the saturation flow have already
been considered.

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Soln
• Determine equivalent hourly flows by dividing the peak-hour
volumes with the PHF (e.g., for left-turn lane group of phase A,
equivalent hourly flow 222/0.95 = 234).
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The following Fig shows all equivalent hourly flows in all phases.

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 Cont..
• Since there is not an all-red phase that is, R = 0 and there
are four phases, we can compute the total lost time.
Assuming lost time per phase is 3.5 sec

• Determine Yi and ΣYi

ΣYi = (0.264 + 0.183 + 0.052 + 0.230) = 0.729

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Cont..
• Determine the optimum cycle length

• Use 100 seconds as cycle lengths are

usually multiples of 5 or 10 seconds.

• Find the total effective green time.

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 Cont..
• Effective time for each phases:

• Yellow time τ = 3.0 sec; the actual green time Gai for each
phase is obtained as:

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Actual green time for Phase A Actual green time for Phase C

Actual green time for Phase B Actual green time for Phase D

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II. The Highway Capacity Method.

Refer the book Nicholas J. Garber

(Traffic & Highway Engineering) part
two Chapter 8

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Thank you

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